Didactic of English Language Teaching PDF 2021/2022

Didactic of Teaching English Language UPCOMING CONTRACT-BASED RECRUITMENT EXAM (2021/2022) Edited by: OUBAALI MOHAMED 1 Table of Content 1. The definition of Didactic……………………………………………………….3 2. The difference between an approach, method and technique………………...3 3. Learning theories………………………………………………………………..4 3.1. The definition of learning……………………………………………………….4 3.2. Common learning theories……………………………………………………...4 3.3. Behaviourism…………………………………………………………….………4 3.4. Cognitivism………………………………………………………………………5 3.5. Innatism…………………………………………………………………………..5 3.6. Constructivism………………..………………………………………………….6 3.7. Social constructivism…………………………………………………………….7 3.8. Krahsen theory…………………………………………………………………...8 3.9.Multiple intelligences……………………………………………………………..9 4. Teaching methods………………………………………………………………..10 4.1. Grammar Translation Method…………………………………………………10 4.2. The Direct method……………………………………………………………....11 4.3. Audio lingual method……………………………………………………………13 4.4. The Silent method……………………………………………………………….14 4.5. Suggestopedia……………………………………………………………………15 4.6. Community language learning…………………………………………………17 4.7. Total Physical Response………………………………………………………..18 4.8. Communicative language teaching…………………………………………….19 5. Approaches of English language learning……………………………………...22 5.1. Standard based approach………………………………………………………22 5.2. Competency based approach…………………………………………………...23 5.3. Communicative approach…………………………………………………...….23 5.4. Content based approach………………………………………………………...23 5.5. Eclectic approach…….………………………………………………………….24 5.6. The natural approach……………………………………………………………24 6. Teaching the four skills…………………………………………………………..24 6.1. How to teach Listening…………………………………………………………..25 6.2. How to teach Reading…………………………………………………………....25 6.3.How to teach Speaking……………………………………………………………26 6.4. How to teach Writing…………………………………………………………….27 7. Teaching Language Components………………………………………………..27 7.1. How to teach Functions………………………………………………………….28 7.2. How to teach Grammar…………………………………………………………28 8. Assessment……………………………………………………………………….29 8.1. The definition of assessment……………………………………………………29 8.2. The types of assessment: Summative & Formative…………………………..29 9. The definition and types of a Test……………………………………………...30 9.1. Criteria of designing an effective test………………………………………….31 10. Error correction…………………………………………………………………31 10.1. Error and mistake………………………………………………………..31 10.2. Sources of errors…………………………………………………………32 2 10.3. Error Correction types…………………………………………………..32 11. Classroom Management…………………….……………………………33 11.1. How to prevent disruptive behaviour……………………………………33 11.2. How to deal with disruptive student……………………………………..34 12. The pedagogical Contract…………………………………………………34 13. The Qualities of a good teacher…………………………………………..35 14. Lesson Plan………………………………………………………………..35 15. Frameworks of teaching language aspects………………………………36 15.1. PPP Framework…………………………………………………………..36 15.2. ECRIF Framework……………………………………………………….37 16. Teacher’s Documents……………………………………………………..37 17. Teacher’s Roles…………………………………………………………...38 18. Didactic Concepts………………………………………………………….39 19. Explaining meaning……………………………………………………….44 20. Top down & Bottom up strategies……………………………………….45 21. The difference between Syllabus and Curriculum………………………45 22. Learning Styles…………………………………………………………….46 23. Didactic lesson structure………………………………………………….47 24. Bloom Taxonomy………………………………………………………….48 3 I. The Definition of Didactic Didactics is one of the Sciences of Education. In particular, it deals with the processes of teaching and learning. It is different from other Education Sciences in that it concentrates specifically on how teachers, learners and knowledge interact and support one another. Because of this reason, it is a key subject in the teacher education curriculum. Given its emphasis it acts as a hinge between the general education subjects and the subject-specific disciplines, which make up the core of a teacher's knowledge.  Didactics is a “field of pedagogy that deals with theories, ideas, principles and instructions directed at successful conduction of educational process”.  The science, art or practice of teaching. A theory and practical application of teaching and learning. Psychology helps teachers understand how students learn so they claim that Didactics is part of Psychology. For the same reasons, Pedagogy is concerned with how people are educated and they also claim that Didactics is part of Pedagogy. I. The Difference between an Approach, Method, Technique and Methodology The terms approach, method, and technique are interrelated words. These concepts have been discussed by various scholars, among of which is Douglas Brown. The discussions were/are mostly intended to make a distinction between the three terms and to show the correlation between them. a. Approach An approach is a set of assumptions, beliefs and theoretical views about the nature of language (Brown). In lay words, It’s Generally, a theory that attempts to explain how languages are learned. For example, behaviourism is a language learning theory that suggests that learning language occurs through a process of stimulus/response and reinforcement.  “An approach is an integrated set of theoretical & practical beliefs embodying both syllabus and method” (how learning a language takes place).  It represents the philosophy about both the theory of language and the theory of learning. b. Method A method is a set of techniques or procedures that are used systematically with the aim of reaching efficient learning. A method is often based upon the premises of an approach (es). The audiolingual method is an example of teaching method; it is based on the premises of behaviourism. “how to conduct teaching and learning”. o A practical implementation of an approach. c. Technique PPP (presentation, practice, production) is one of the famously known and most widely used techniques in language teaching. This Technique is characteristic of audiolingual method. It is therefore one of the many techniques of the audiolingual method. If a method is a set of techniques/procedures that are intended to make the process of learning fruitful, a technique is one single technique of a method. “It is a way of carrying out a task”. For instance; spider map, mind map, brainstorming, jigsaw… o Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives. o Practice that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method. So technique is part and parcel of procedure. d. Methodology A methodology is a set of classroom techniques, procedures irrespective of the particular method the teacher is using. A methodology is related to the teacher’s style and choice, it ‘s 4 personal and flexible and designed and adopted by the teacher according to the classroom circumstances, so the latter is using various techniques from diverse methods i.e. he does not stick to one specific method. A method is official and designed by the experts. It includes a set of procedures and strategies which are fixed. A method has a specific technique for example Audiolingual method has its own techniques no more no less, so the teacher cannot modify or add anything. e. Procedure The step by step measures to execute a method. II. Learning Theories Recently many psychologists have given great importance and focus to the learning theories, mainly because of the interesting and complex nature of the concept of learning, in other words, psychologists are intrigued by how the mind acquires knowledge. It is only if we know how knowledge is acquired, we will be able to use appropriate teaching and learning methods in the classroom. 1. The definition of Learning Wakefield (1996: 364) defined learning as: “a relatively permanent change in the behaviour of an individual based on his/her experiences or discoveries”. Thus, the process of experience and discovery lead to a new understanding of the world and ourselves and enables us to apply the acquired knowledge in new situations. Knowledge acquisition involves a process that transforms data from experience into organised information. 2. Common learning theories The ongoing debate as to how languages are acquired has resulted in the emergence of many theories, all of which intend to explain the intricate nature of language acquisition. Each of the theories proposed have tried to look at language from a different standpoint with the aim of having a full understanding of how languages are acquired. i. Behaviourism Behaviourism is a learning theory that considers language to be a learned behaviour or habit which we acquire through a process of stimuli-response and positive reinforcement or punishment. Ivan Pavlov, John Watson and B.F. Skinner are considered the pioneers of this theory. They considered learning as a matter of “habit formation”. For them effective learning was a matter of reinforcing good habits, while errors were seen as bad habits. 1) Operant Conditioning by Skinner Skinner posited that learning happened through a three steps reinforcement cycle (the latter starts with a stimulus, which triggered a response in the organism ‘in our case humans’ if the response was correct it was to be reinforced positively, however, if the response was incorrect it was to be punished or negatively reinforced.) He invented ‘the operant conditioning chamber’ a maze with levers where rats and pigeons were put in order to study them, the process involved the animals in trying to get out of the maze by going through it, at some point there were levers which animals were supposed to press. If they press the right lever they got food (positive reinforcement), but if they press the wrong one they got an electric shock (negative reinforcement). Over time the animals learned to press the correct lever and stayed away from the wrong ones. 5 Operant conditioning: the use of pleasant consequences to control the occurrence of a behaviour. Skinner said “the reinforced actions are more likely to be repeated”  Skinner understood language as a series of habits to be acquired. He denied that the mind or internal cognitive process could have any kind of role in learning, because to him internal process could not be observed. They were rendered ineffective to analyse. Instead, he posited that we should focus on the overt observable effect of those mental states and study them as a proof of learning.  Contrary to Watson who focused on the stimulus that produced a response. Skinner focused on the behaviour (or the operant) and how it was reinforced. Positive reinforcement (praise, rewards…) strengthen behaviour or increases the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated. Negative reinforcement or (punishment) pushes a child away from a behaviour. 2) Classical Conditioning by Pavlov Pavlov observed that if a piece of meat was placed in or near the mouth of a hungry dog, the latter would salivate because the meat provoked this response automatically.  The piece of meat is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus.  