TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language Presentation PDF

Didaktik or ‚Didactics‘? Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2005) 1.speech or writing that is didactic is intended to teach people a moral lesson: His novel has a didactic tone. 2.someone who is didactic is too eager to teach people things or give instructions PONS Großwörterbuch (200...

Didaktik or ‚Didactics‘? Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2005) 1.speech or writing that is didactic is intended to teach people a moral lesson: His novel has a didactic tone. 2.someone who is didactic is too eager to teach people things or give instructions PONS Großwörterbuch (2002) Didaktik ‘teaching methology, didactics’ Wörterbuch Hochschule: Forschung-Lehre-Managment (2015) “English language teaching and learning, English language education” Merriam-Webster (online) borrowed from New Latin didacticus, borrowed from Greek didaktikós "apt at teaching,“ "become knowledgeable or skillful" ©©2023 2023Universität UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen,Küchler Küchler || 1 What is TEFL all about? Jank, Werner, and “Fachdidaktiken sind Spezialwissenschaften, die Hilbert Meyer. 1991. Didaktische Modelle. theoretisch umfassend und praktisch folgenreich die Berlin: Cornelsen Voraussetzungen, Möglichkeiten, Folgen und Grenzen des Verlag. 31. Lernens und Lehrens in einem schulischen oder außerschulischen Lernumfeld erforschen und strukturieren.” © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 2 What is TEFL all about? "[Language teaching] is a highly complex process involving an intricate interplay between the learning process itself, the teacher’s intentions and actions, the individual personalities of the learners, their culture and background, the learning environment and a host of other variables. The successful educator must be one who understands the complexities of the teaching-learning process and can draw upon this knowledge to act in ways which empower learners both within and beyond the classroom situation” (Williams/ Burden 1997, 5; qtd. in Haß 2006, 10) © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 3 A Complex Array of Factors Edmondson, Willis J., and Juliane House, eds. 2006. Einführung in die Sprachlehrforschung. Tübingen, Basel: A. Francke Verlag. 25. © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 4 Related Disciplines Literary Studies Pedagogy & Education Cultural Studies Teaching English as a Foreign Language Ű ℬ Ω ç ℨğ ℌ Linguistics Psychology Neuropsychology © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 5 Mnemonic Device The field of TEFL is concerned with the questions: 1. Who is learning 2. what, 3. from whom, 4. when, 5. with whom, 6. where, 7. how, 8. with which means cf. Jank, Werner, and Hilbert Meyer. 1991. and Didaktische Modelle. Berlin: Cornelsen Verlag, 16. 9. for what purpose. © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 6 What Is a Role? “1 the function or position that sb has or is expected to have in an organization, in society or in a relationship […] 2 an actor’s part in a play, film/movie etc. […] Oxford Advanced 3 the degree to which sb/sth is involved in a situation or an activity and the Learner's Dictionary of effect they have on it […]” Current Englisch. 2005. ed.by S. Wehmeier. Oxford UP. Print. 1317. © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 7 Beliefs Assumptions Knowledge Devon Woods as qtd. in: Ralf Weskamp. 2001. Fachdidaktik: Grundlagen & „[…] the BAK was part of the perceiving and thinking about the events, and Konzepte. Anglistik/Amerikanistik. Berlin: Cornelsen. Print. 45. part of the structuring and organizing of the decisions. When a decision was considered, it was considered in the context of BAK, and when it was remembered later it was also remembered in the context of BAK.“ © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 8 Teacher as Reflective Practitioner Grimm, Meyer, Volkmann 2015, 20. © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 9 What Reflective Practitioners Bring to the Classroom multiple perspectives understanding educational & disciplinary issues within different contexts (global, national, regional, ethnic, philosophical …) experiential learning reflect upon own experience integrate experience with conceptual & theoretical knowledge Grimm, Meyer, Volkmann construction of knowledge 2015, 20. record, reflect upon & diagnose own professional growth (performance, Studien- /Prüfungsleistungen, Portfolio) critical inquiry reflect upon impact of own teaching with regards to conceptual knowledge, school conditions and learners’ needs © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 10 Ausbildungsstandards Lehrerinnen und Lehrer sind Fachleute für das Lehren und Lernen. sind sich bewusst, dass die Erziehungsaufgabe in der Schule eng mit dem Unterricht und dem Schulleben verknüpft ist. üben ihre Beurteilungs- & Beratungsaufgabe im Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK). Unterricht und bei der Vergabe von Berechtigungen für 2008. Kompetenzen und Standards Ausbildungs- und Berufswege kompetent, gerecht und für die Lehrerbildung. 