This response of salivating is referred to as an unconditioned response.  Other stimuli such as a bell will not produce salivation because these stimuli have no effect on the response in question, they are referred to as neutral stimuli.  Pavlov experiment showed that if a ‘previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus’, the neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus and gain the power to prompt a response similar to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In other words, after the bell and the meat are presented together, the ringing of the bell alone causes the dog to salivate. This response is referred to as Classical Conditioning. 3) The law of Effect by Thorndike In many of his experiments, Thorndike placed cats in boxes from which they had to escape to get food. He observed that over time cats learned how to get out of the box more and more quickly by repeating the behaviour that led to escape and not repeating the behaviours that were ineffective. Thorndike developed his Law of Effect which states that ‘if an act is followed by a satisfying change in the environment (favourable effect) the likelihood that the act will be repeated in similar situations increases’ and vice versa. ii. Cognitivism Cognitivism was coined by Canny. It came as a reaction to the behaviourist thought which ignores human’s innate capacity to acquire language which also neglects the mental process of learning. Cognitivism argues that language is not just a learned habit devoid of creativity. It also suggests that humans are endowed with LAD (language Acquisition Device) which helps them not only learn whatever language they want but also use them creatively and not just imitating what’s being said around them, this is because they are constantly using their cognitive abilities to think and creatively manipulate language. Cognitivism emphasize the idea “of making knowledge meaningful and helping learners to organize and relate the new information to the existing knowledge in Memory”.  Information Processing: focuses on how information is retrieved and stored in the mind. Learning is attained through rehearsal and consistent use of the information. iii. Innatism Noam Chomsky’s view of language and language learning is termed ‘innatism’. 6 Innatism stated that humans are innately endowed with the power of language learning.  Chomsky stated that we humans are not born with a language, instead “our mind has the innate capacity to hypothesize and discover rules based on the language we have received”.  The ability to create new language depends on “intuitive knowledge of rules”. Given that children are exposed to ‘messy’ language in use. It is notable that with some ‘Trial and Error’, in relatively short period of time, children are able to discover rules of language which are inevitably correct. This realization led Chomsky to hypothesize about the existence of an innate ‘language acquisition device’ responsible for supporting the existence of a Universal Grammar, the latter shapes all human languages in much the same way as we are born with the ability to learn to run.  For Chomsky there is a difference between a Competence and Performance: Competence: knowledge of language, It’s an individual’s innate capacity and potential for language. Performance: the actual use of that knowledge for communication, it’s the specific way in which it is used by individual, group or community.  Our linguistic Competence allows us to create completely original sentences we have never heard of before. iv. Constructivism Jean Piaget is considered the pioneer of this learning theory. Schemata_ the things a child already knows, Ss connect new knowledge to an existing schema. Also Ss learn by doing rather than by being told.  Constructivism states that learners of language should construct knowledge of language by themselves through exposure to the world or people and to languages (experiences and interaction), in this way the learners improve their linguistic knowledge. Therefore, we can say that people learn from one another and not in isolation from others. Discovery approach (inductive), a teacher should not give knowledge to students but let them find it out by themselves. So, a teacher here is just a Guide.  Development precedes learning: humans need to develop their cognitive abilities then they can learn, in other words, until a learner reaches a cognitive stage in which s/he has certain mechanisms that will enable him/her to understand the language very well. According to Piaget, children shape their own conceptions of reality through continuous interaction with their environment.  Piaget carried out his studies with children and adolescents and concluded that Learning is a matter of two interrelated processes: Assimilation & Accommodation. Assimilation is the taking of new information or experiences and incorporating them into our existing knowledge bank or schemata. Encountering this new information causes an imbalance in our schemata. hence, through experiential process we progressively accommodate this new knowledge or experience so as to re-establish balance in our cognitive through a process called Accommodation. This process entails changing our existing schemata or ideas as a consequence of new knowledge or experience. Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures. During all developmental stages, the child experiences his/her environment using whatever mental maps s/he has constructed so far. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily (assimilated) into the child’s cognitive structure, so that the child maintains mental equilibrium. However, if the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium hence disequilibrium and alters his/her cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions. 7  The constructivist approach is based on the premise that: By reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in.  The stages of Development Piaget talked about the stages of development and stated that children move from one stage to the next through maturation and exploration, he identified the following stages: 1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years of age)  Children experience the world through their five senses.  Children move from simple reflexes to progressively developing control over their senses.  Children do not know how things will react therefore they are always experimenting shaking things, putting them in their mouths or throwing them away.  Their learning is mainly by trial and error.  Children are very egocentric, i.e. they cannot perceive the world through other’s points of view. 2. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years old)  Motor skills are developed  Children’s imagination is at its peak during this period, but they cannot think logically yet.  Children can pretend, verbalize and understand past and future. However, cause and effect, time, comparison and other complex ideas are still out of reach.  The child is not able to construct abstract ideas and to operate on them solely in the mind. The child works with the concrete, physical situation in front of him.  Children are still egocentric, but this tendency decreases as they become older and begin to take perspective. 3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years of age)  Children begin to think logically if presented with practical, concrete aids.  Children gain new competencies in thinking and become involved in events outside of their lives.  The child can do subtraction, multiplication, division and addition of numbers. However, the ability to tackle a problem with several variables in a systematic way is unusual at this stage.  They are able to perceive the world from others’ points of view, the egocentric phase disappears. 4. Formal operational stage (11 to 16 years old onwards)  Children develop their abstract thinking and are fully capable of using logical thinking.  They are able to understand methodology, formulate hypotheses, and think about possibilities and abstractions like justice.  Egocentrism has disappeared and replaced by a feeling of belonging to groups. v. Social Constructivism Levs. Vygotsky is considered the initiator of this theory. Zone of proximal development_ the range of skills that are a little bit difficult than what a student can do independently. Scaffolding_ changing the level of support to meet the ability of the child.  Vygotsky posited that children lean their first languages by interacting with more linguistically knowledgeable people, that is to say they learn by interacting with people who knows language better than children do, and through engaging within society. 8  He also believed that both first and second languages are learned via social interaction. Environment is crucial in learning, so a learner has to be in productive interactive relationship with his/her peers, colleagues, parents…  Learning a language requires a mediation by more able party (parent, teacher, more knowledgeable peer) who provides a supportive framework for the learner until the new knowledge is appropriated at which point learning has occurred and the mediation can be removed.  Learning precedes development, that is to say learning helps students to develop their mechanisms. vi. Krashen’s theory According to his theory, Steven Krashen stated that language is acquired through natural communication with others. Krashen’s theory of Second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: a) The Acquisition - Learning hypothesis According to Krashen there are two independent systems of foreign language performance: “the acquired system” and “the learned system”:  The acquired system or ‘Acquisition’ is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquired their first language. It requires “meaningful interaction” in the target language. Natural communication in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act, (the messages they’re conveying and understanding). Language acquirers are not consciously aware of the grammatical rules of the language; but rather develop a ‘feel’ for correctness. “in non-technical language, acquisition is ‘picking up’ a language. Language, unconscious process developed through using language meaningfully.  The learned system or ‘Learning’ is the product of a formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge about the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. Conscious learning or discovering rules about language.  A deductive approach is a teacher-centred setting produces learning. While an inductive approach is a student-centred setting leads to acquisition.  Language acquisition is the only way competence can develop.  According to Krashen, learning is less important than acquisition. b) The Monitor hypothesis Language and acquisition play different roles, acquisition allows us to speak the language. The monitor comes from learning the language and is like a ‘mental editor’ checking out rules as we speak or write.  The monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former.  