3. verantwortungsbewusst aus. entwickelnihre Kompetenzen ständig weiter und nutzen wie in anderen Berufen auch Fort- und Weiterbildungsangebote, um die neuen Entwicklungen und wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnisse in ihrer beruflichen Tätigkeit zu berücksichtigen. beteiligen sich an der Schulentwicklung, an der Gestaltung einer lernförderlichen Schulkultur und eines motivierenden Schulklimas. © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 11 Pedagogical Content A sound grounding in relevant pedagogical content knowledge –– here: knowledge about language teaching and learning –– should prepare teachers to be able to do things such as the following: Understand learners’ needs Diagnose learners’ learning problems Evaluate students’ learning progress Jack C. Richards (2010): “Competence and Performance Design and adapt tests in Language Teaching” in: RELC Journal: A Journal of Plan suitable instructional goals for lessons Language Teaching and Research, Select and design learning tasks 106f. Evaluate, choose, adapt published (& commercial) materials Make use of authentic materials Make appropriate use of technology Evaluate their own lessons © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 12 (specific concepts) Being a Language Teacher monolingual- teacher ism talking time vs. … ‚aufgeklärte teacher Einsprachig- waiting time keit’ register scaffold- ing teacherese … language classroom proficien- language cy © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 13 Expert Teacher wide repertoire of routines/strategies depart from established procedures, use their own solutions/ improvisations automate the routines associated with managing the class (leaves time to focus on content) more carefully developed schemata of teaching on which to base their practical classroom decisions pay more attention to language issues than novice teachers (who worry more about Jack C. Richards (2010): “Competence and Performance classroom management) in Language Teaching” in: RELC Journal: A Journal of Language anticipate problems, have procedures available to deal with them Teaching and Research, 106f. carry out needed phases more efficiently, spending less time on them relate things that happen to the bigger picture, seeing them not in the context of a particular lesson distinguish between significant and unimportant issues that arise © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 14 Balanced Teaching teacher-fronted classroom open classroom © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 15 Balanced Teaching teacher-fronted classroom “open” classroom +if well planned, more efficient and +very communicative more beneficial for underperforming students (shows structure, more transparency) +learner–centred, learner autonomy (cf. John Hattie) +takes individual processes, need into account - teacher is very dominant - idle time - neglects individual needs - students use mother tongue - high amount of teacher talk - lack of evaluation, discipline - producer of pulp © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler | | 16 What is (Teaching) Methodology? ‣ How are language/literature/culture/media best learned & taught? ‣ How can teachers organize their teaching? ‣ How can language learning in the classroom be facilitated? loan word from Greek “μέθοδος/méthodos” - a planned way of doing something - systematic series of principles & procedures, teaching techniques or individual steps towards achieving a goal What is a ‘role’? - diversity of teaching methods/approaches/techniques result from different views on individual criteria: language language learning/acquisition goals/objectives of teaching English roles of teachers, learners, classroom, learning materials techniques and procedures © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler || 17 Theory & Practice Interface historically constructed ‘post eventu’ based on teaching practice & experience links theoretical findings & practical experience (cf. also Action Research/Handlungsforschung): theories of language learning theories theories of second language acquisition … What is a ‘role’? cf. J. C. Richard, T. S. Rodgers (2001): Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler || 18  Approach Method Technique “set of correlative "an overall plan for the "A technique is assumptions dealing with orderly presentation of implementational - that the nature of language language material [...] a which actually takes and language learning. method is procedural." place in a classroom. It is An approach is a particular trick, axiomatic. It describes strategem, or contrivance the nature of the subject used to accomplish an matter to be taught...." immediate objective." What is a ‘role’? --Anthony, Edward M. 1963. Approach, Method, and Technique. English Language Teaching 17:63-67. - teaching principles; framework - specific, theoretically well- - classroom procedures - theories of language (structural, founded instructional design - resources (time, space, functional or interactional model - detailed specifications of content, equipment) of language) roles of teachers and