The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar.  According to Krashen, the acquisition system is ‘the utterance initiator’, while the learning system performs the role of ‘the monitor editor’.  The monitor acts in a planning, editing and correcting function (it controls everything we want to utter before we produce it). when three specific conditions are met: The second language learner has sufficient time at their disposal, (no pressure). They focus on form, or think about correctness, (produce well-formed sentences). They know the rule. c) The input hypothesis 9 Krashen attempts to explain how learner acquires a second language. The input hypothesis is only concerned with ‘acquisition’ not ‘learning’. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along ‘the natural input’ when s/he receives second language input: that is one step beyond her/his current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at stage “i”, then acquisition takes place when s/he is exposed to “comprehensible input” that belongs to level “i+1”. Learners receive language only in one way, this happens when they receive oral or written messages that they understand. d) The affective filter Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence and good self-image, a low level of anxiety and extroversion are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. However, low motivation, low self-esteem, anxiety, introversion and inhibition can raise the effective filter and form a ‘mental block’ that prevent the comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, whenever the affective filter is ‘up’ it hinders language acquisition, on the other hand, positive effect is necessary for acquisition to take place (not sufficient in its own) by may make the filter down. e) The natural order hypothesis The grammatical structures follow a ‘natural order’ which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learner’s age. L1 background, conditions of exposure… The natural order hypothesis states the order in which learners can acquire the grammatical skills before others. According to Krashen’s theory “what you teach may not be acquired If the student is not ready”. Therefore, it’s important that the teachers know where their student are in the learning process.  The learners acquire the language naturally and not artificially, it means that ‘there are substructures that must be acquired before others’, for instance, we cannot learn irregular verbs before regular ones. However, Krashen provides the opposite theory and he states that acquisition does not follow this order which means we still can start with irregular and then regular verbs.  For Krashen there is a natural order but when we design the syllabus and the textbooks, we are not obliged to follow this order. vii. Multiple intelligences theory “humans have several ways of processing information; (visual, verbal, musical, logical etc.)” a. The definition of intelligence Intelligence is the ability to learn and understand new knowledge and information, or to deal with a new situation. Being able to acquire what you’ve acquired and learned so as to find solutions to new situations/ dilemma, and adapt with new environment. Intelligence is mixed abilities, classes, different learners’ mentalities, levels and backgrounds. According to Gardner: “we are all so different largely because we all have different combinations of intelligences”. b. Types of intelligences 1) Naturalist intelligence: Designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals). The ability to identify and distinguish among different types of plants, animals and weather formation that are found in the natural world. (understanding and passion for nature and its elements). 10 2) Musical intelligence: the capacity to design pitch, rhythm, tone. It Is the ability to produce, remember and make meaning of different patterns of sounds, and to be able to recognize simple songs, and vary speed, tempo and rhythm in simple melodies. (they express their feelings when exposed to music). 3) Logical-Mathematical intelligence: the ability to calculate, quantify, consider, carry out complete mathematical operations. It is the capacity to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically, develop equations and proofs, make calculations and solve abstract problems. 4) Existential intelligence: Sensitivity, capacity to tackle deep Question about human existence as the meaning of life and death… 5) Interpersonal intelligence: the ability to understand, interact effectively with others. To harmonize with others, to understand, perceive, discriminate between people’s moods, feelings, motives. 6) Intra-personal intelligence: the capacity to understand oneself and one’s thoughts, desires, fears, capacities, feelings and to use such knowledge in planning and directing one’s life. (within oneself). 7) Bodily-Kinaesthetic intelligence: the capacity to manipulate objects and use variety of physical skills, use of non-verbal language to express one’s feelings and thoughts. It’s the ability to use one’s whole body to express ideas and feelings, and facility in using one’s hands to produce and transform things. (people with such intelligence have control of their bodies and are able to handle objects in a skilful way. 8) Verbal-Linguistic intelligence: the ability to think in words and to use language to express and appreciate complex meaning. It is the capacity to use words effectively, whether orally or in writing. This involves good mastery of language. 9) Visual-Spatial intelligence: the ability to think in three dimensions, to perceive all the elements necessary to create a mental image of something. It’s the capacity to sense form, space, colour, line and shape. It has to do with pictures, either pictures in one’s mind or in the external world, photos, movies, drawings, graphic symbols, idiographic language. (use of imagination; to create a mental image of the external world). viii. Acculturation: It was founded by John Schumann. Learning languages according to this theory is through adapting to a new culture. For example; immigrants from different countries when they come to a certain country, they learn the new language through engaging within that culture. III. Teaching Methods 1. Grammar Translation Method (the classical method) Grammar translation method is a method of second or foreign language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. It is one of the most traditional method, dating back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was used to teach Latin and Greek, also it was used for the purpose of helping students read and appreciate foreign language literature, but later on it had become the standard way of studying foreign language in schools.  The principles:  Classes are taught in the students’ mother tongue with little active use of the target language, (excessive use of MT through translation).  Much vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists.  Little or no attention is paid to pronunciation, (communication isn’t a goal). 11  Often the only drills are exercises is translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother language, (lots of mechanical repetition to reinforce structures).  Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflections of words, (emphasis on the structure of a language).  Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis, (focus on grammatical structure within the text. So, the syllabus is structured-based).  Reading and writing are prioritized, little attention is given to speaking and listening. Therefore, reading of difficult classical texts begun early, (Ss can be introduced to reading right from the start, even before mastering listening and speaking).  Literary language is superior to spoken language.  The teacher’s role is “the controller” and the main source of knowledge and learning, (s/he is the superior authority in the classroom, and Ss are passive receivers of the new information).  Language learning provides a good ‘mental exercise’, and sharpens the students’ memory through memorization, (cognitive benefits).  Deductive teaching of rules.  Learning is facilitated through similarities between TL and NL, and it is also possible to find equivalent for all TL words, (Cognates=spelling, sound patterns that correspond between languages).  Very little student-teacher and student-student interaction, (everything is provided in the textbooks).  Accuracy is emphasized, (being accurate is crucial than being fluent).  Limitations:  The method does not help students enhance their communicative skills in language, (speaking or oral communication is neglected).  Extensive memorization of vocabulary lists containing the equivalent meaning of words in the TL, and unusable rules (conjugation, tenses and strict rules).  Not all teachers are good at translating and some don’t know students’ L1.  The use of first language keeps Ss under its dominance.  Techniques:  Translation of literary passage. Use of L1.  Reading comprehension questions (information – inferences opinion – personal experience). Reading activities.  Synonyms/ antonyms.  Cognates, spelling/ sound patterns that corresponds between languages.  Fill in the blanks with vocabulary and grammar items.  Memorization: vocabulary words and their equivalents in the target language.  Deductive teaching of grammar rules.  Composition: writing skills. 2. The Direct Method The Direct Method receives its name from the fact that ‘meaning’ is to be conveyed directly in ‘the target language’ through the use of demonstrations and visual aids: (bringing pictures, realia=concrete objects) with no recourse to the students’ native language. It was developed by “Maximilian Berlitz” towards the end of the 19th century as a reaction to the Grammar Translation method. 12 The goal is: “to enable Students to use a foreign language to communicate, because knowing a language is being able to speak it. Basically, the DM aims to provide the language learners with a practically useful knowledge of a language”.  Principles:  Language is primarily a speech, (the purpose of language learning is communication).  The basic rule of DM is that ‘No translation is allowed’, (teaching Ss in the target language with no reference to the MT language, the use of NL is prohibited).  The teacher should demonstrate (through the use of objects like realia, pictures, maps which facilitate LL), not explain or translate and students should make a direct association between the target language and meaning.  Pronunciation should be worked on right from the beginning of language instruction.  Lessons should contain some conversation activities so that Ss can use language in real contexts. Also, they should be encouraged to speak as much as possible.  Grammar is taught inductively, (there is no explicit rule).  The teacher is a partner and guide for the students, the latter are active participants.  The syllabus is based on situations or topic rather than linguistic structures.  