learners, - actual moment-to-moment - theories of (language) learning and teaching procedures and activities + behaviors (conditions, psychological techniques processes) --Richards/Rodgers 2001, 18-35 © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler || 19 Analytic Grid (Method & Approach) historical period (cf. time bar): events, societal context, academic disciplines goal: What’s the focus of FL learning? Why learn modern languages? What do learners need to know? language & culture: Which role do language and culture play? What’s the relationship between the two? mother tongue: What’s the take on using the mother tongue in the classroom? What is a ‘role’? teacher & learners: Which roles do they adopt? characteristics: How does learning ‘work’ according to this method/approach? What is the learning pattern (or underlying learning theory)? techniques/procedures: Which techniques/procedures can be used to implement the method or approach in the classroom? © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler || 20 Grammar-Translation Method goal: learning about language (rules, lexis … structures) language & culture: focus on written language culture comprises classical literature & fine arts mother tongue: L1 = medium of instruction teacher & learners: teacher is authority characteristics: What is a ‘role’? interaction instigated from teacher to students deductive grammar learning grammatical paradigms memorizing techniques/procedures: translation of texts reading comprehension & composition memorizing vocabulary & sentences deductively applying rules working with questions, antonyms, synonyms, fill-in-the-blanks © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler || 21 Direct Method goal: communication speaking + thinking in target language language & culture: focus on spoken language, pronunciation mother tongue: monolingual L2 use, no L1 explanation teacher & learners: teacher gives directions characteristics: What is a ‘role’? learners also converse with each other inductive grammar learning connecting language to topics, situations of use, cultural context using visualizations/visual aids techniques/procedures: reading aloud question & answer exercises fostering self-correction conversation practice dictation, paragraph writing, fill-in-the-blanks © 2024 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Tübingen,Küchler Küchler || 22 Audio-Lingual Method goal: forming new linguistic habits, enable L2 communication language & culture: focus on everyday spoken language inductive learning: no explicit grammar rules mother tongue: exclusion of L1 teacher & learners: What direction teacher: ‚conductor of orchestra‘, is a ‘role’?followed by students characteristics: order of language learning: listening, speaking, reading, writing systematic progression in grammar instruction verbal behavior techniques/procedures: language lab, drills (expansion, repetition, chain, single-slot substitution, transformation, question-and-answer), memorizing dialogue & completing a dialogue + using minimal pairs, grammar games, pattern: practice – imitation – overlearning © 2023 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Küchler Tübingen, Küchler| | 23 Communicative Approach goal: communicating adequately & appropriately according to context & situation (communicative competence) language & culture: focus on language as means of communication meaning/fluency before accuracy everyday life in target culture mother tongue: target L used for communicative purposes & also explanation of activities today: 'Aufgeklärte Einsprachigkeit' teacher & learners: What is a ‘role’? teacher is advisor, promotes communication learners: negotiate meaning characteristics: developing strategies for understanding/communicating using authentic materials (motivation) techniques/procedures: authentic materials scrambled sentences, language games, pictures & cartoons, role-play receptive, reproductive, productive & creative exercises © 2023 Universität © 2023 Tübingen, Universität Küchler Tübingen, Küchler| | 24 Total Physical Response goal: enjoying learning process don’t expect perfection use nativist insights in L learning language & culture: emphasis on spoken language, certain grammatical structures, lexis, imperatives/commands mother tongue: only initially mother tongue is used What is a ‘role’? meaning clarified via body language teacher & learners: teacher: instructor, commands, directs behavior characteristics: order of language learning: listening, speaking, reading, writing. understanding by doing, imitation techniques/procedures: using commands to direct behavior role reversal action sequence © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 25 De-Suggestopedia goal: everyday communication ‘desuggesting’ psychological barriers in order to tap into students’ mental powers language & culture: emphasis on interplay between language & nonverbal behavior culture of everyday life mother tongue: used to clarify meaning, progressive reduction of L1 use teacher & learners: What is a ‘role’? teacher: authority, respected & trustworthy intensive interaction of students characteristics: students shall feel comfortable in classroom: easy chairs, soft lighting, music, relaxing atmosphere receptive phase & activation phase techniques/procedures: positive suggestion (direct & indirect) chose a new identity, classroom set-up, peripheral learning first & second concert, primary & secondary activation, visualization, role-play © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 26 The Postmethod Concept (Kumaravadivelu) 'principled exclecticism' critique of historical methods considering empirical, evidence-based Kumaravadivelu, B. 2003. Beyond principles Methods: Macrostrategies for Language Teaching. New focus on students' Haven, London: Yale UP. needs + effective ways of learning/teaching flexibility regarding learning, context + content © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 27 Teaching Methodology EFL-Teaching Methodology in Context © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 28 Teaching Methodology Teacher & Learner Roles Richards, Jack C., und Theodore S. Rodgers. 2001. Approaches and methods in language teaching. 2nd ed, Cambridge language teaching library. New York: Cambridge University Press. © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 29 Teaching Methodology Historical Points of Discussion knowledge about language skills language language dimension culture dimension using mother tongue banning mother tongue English for all English for elites accuracy fluency © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 30 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) exercise task “The objective of a task may be to reach some consensus on an issue, to solve a problem, to draft a plan, to design “practicing preselected Thornbury, Scott. 2006. something, or to An A – Z of ELT: A item of Dictionary of Terms and persuade someone to Concepts Used in English language […] for Language Teaching. do something. […] in Oxford: Macmillan. it’s own sake” 222f. the performance of the task, learners are expected to make use of their own language resources.” © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 31 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) FOCUS: communicative tasks (close to Communicative Approach) authentic & natural language learning learner-driven interaction comprehensive, holistic tasks rather than practice of specific forms meaningful & appropriate interaction solving problem in communicative practice cf. real-world, learner-driven interaction Grimm/Meyer/Volkm ann 2015, 68ff. process- & product-oriented performance learner as social agent © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 32 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) cf. Grimm/Meyer/Volkman n 2015, 68ff. © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 33 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) error mistake “incomplete “caused by lack of knowledge […] attention, fatigue, Richards, Jack, Richard Schmidt, faulty or carelessness, or some Heidi Platt, und Markus Schmidt. 2002. Dictionary of incomplete other aspect of Language Teaching and Applied learning.” performance” Linguistics. Paperback Harlow: Pearson Education. 184. © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 34 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) focus on meaning risks fossilization of errors proactive focus on form anticipating learners’ errors, providing input that creates awareness of problems before output reactive focus on form after output cf. Grimm/Meyer/Volkman n 2015, 68ff. intermittent, retrospective Assessment measured in relation to subject content multidimensional (reliability, validity) complement by discrete-item tests © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 35 CLIL Content & Language Integrated Learning communication & culture content & cognition basic interpersonal cognitive academic language communicative skills (BICS) proficiency (CALP) (describe, explain, reason, evaluate) (academic concepts & discourses) school subject in the foreign language (bilingualer Sachfachunterricht) language awareness, language & thought divergent linguistic & cultural categorizations cf. Grimm/Meyer/Volkman n 2015, 75ff. conceptual mappings (content—cognition—communication—culture) continous teaching of subjects alternating topics in foreign language in mother tongue & foreign (bilingualer Zug) language (bilinguale Module) © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 36 Intercultural Communicative Competence skills - interpret + relate texts - compare + contrast - develop new perspective (savoir comprendre) knowledge awareness attitudes - of self + others - of individual + society What is a ‘role’? - political education - critical cultural awareness - relativising/decentering self - valuing others - of interaction - curiosity, openness - creative, imaginative approach (savoirs) (savoir s'engager) (savoir être) skills - discover and/or interact (savoir apprendre + faire) cf. Byram 1991, Müller-Hartmann/Schocker-von Ditfurth 2004 © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 37 English as lingua franca: CHANCES enormous spread - 75 countries use English as native L, second