Writing is an essential skill, (Dictation).  The goal of language learning is communication. In order to achieve this goal, students should learn to think in the target language.  The interaction goes both ways, from teacher to students and from students to teacher although the latter is often teacher-directed, at the same time student-student interaction is used as well.  Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if students use it in full sentences rather than memorising word lists: (Ss practice vocabulary by using new words in complete sentences).  Self-correction facilitates LL: teacher gets Ss to self-correct through giving choices.  Work on all four skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening) occurs from the start, oral communication is seen as basic. However, vocabulary is emphasized over grammar.  Limitations:  Requires the teacher’s ability to motivate students to speak, some teachers lack interest in this method, most are less creative.  Less efficient time in large classes, doesn’t satisfy the needs of the individuals.  Demanding on teachers who are supposed to have native-like fluency in the foreign language.  Focuses on listening and speaking (fluency over accuracy), sufficient time isn’t given to reading and writing.  Techniques:  Reading aloud.  Question & answer exercise (practice communication only in TL).  Conversation practice: teachers ask individually students about themselves (implicit grammatical structure), also Ss ask & reply each other questions.  Fill in the blanks exercise (no explicit grammatical rule = induction).  Dictation (normal pace/ slow pace/ normal pace).  Map drawing: (labelling geo features).  Paragraph writing (about the topic discussed).  Self-correction: getting Ss to self-correct (make a choice between what they said & an alternative answer, “questioning tone”). 13  Demonstration, miming, use of visuals, SSTMR, modelling…  Use of the Target language. 3. The Audio-Lingual Method The audio-lingual method, by its very name – “audio” and “lingual” – refers to a language teaching approach that focuses on two aspects of language, namely listening (aural=has to do with the ears) and speaking (oral=has to do with the mouth). ALM also known as “Army method” was developed in the United States during WW II. There was a great demand for people speaking foreign languages for military purposes. They had to be prepared for their tasks in shortcut intensive courses. There are three main reasons which led to ALM: 1. The engagement of the US army in the WW II. 2. USA needs to send troops around the world during WW II. 3. Russia launched its 1st artificial satellite. Audio-lingual method is based on ‘the structuralism’ view of language (linguistics= Bloom field), and ‘the behaviourist’ theory of language learning, (psychology= Skinner).  The goal of Audio-Lingual Method is to “enable students to use the target language communicatively”. In order to do this, students need to over-learn the target language, to learn to use it automatically without stopping to think. This aim can be achieved by students’ forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.  The principles:  New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues, the dialogues are learnt through imitation and repetition, grammar is induced from the examples given, (explicit grammar rules are not provided).  The target language is used in the classroom not the students’ native language.  Drills are used to teach structural patterns, e.g. Tr: there is a cup on the table… repeat. Ss: there’s a cup on the table. Tr: book. Ss: there’s a book on the table.  Speaking and listening competence preceded reading and writing competence.  The teacher is like an ‘orchestra leader’, directing and controlling the language behaviour of her/his students; s/he provides her/his students with a good model for imitation.  Vocabulary is taught in context, when the word is put in context it’ll be easily grasped.  Focus is on pronunciation, (a teacher has to stress and correct the students whenever they mispronounce a word. So, Ss should keep repeating it till they get it right).  Prevent students from errors, the latter is seen as bad habits that must be corrected immediately.  There is student-student interaction in chain drills or when students take different roles in dialogues, but this interaction is teacher-directed because most of the interaction is between teacher-student and is initiated by the teacher.  The syllabus is linguistic or structure-based.  The target language is used in the classroom not the students’ native language, (NL and TL have separate linguistic systems) =avoidance of NL as much as possible.  Language learning is a process of “habit formation”, the more something is repeated (repetition of a line several times), the stronger the habit & learning.  Positive reinforcement (feedback) helps to form correct habits, (correct responses are positively reinforced immediately: when the teacher says “good or excellent” as a feedback, the idea really stores into the mind of the student.  The challenge in FLL is to overcome the habits of NL, by contrastive analysis the teacher anticipates interference of NL in TL. 14  Rules are not memorized but inducted and figured out.  Limitations:  No creativity, make advanced students bored, excessive repetition.  Mechanical drills are counter-productive (drill and kill exercises).  Meaning is neglected (blind repetition of words or sentences).  Writing is not given its due attention.  Techniques:  Use of Dialogues: memorization through mimicry.  Drills (substitution, chain, choral, backward).  Backward build up (ex to the post office).  Repetition drill (teacher’s model).  Chain drill (conversation between students).  Multiple- single slot substitution drill.  Question & answer drill/ complete a dialog.  Minimal pairs (for teaching pronunciation).  Grammar game.  Inductive teaching of Grammar. 4. The Silent Way The silent way is a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno.  Chomsky argued that Language Acquisition isn’t a product of ‘habit formation’ but rather of a ‘rule formation’: that is to say language learning does not take place through mimicry since people can create utterances they have never heard before.  Language acquisition must be a procedure where people use their own thinking processes, or cognition to discover the rules of the language they are acquiring.  The use of cognitive processes: cognitive approach rather than responding to stimuli in environment, learners are responsible about their learning by formulating hypotheses.  The approach is constructivist in nature, it assumes that the student’s previous experiences of learning from their mother tongue will contribute to learning the new foreign language. (So, the teacher starts from basics that students already know= learning involves what one knows to new contexts).  In the silent way, teaching should be subordinate to learning and serve it, activate inner sources: (creativity, intuition, imagination and perception). The objective of the method: The goal of the method: is to enable students to use the language for self-expression to express their thoughts, perceptions and feelings. In order to do this, they need to develop independence from the teacher, to develop their own inner criteria for correctness. Students should rely on themselves to be able to use the target language.  The teacher is a silent facilitator of learning, teacher’s silence gives the Ss responsibility, only student-student can do the learning, but the teacher can focus on the students’ perception and forces their awareness by setting up situations. So, when the teacher speaks it is to give clues not to model the language. Student-student verbal interaction is desirable and is encouraged.  Silence is a powerful tool which fosters autonomy and initiative, a teacher isn’t the centre of attention (s/he just listen and guide). Therefore, the teacher’s silence helps him/her to observe Ss’s behaviour, and also to enhance group cooperation.  The teacher works with students while the latter work on the language. 15  the students’ native language can be used to give instructions when necessary to help a student improve his/her pronunciation; the native language is also used during the feed- back sessions.  Students’ errors are seen as a natural, indispensable part of the learning process, errors are inevitable since the students are encouraged to explore the language; the teacher uses student errors as a basis for deciding where further work is necessary.  The teacher never gives a formal test, he assesses student learning all the time; the teacher must be responsive to immediate learning needs; the teacher does not praise or criticize student behaviour since this would interfere with students developing their own inner criteria; the teacher looks for steady progress, not perfection.  There is no fixed linear, structural syllabus, instead the teacher starts with what the students know and builds from one structure to the next; the previously introduced structures are continually being recycled.  There is a focus on the structures of the language, although explicit grammar rules may never be supplied.  Pronunciation is worked on from the beginning, it is important that students acquire the melody of the language.  All four skills are worked on from the beginning of the course, although there is a sequence in that students learn to read or write what they have already produced orally; the skills reinforce what students are learning.  Vocabulary is restricted at first.  The teacher is silent, controller, neutral observer-monitor and assistant, while the Ss are centre of learning, they work on the task and should be independent, autonomous and responsible for their learning.  Limitations  A high qualified teacher is required.  To what extent this method is effective in advanced class is a question left in our mind.  To avoid teacher-centred instructions, things may go to the other extreme (students need some directions).  Time-consuming (Ss may struggle to understand a word for a while, whereas it can be explained easily by the teacher).  Not all students are highly motivated.  Techniques  Sound colour chart, (with which we teach pronunciation). = pronunciation charts.  Cognitive coding with colour rods.  Teacher’s silence_ “ambiguous situation”. Less TTT.  Peer correction (to improve co-operative manner).  Rods (help Ss to practice language = connected to the meaning, representation of structures).  Self-correction gestures.  Word chart (to form sentences). Coloured cards.  Fidel charts (colour coded chart to associate the sound to its spelling).  Structured feedbacks.  Giving cues, non-verbal communication. 5. Suggestopedia Suggestopedia is a humanistic approach which was developed in the 1970’s by Georgi Lozanvo. Suggestopedia has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they 16 cannot be successful, negative associations towards learning, and to help them overcome the barriers to learning.  Lozanov claimed that: “suggestopedia is a system for liberation”, the liberation from ‘the preliminary negative concepts regarding the difficulties in the process of learning’. Which is established throughout our life in the society. The objective of the method The goal of the method is to accelerate the process by which students learn to use a foreign language for everyday communication. This is to be done by breaking down the psychological barriers that learners bring with them to the learning situation. Also, to enhance learning by lowering the effective filter of the learners.  The teacher is the authority in the classroom, who must be trusted and respected by the students – once the students trust the teacher, they feel secure, they can be more spontaneous and less inhibited, (as authority figure embodies trust and respect).  Learning is facilitated in a relaxed, comfortable and cheerful environment.  Inefficiency in Language Learning is due to “the psychological barriers” (fear, anxiety, low self-esteem and inhibition) = limitation in learning ability= not using the full mental power. So, the teacher’s goal is reducing those psychological barriers.  Mental reserves (reticence) are stimulated through the integration of fine arts such as music, games, arts, drama, dialogues, auditioning for a play, dramatization and fantasy reduces barriers to learning = all these helps the suggestions to reach the subconscious… (for instance the teacher reads a dialogue with music accompaniment “rhythm & intonation”. So, communication takes place through: ‘the conscious plane’, the linguistic message is encoded. ‘the subconscious plane, the music suggests that the process of learning is easy and enjoyable and this influences the linguistic message. Therefore, when there is a unity between these two planes, ‘the learning is enhanced’). Additionally, the use of ‘songs’ contribute in freeing speech muscles and evoking positive feelings.  Native language translation is used to make ‘the meaning’ of the dialogue clear the teacher uses the mother tongue in lesson when necessary; as the course proceeds, the teacher uses the native language less and less.  Vocabulary is emphasized, the success of the method can be put down to the large number of words that can be acquired.  Variation of the materials that Ss are exposed to like (new, unrepeatable dialogue.) novelty aids acquisition.  Grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally, students will learn best if their conscious attention is focused not on the language forms but on using the language, (the focus isn’t on the form of the language but on the process of communication).  Pronunciation is developed by reading out loud. Speaking communicatively is emphasized, students also read the target language and write, for example compositions.  Evaluation is conducted on students’ normal in-class performance and not through formal tests.  The syllabus used in the method is functional.  At the beginning levels, errors are not corrected immediately since the emphasis is on students communicating their intended meaning; when errors occur, the teacher uses delayed correction. (errors are allowed= confidence).  It helps create a favourable climate for the learning to occur for the Ss to feel at ease.  Limitations  Doesn’t take into consideration different learning styles of students. 17  Absence of tests & time-consuming.  Lacks flexibility (not applicable to all classes).  Negligence of grammar.  Techniques  Classroom set-up (decorated cheerful environment).  Peripheral learning (posters of grammatical information).  Positive suggestions (direct & indirect) = break down the barriers.  Choose a new identity (enhance fiction & trust).  Role play: first concert (receptive phase) = visualisation, listening and following in the materials. Second concert: put the materials aside, musical accompaniment.  Primary activation (active phase) rereading the dialog: sadly/ angrily/ cheerfully.  Creative adaptation/ variation of dialog (games, singing, dramatization).  Music, fine arts, visual aids, relaxation… 6. Community Language Learning The Community Language Learning method takes its principle from the more general “Counselling-Learning approach” developed by Charles A. Curran. Curran studied adult learning for many years. A language counsellor means someone who is a skilful person who truly understand the struggle that students face as they attempt to internalize another language. By understanding students’ attitudes, fears (of new situations by becoming language counsellors) and being sensitive to them, s/he can help students overcome their negative feelings and turn them into positive energy to further their learning.  The objective of this method The goals of teachers are to make their students to learn how to use the target language communicatively. They want their students to learn about their own learning to take responsibility for it. This method aims at treating Ss as “whole person”, the teacher takes into consideration not only their ‘minds’, but their feelings, physical instinctive protective reactions.  Language is Communication.  Students are considered as whole persons sharing their feelings about their learning experiences (in groups) allow them to build a community in which they can begin to feel a sense of community and can learn from each other, (developing new communities in class builds trust, and reduces threats towards new learning situations).  The teacher is a counsellor who recognizes how threatening a new learning situation can be for adult learners so he understands and supports his students in their struggle to acquire the target language. (s/he is the superior power & knowledge, s/he monitors so as to facilitate the learning process)  The student-teacher interaction in the Community Language Learning method changes within the lesson and over time, this method is neither student nor teacher centred but; rather teacher-student centred, with both being decision makers in the class; building a relationship with and among students is very important. (interaction is between Ss)  Where possible, Literal native equivalents are given to the target language words that have been transcribed, this makes their meaning clear and allows students to combine the target language words to create new sentences.  Active vocabulary is very important as conversations in the target language can replace native language conversations. 18  The focus shifts from grammar to sentence formation, language is for communication.  Pronunciation is developed by reading out loud.  Errors are corrected in a non-threatening way, the teacher repeats correctly what the student has said incorrectly.  The syllabus is designed primarily by the students in the beginning.  Once a teacher eliminates the threatening factors in the classroom, since any learning experience is threatening, Ss have a general idea about what they are about to study. Therefore, they feel secure and at ease.  Teacher encourages students’ initiative, independence but s/he doesn’t let them in uncomfortable silences.  Students need quiet reflection time in order to learn. (Students’ reflection on language: what they have experienced on how to learn from each other in a community).  The teacher counsels the students but does not offer advice but s/he rather listen to them and understand how they feel. (building relationships with, among Ss is crucial).  Limitations  Time consuming, too much emphasis on students’ feeling.  Large, complicated translation.  Not all teachers are good translators (teachers may not know the mother tongue of Ss.  Fluency over accuracy.  Techniques  Recording students’ conversation.  Transcription.  Reflective listening (relax while they’re listening to their transcript).  Human computer.  Small group task (get more practice with target language and develop a sense of community).  Group work, reflection, repetition, inductive teaching of grammar. 7. Total Physical Response The idea of TPR originates from James Asher, who found that adults’ second or foreign language learning could have similar developmental patterns to that of children’s language acquisition. A baby spends a lot of months listening to the people around it long before it says a word. In Krashen’s The Natural Approach (1983) the students listen to the teacher using the target language communicatively from the beginning of the instruction throughout the course. The teacher helps her students to understand her by using pictures and occasional words in the students’ native language and by being as expressive as possible. In TPR students listen and respond to the spoken target language commands of their teacher.  The objective of the method The goal of TPR is to have the students enjoy their experience in learning to communicate in a foreign language. The TPR was developed in order to reduce the stress people feel when studying foreign languages and encourage students to persist in their study beyond the beginning level of proficiency.  The teacher is the director of all student behaviour, the students are imitators of her nonverbal model, in 10-20 hours of instruction students will be ready to speak.  When learning a second or additional language, that language is internalized through a process of “code breaking” similar to the first language development and that the process allows for long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to production. = (Comprehension approach: language learning starts with 19 ‘understanding’ and ends with ‘production’. i.e. after the learner internalizes an extensive map pf how target language works, speaking will appear spontaneously).  TPR is related to the natural approach: use of a language that is just in advance of the current level of proficiency/ (i+1) exposure to advance comprehensible input.  Students in the classroom respond to the commands and instructions uttered by the teacher which also require physical movements, that’s why TPR is a language learning method based on “the coordination of speech and action”. (meaning is conveyed through actions, Ss can learn the language by moving their bodies).  The imperative is a powerful linguistic device through which the teacher can direct students’ behaviour.  Meaning in TL is conveyed through actions/ teacher gives commands to Ss/ Memory is activated through learners’ response/ TL is presented as “chunks” rather than word by word. Flexibility in understanding new combination of TL chunks rather than repeating usual sentences. Moreover, novelty is motivating (Teacher gives commands that Ss never heard of before).  Language is primarily oral, similar to the acquisition of native language, L1 is used at the beginning. (the method is introduced in the students’ native language, after the  introduction rarely would the mother tongue be used).  The students’ understanding of the target language is developed before speaking, (Students say nothing, Ss can learn through observing and then performing actions).  Interaction is between the teacher and the whole group of students and with individual students.  Grammatical structures and vocabulary are emphasized over other language areas.  Pronunciation is developed through listening mostly.  Skills: understanding the spoken word should precede its production, the spoken language is emphasized over written language, students often do not learn to read the commands they have already learnt to perform until after 10 hours of instruction.  Formal evaluations can be conducted by commanding individual students to perform a series of actions.  Teachers should be tolerant of errors and only correct major errors, even these should be corrected gently and softly.  The syllabus is multi-strand.  Limitations  Appropriate only for beginners and active learners.  Difficult to develop the four skills together.  Difficult to teach abstract concepts or notions.  Ss don’t express themselves, they only respond to commands of the teacher.  Challenging for shy students.  Techniques  Using commands to direct behaviour.  Role reversal (speaking after 10/20 hours of performance).  Action sequence.  Miming, commands, games, minimum verbal communication. 8. Communicative Language Teaching Communicative Language Teaching is a learner centred approach which emphasizes communication and real-life situations. 20  The goal of communicative language teaching is to make students communicatively competent.  The focus on the learner’s Communicative Competence is very essential. Communicative Competence: is a linguistic term for the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language to form correct utterances, but also to know when to use these utterances appropriately. The term "communicative competence" was coined by Dell Hymes (1967, 1972) -a sociolinguist who was convinced that Chomsky's (1965) notion of competence was too limited. Communicative competence, then, is that aspect of our competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts. (it is also a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions in a society). In the 1970s, research on communicative competence distinguished between ‘linguistic’ and ‘communicative’ competence (Hymes 1967, Paulston 1974) to highlight the difference between knowledge "about" language forms and knowledge that enables a person to communicate functionally and interactively. According to Michael Canal and Merrill Swain, there are four main components/ subcategories which make up the construct of communicative competence:  the first two subcategories reflect the use of the linguistic stem itself.  Linguistic/ Grammatical Competence It is that aspect of communicative competence that encompasses "knowledge of lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantics, and phonology" (Canal and Swain 1980). It is the competence that we associate with mastering the linguistic code of a language.  Linguistic competence asks: what words to use? How do we put them into phrases and sentences?  Discourse Competence It is considered a complement of grammatical competence in many ways. It is the ability we have to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances, (so that the parts make up a coherent whole= Coherence & Cohesion). Discourse means everything from simple spoken conversation to lengthy written texts (articles, books, and the like). While grammatical competence focuses on “sentence-level grammar”, discourse competence is concerned with “inter-sentential relationships”.  Discourse competence asks: how are words, phrases and sentences and put together to create conversations, speeches, email messages, newspaper articles… etc. To be able to understand the meaning of each sentence and the connection between the sentences. E.g.: It is hot here! Which means indeed; “open the window”.  The last two subcategories define the more functional aspects of communication. 1) Sociolinguistic Competence Sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge of the socio-cultural rules of language and of discourse. This type of competence "requires an understanding of the social context in which language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interaction. Only in a full context of this kind can judgments be made on the “appropriateness” of a particular utterance. In other words, knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately, given the setting, the topic, and the relationship among the people communicating. (how to speak language according to the interlocuter+ the topic etc.) 21  Sociolinguistic competence asks: which words and phrases fit this and that topic? (courtesy, authority, friendliness, respect) when we need to? How do we know what attitude another person is expressing? 2) Strategic Competence Strategic competence refers to “The strategies that one uses to compensate for imperfect knowledge of rules-or limiting factors in their application such as fatigue, distraction, and inattention.” In short, it is the competence underlying our ability to make repairs, to cope with imperfect knowledge, and to sustain communication through “paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, hesitation, avoidance, and guessing, as well as shifts in register and style” It also means knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns, how to work around gaps in one’s knowledge of the language, and how to learn more about the language and the context. (appropriate use of communication strategies).  Strategic competence asks: how do we know when we’ve misunderstood or when someone has misunderstood us? What do we say then? How can we express our ideas if we don’t know the name of something or the right verb to use or the exact terminology? For instance, when we converse with somebody, there is a possibility that our message doesn’t get across to the interlocuter so we have to resort to other strategies to clarify our message more.  Knowing how to use a language in communication requires more than linguistic competence, it required communicative competence. (knowing what to say what to whom, where and when and how). Language is for development of “communicative competence” (meaning and function).  The focus is on the process of Communication, (Ss are given the opportunity to express their ideas and opinions).  Teacher is a facilitator of communicative activities; (giving advice, answering questions…) and monitor for the Ss’s learning, while students are communicators and active negotiator of meaning.  TL is not only object of study but a tool to direct classroom activity and communication. (activities which involve communication based on real life situations= authentic communication. Therefore, the teacher’s responsibility is to establish communicative situations “e.g. each group has task to perform).  Errors are tolerated and seen as natural outcomes of development of communication skills. They are crucial to learning.  Communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among students negotiating meaning.  The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving meaning to utterances, (role play; employee in a company). Grammar and vocabulary is learned from function, situational context.  Learner- centredness: Learners’ needs are very important in communicative language. Activities are chosen according to the various learning styles and they also must be age relevant.  In communicating, the speaker has the choice not only what to say but also how to say it. Activities that are truly communicative, according to Johnson and Morrow (1981) have three features: information gap, choice and feedback. An information gap exists when one person or a party, the writer or the speaker, the one who gives a written or an oral piece of information in an exchange, “knows something that the other person or party, who receives it, does not”. In a communicative situation the speaker has a choice of what /s/he will say and how /s/he will 22 say it. If the sentences and structures are prescribed by the teacher, we cannot speak about the free choice of language. The receiver of the message, who is the listener or the reader, is supposed to react, to give feedback to the piece of information got from the speaker or the writer. That is the reason, why a lecture or a presentation is not a communicative activity.  Limitations  Not suitable for all the levels.  Taking into consideration while preparing syllabus the needs and interests.  Time and energy of the teacher is limited.  Correction of errors is infrequent.  Only everyday language is taught, while other forms of language are not taught, grammar is not systematically taught, writing & reading are overlooked.  Techniques  Authentic materials (the ability to transfer what they learn outside the classroom).  Scrambled sentences (learn about coherence & cohesion properties and how sentences are bound together through linguistic devices).  Language games (three features of communication: information gap, choice, feedback).  Picture strip story (to predict what the 2nd picture is about according to the given strip story/ problem solving in CLT that include the three features of communication).  Role play (is important in CLT as in suggestopedia, Ss are put into social context to which they should react/ less structured in CLT “choice”).  Fill in the gap.  Oral practice and production, “presentation, controlled practice, free practice”.  Interactive activities, group work, WH questions. IV. Approaches of Learning English language a. Standard Based approach According to the English Guidelines of teaching foreign languages in Morocco, this approach is adopted for the Secondary School (Common Core, First Year, and Second Year Baccalaureate). Standards Based Approach addressed what students should know and be able to do and demonstrate at the end of the process of the language study. There are three types of standards:  Content standards: it is a statement about what learners should know and be able to do with English.  Performance standards: shows how the learners have achieved the standards targeted.  Proficiency standards: tell us how learners should perform. Standards Based Approach “SBA” is concerned with developing the following five areas C5:  Communication: learners will communicate in both oral and written forms, understand and interpret both oral and written messages to various audiences for a variety of purposes. The three modes of communication are interpersonal (functions: advice, suggestion, opinion), interpretive (receptive skills: reading and listening) and presentational (productive skills: writing and speaking) communication.  Culture: learners will gain deeper understanding of their culture and the target culture in terms of their perspectives (ideas, attitudes etc.), practices and products like books, laws, music. (to interact with others, to understand the way they think and to avoid misunderstanding and embarrassment). 23  Connections: learners will make connections with other subject areas such as history, Arabic... (what we’ve learned in a specific subject, we relate it to other subjects for us to understand well).  Comparison: learners will gain awareness of cross-cultural similarities and differences in culture that exist between the target culture and language and their own through comparing.  Communities: learners will extend their learning experiences or knowledge from the EFL classroom to the outside world through activities such as the use of the internet. We apply what we’ve learned in the classroom, in other situations and contexts outside the class. And this process is known as ‘Learner Training’ which is the focus of the Standard based approach.  Some characteristics of standards-based classroom  Classroom climates are characterized by respectful behaviours, routines.  The teacher ensures that all the components of the lesson (learning activities, assessments, homework) contribute to the lesson objectives and to the student’s mastery of the standards. b. Competency based approach This approach is adopted for the secondary school (9 Grade Students). It focuses on the competencies of students; it aims at teaching and mastering one skill then moving to another skill. For example, In the Moroccan educational system, English is taught to... to the students of 14, 13 years old. So, they need to know the very basics of English language like Alphabets and how to great each other and so on before moving to learn how to write complete sentences and speak correctly. c. Communicative approach This can be seen as the most preferable Approach for the majority of teachers in Morocco. It is a learner-centred Approach because it gives the chance to the learners to learn by themselves, to involve in the process of learning. This approach “helps the learner to develop not only the linguistic competence but also the communicative skills as to what to say, how to say, when to say and where” in order to satisfy his daily needs as larger aim. In this approach fluency and accuracy are equally important. The teacher here is a co-participant not that of an authoritarian master. The teacher should provide all the recourses necessary for communication to be effective in every context. The representatives of the Communicative Approach acknowledge that structures and vocabulary are important but they emphasize the acquisition of linguistic structures or vocabulary as well. When we communicate, we use the language to accomplish some function such as arguing, persuading and promising. We carry out these functions with a social context.  The purpose of language and thus the goal of language teaching and learning is ‘communication’.  The Communicative Approach stresses the need to teach communicative competence as opposed to linguistic competence; thus, functions are emphasized over forms. Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communicative activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning. d. Content based approach Is an approach language teaching that focus not on language itself but rather on what is being taught through the language. That is to say, the language becomes the medium through which something new is learned. 24 The students here are active not passive learners. They are learning through being active, participating within the process of learning. Here using the target language in the process of learning is necessary. e. Eclectic approach It combines various approaches and methodologies to teach language depending on the aims of the lesson and the abilities of the learners. Applying multiple methods and approaches to achieve the targeted objectives. Personally, I prefer this approach. f. The Natural approach The natural approach was developed by Tracy Terrell and Steven Krashen in 1977. It adopts techniques and activities from different sources but uses them to provide comprehensible input, (focuses on the comprehensible input=knowledge is what matters most).  There must be a good environment in which there will be no blocks and barriers that may prevent the input to be grasped.  Using L1 to make things clear and easily understood.  Listening is crucial to Learning.  The use of a language that is just in advance of the current level of proficiency (i+1) exposure to advance comprehensible input. g. The Humanistic approach It is a scientific approach aims to teach language scientifically with regard to the learners’ readiness and centredness. In this approach, learners are treated as humans who can talk, participate, react and express their feelings and personal opinions… they can even decide what they like to study.  Humanistic approach empowers the role of learner in the language learning process. It is based on the learner-centredness principle.  Teacher is more of an enabler and a facilitator while students are involved in socio- affective learning activities.  Consider the learner as humans.  No anxiety in learning.  To promote love and self-esteem.  To care about the psychology of the learners in general.  Teacher’s role is facilitating, supporting, and encouraging learners. Learning a foreign language is a process of self-realization and of relating to other people. h. The cognitive approach Language is a ‘rule-governed cognitive behaviour’ rather than a habit formation. i. Comprehension approach Language acquisition occurs if and only if the learner receives and comprehends sufficient meaningful comprehensible input. Language learning starts with understanding and ends with production, after the learner internalises an extensive map of how target language works, speaking will appear spontaneously. 25 V. Teaching the four skills Language, within the context of TEFL, is comprised of components and skills. The components of English are vocabulary, functions, and grammar, while the four skills are listening, reading, writing, and speaking. The four skills of the language are usually arranged into two types receptive and productive. Reading and listening are receptive skills since students only receive the language. However, writing and speaking are productive, because students produce the language. 1) How to teach Listening The teaching of listening follows three main stages; pre-listening, while listening and post-listening: Pre-listening: In this stage, the teacher is required to introduce the topic to students in a fun or tactical way. Let’s say, you have an audio clip about the effects of smoking on health and would like to put your students in the context. The best way to do so is to bring a photo, quote, or simply by asking students about the effects of smoking on the users’ health. This way, you put your students in the context and prepare them for the audio clip. After doing this, you may explain key words to students. You can use pictures, or you can bring them pictures or definitions of words and ask them to match the word with its definition of picture.  teacher starts by contextualizing the topic using proverbs or short discussions etc and asks them for their predictions about the topic of listening. While-Listening: Now that you have given your students an idea about the topic of your audio- clip, you move to the listening part. The first listening is purposed to give students a general idea of the audio clip. After this first exposure to the audio material, you may ask your students about the general idea of the audio. Then, for the second listening, you ask students some questions in which they will have to look for specific information in the text.  Students get their first listening in order to check their predictions. Then get second listening in order to answer the comprehension questions and third listening for discussing and giving their opinions and so on. Post-Listening: The teacher’s creativity (personal touch) becomes more apparent in this stage. In this stage, a teacher may start a debate (are you for or against smoking?), or a discussion in which students express their opinions and share their ideas with one another. You can also ask them to design a posture, draw a painting, write a song, devise a play, write a paragraph. Any of the abovementioned activities can be useful.  In this stage teacher can ask his students to give their opinions about the topic of listening or summarize the main idea of the topic or any activity that is appropriate to the listening task. 2) How to teach Reading Teaching reading is usually conducted through three main stages; pre-reading, while- reading, post-reading. These stages are, as you can infer from the prefixes used with reading, arranged chronologically. Pre-Reading: Each reading passage we expose our students to falls within the scope of the theme or the topic of a unit. It is always helpful and effective for a teacher to put students in the context using either a picture, a video, a quote, or a question. The means used (picture or video) will help students activate their prior knowledge (schemata) of the topic at hand. For example; you have a reading passage about the dangers of eating unhealthy food, a picture of an obese person eating unhealthy food would be sufficient to not only put students in the context, but also trigger their schemata (prior of knowledge) about the topic. Using the picture or the title 26 of the reading passage, you may ask your students to predicate what the reading passage will be about.  In this stage teacher starts by contextualizing the topic of reading process by using proverbs, quote, picture, video, or short discussion…etc. Then, move to explain vocabulary items that students may encounter in the text. After that, he asks for their predictions about the topic of the text they are going to read. While-Reading: Having made their predications, students would ideally be interested in reading the passage in order to check whether their forecasts are true or not. In the first reading, students just try to pinpoint the general idea of the passage. Then, once they do that, they move to answer comprehension questions, true/false statements, making references or inferences. Example; students would be instructed to infer the meaning of some words from the context, or to identify what some pronouns refer to (take a look at the English BAC Exam). After doing all of this, students would be fully aware of the main ideas of the text and would have at least learned some new words.  Teacher gives the text to students and asks them to read it silently and check their predictions (this process called skimming). Then teacher asks them to read again to answer the comprehension questions (this Process called scanning). Post- Reading: The post reading activity gives teachers the chance to be creative. In this stage, a teacher may instruct students to write a paragraph about the topic raised in the passage, spark a debate, create a poster, have a discussion, and the list goes on like that.  In this stage, the teacher may open a debate or a role play, discussion, ask them to summarize the text, or give their opinion about the topic. Here teacher can integrate many skills like writing, speaking, and listening. 3) How to teach Speaking Warm-up: As usual it is desirable to start with a warm-up activity, preferably an activity that is linked somehow to the topic of the speaking lesson. For instance, during my oral exam, I was supposed to teach speaking with focus on the theme health and health issues. So, as a warm up activity, I pretended to have some health issues and told the students (in my case, supervisors) to guess what the illness is. Pre-Speaking: Having both revised some lexical items related to the topic of the lesson and created a favourable atmosphere for the learning to take place, now it would be ideal to put students in the context. It would be great if you ask questions like, “when you are sick, what do you do about it?”. Once you put them in the context, you move on to provide them with lexis and exponents they will need to speak, or “Language input”. You can use an audio, video, or a dialogue. Students read the dialogue, answer comprehension questions, then you move to highlighting important language exponents (I have a headache, take a pill). You make students aware of the language they need to speak by way of exercises or direct questions that elicits it from them. While-Speaking: Now that the students are equipped with the necessary language to produce it, you give them clear and specific instructions as to what to do and how. Also, you explain the roles, if there are any, that students are required to play. For instance, in my case, I gave students cards with their roles written on them (it would be even better if you provide them with cues, you are a doctor). You give students enough time to prepare their dialogues and rehearse them if necessary, then, before they start performing, you notify them that they should deliver a great performance so as to win the “best performance prize”. While students are performing, you 27 must not neither correct any mistakes nor allow anyone to do so, instead let them feel free to act and express themselves. You, as a teacher, will be taking notes of the frequently-made mistakes. After each performance, invite the entire class for a group applaud. This will boost the effects of the performers and inspire others to stand up and deliver theirs. Post-Speaking: Previously, the teacher monitored closely the performance of students and wrote down the mistakes they commonly made. In this stage, the teacher corrects mistakes with students and sheds light on some of the features of spoken language, among of which are intonation, stress, and others. 4) How to teach Writing Of all the four skills that learners must learn, writing is most certainly the most challenging, given that students are required to produce language. Pre-Writing: At this stage, it is essential that the teacher puts students in the context first (using whatever technique he sees fits). Then, students are usually supposed to work on a worksheet that typically contains a text with questions to answer. Students first answer comprehension questions and then they explore the features of the type of writing they are exposed to by doing tasks (ex: narrative or expository). For example, an argumentative essay has its features and its distinctive structure. Therefore, as a teacher you need to help your students identify its main components through tasks. Once students identify the features of the target lesson, you may introduce the topic that they are required to write about, brainstorm some ideas, and write them on the board. While-Writing: Students have by now developed a clear image of what to do and how. Following the model text given to them, students will start their first draft. Once they finish, the teacher may students to exchange their writings and correct each other’s mistakes based on a checklist that a teacher provides his students with. Then, students, who identify their mistakes, may proofread or edit their writings so as to finalize them. Post-Writing: Having finally finalized their writings, a teacher may be creative in how he asks his students to display their writings. A teacher may ask his/her students to read them in front of the class group, or he may establish a writing exhibition wherein students stick their final products on the walls of the classroom and tour around to read each other’s works. There are five stages in teaching writing: 1. Brainstorming: teacher asks his students about their prior knowledge about the topic using mind up, spider map, charts, asking Wh. Qs, etc. 2. Planning: teacher and students identify the plan or outline. 3. Drafting: teacher gives the students chance to write their first draft, writing all what comes to their mind. 4. Revising: teacher gives to students a checklist to revise the content, meaning of their production, the ideas if they are organized or not. 5. Publishing: students read their productions and they may put it in their portfolios. There are two types of teaching writing:  Product approach: the main aim is to have Ss produce a writing product at the end. 28  Process approach: the teacher’s main goal is to help Ss develop their writing skills through providing them techniques and strategies to write e.g. brainstorming, editing... It’s a method for teaching writing that takes learners through the stages of pre-writing, drafting, revision. VI. How to teach the language components: Grammar, Function and Vocabulary There are three stages of teaching language components: presentation, practice, production. 1. Presentation: This stage is divided into four sub-stages: a. Contextualization: Teacher gives to students a dialogue or any text with 2 or 3 comprehension questions to read and answer. b. Observation: From the answers of students on the comprehension questions, teacher elicits the structure and expressions then write them on the board. c. Isolation: Teacher asks students to read again and highlight other structures and expressions then move to explain the form and the use of the target structure. d. Comprehension check: Teacher examines to what extent the students have understood the target structures. 2. Practice: There are two types of practice: a. Controlled practice: Is the exercises that accept only one correct answer like matching because the aim is to familiarize students with the dorm of the target structure. b. Free practice: exercises that accept different answers always start with controlled then free practice. 3. Production: Teacher asks students to do a role play or write a short paragraph using the learnt structure. VII. How to teach Functions According to the British Council, “functions refer to what items of language actually do in a real context, as opposed to what they might mean literally. These include suggesting, criticizing, refusing, agreeing and disagreeing, enquiring, talking about the past, and giving advice.” Each function has its distinctive features; namely a context wherein it is used and a set of expressions that are commonly utilized with it. It is the teacher’s job to not only teach these expressions, but also help students learn how to use them properly. Learning the expressions of apologizing, for example, would mean nothing if students cannot apologize in English when they have done something wrong.  Deductive approach to teaching Functions An inductive approach to teaching in general is a teacher-centred pedagogical strategy that has been heavily criticized throughout the last decades. When teaching functions through this approach, a teacher will be inclined to explain the context under which a certain function is used, introduce verbally the expressions of the function, and instruct students to practice these functions through exercises.  Inductive approach to teaching Functions This is perhaps the most favourable, effective approach to teach any language component in the entire EFL realm. This advantageous position can be ascribed to the fact that this approach is learner-centred, as opposed to the deductive approach. A teacher who follows this approach when teaching functions will most likely provide students with the function in a dialogue, and students notice the context and extract the expressions of the dialogue. Once students become familiar with the expressions of the function, the teacher then instructs them to fill in gaps using the expressions. Then, a teacher instructs his/her students to come up with a dialogue or use the function to respond to a given set of situations. 29  Teaching Grammar There are actually two widely used approaches in teaching grammar namely deductive and inductive approaches; a. Deductive approach The teacher explains the target structure then moves on to practice. As Harmer said, it is ‘explain-practice procedure’. It follows the consequence of ESA (engage, study, activate) or what is known among us as PPP. This approach is a teacher-centred and it is more effective to apply when teaching beginners who are new to the language targeted.  The Ss are passive recipient whereas the teacher elicits the rules on the board. b. Inductive approach Ss are given for example a text and are required to work out the structure or the rule. It is ‘practice-explain procedure’. It follows the consequence of EAS (engage, activate, study). It is a learner-centred and more effective with learners who have already seen the language.  Learners are active as they are responsible for exploring the rules themselves with just the help of the teacher. VIII. Assessment & Evaluation a) The definition of Assessment It is the process whereby teachers gather information about students’ performance or ability. On the basis of this information, teachers may decide to adjust their teaching methods and students may consider rectifying their learning strategies. For example, a teacher administers an exam to an average class and notices after correcting their tests that most of the students scored bad marks. This evidence will incite the teacher to reconsider his/her teaching methods and perhaps improve/change them so as to meet the needs and requirements of the students. b) Types of Assessment  Summative Assessment: is often a formal type of assessment that is aimed at making judgments about the performance or ability of students by assigning grades to them. Summative assessment occurs periodically; either at the end of year, semester, or two or more units. Representatives of summative assessment can be quizzes, exams, tests, and end-term papers. The focus of summative assessment is directed towards the final product rather than the process. The saying below summarizes the features of this type of assessment: ‘It is assessment “of” learning and teaching’.  It also called Evaluation, summative, final to gauge quality, product-oriented: “what’s been learned”, judgmental, arrive at an overall grade/ score.  Formative Assessment: while summative assessment focuses on the final product formative assessment stresses the process. In formative assessment, the teacher does not allot grades every time he asks them to practice a structure or answer comprehension questions. Unlike summative assessment, formative assessment does not take place

Didactic of English Language Teaching PDF 2021/2022

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