L or official L (GB, USA, IR, AUS, NZ, former colonies with many different L in Asia, Africa, Central America) - estimate of 330-380 million native speakers of EN - learned as a foreign or second L in almost all countries with growing potential: estimate of 100 million to 1 billion learners - lingua franca (secondary means of communication by non-native speakers): politics & diplomacy, economy, int’l relations, science & technology, internet, youth culture... What is a ‘role’? best-analyzed L in the world cf. Byram 1991, Müller- Hartmann/Schocker-von Ditfurth 2004 part of school curriculum in most parts of the world: - historical reason: British Empire, USA - political/economic superpower - pragmatic reasons: multinational institutions/organizations, companies - English as official language, scientific publications, tourism, entertainment © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 38 English at Schools. The German Situation Hamburg was the first federal state to make English a compulsory subject (in 1964) after German re-unification in 1990, English has become the first foreign language also in East-Germany What is a ‘role’? with the beginning of the new millennium, English has been introduced as compulsory subject in primary schools (many Bundesländer) English is still the most dominant foreign language to be taught at German schools © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 39 The Diversification of English Crystal, David. 1997, 2003. English as a Global Language. Cambridge, Mass. : Cambridge UP. Kachru, B., ed. 1982. The Other Tongue -- English Across Cultures. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press. © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 40 English as lingua franca: CHALLENGES English language teaching considers: knowledge & behavior (culture) English as lingua franca which characterizes (not confined to a speakers’ community one well-defined community) INTRAnational INTERnational norms What is a ‘role’? communication cultural properties dynamics of language cf. Byram 1991, Müller- Hartmann/Schocker-von (geographic + (intercultural speakers, Ditfurth 2004 social variation) global exchange) English teaching responds to: ideological significance sociopolitical significance © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 41 English as lingua franca: Points of Discussion (linguistic) (linguistic) imperialism diversity monolingualism plurilingualism Standard English What is aWorld ‘role’? Englishes Received Pronunciation varieties General American British / US-American all/no cultures cultures © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 42 English Varieties in the Curriculum general curricular goals: 1) communicative competence ‣ receptive skills (pronunciation, lexis, pragmatics) ‣ negotiate meaning Bieswanger, Markus. 2012. ‣ navigate through misunderstandings Varieties of English in the Curriculum. In: Codification, Cannons, and ‣ avoid breakdown of communication Curricula: Description and Prescription in Language and Literature, hg. von A. Schröder, U. Busse und R. Schneider. Bielefeld: Aisthesis Verlag, 359-371. Print. 2) awareness of variation ‣ know about geographic + social variation ‣ tools to cope with variation ‣ cultural awareness © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 43  Bieswanger, Markus. 2012. Varieties of English in the Curriculum. English Varieties in the Curriculum In: Codification, Cannons, and Curricula: Description and Prescription in Language and Literature, hg. von A. Schröder, U. Busse und R. Schneider. Bielefeld: Aisthesis Verlag, 359-371. Print. BY/ Lehrplan Gymnasium 1990s 2004/2007 2020s dominant models: UK + USA prototypical models: UK + USA ? varieties/intralinguistic variation: no occasional mentioning of specific mentioning varieties, ? esp. receptive/ listening comprehension KM-BW, Ministerium für Kultus, Jugend und Sport Baden-Württemberg. „Bildungsplan 2016, Allgemeinbildenden Schulen, Gymnasium: Englisch als erste Fremdsprache“, Oktober 2016. http://www.bildungsplaene- bw.de/site/bildungsplan/get/documents/ls bw/export-pdf/depot- Example BW/ Bildungsplan GY 2016 pdf/ALLG/BP2016BW_ALLG_GYM_E1.p df. “Wichtigste Bezugsländer im Englischunterricht sind Großbritannien und die USA, wobei auch die Auseinandersetzung mit anderen englisch-sprachigen Nationen bedeutsam ist. Die Schülerinnen und Schüler erwerben Kenntnisse über verschiedene Länder der anglophonen Welt und erkennen, dass diese zwar durch die Sprache verbunden, aber in ihrer kulturellen Ausprägung unterschiedlich sind.” (8) © 2023 Universität Tübingen, Küchler | 44  How is L2 learned? Instruction vs. Construction of Knowledge teacher: focus on process of learning & thinking: defines goals learner’s construction of meaning + interaction selects material w/ the world structures lesson interdependency of prior knowledge (mental offers content students represenation) + external offers: learn as defined by finding, prioritizing, re-arranging/re- teacher structuring information finding patterns, principles, rules developing own solution to problem/task (researching, processing, actively applying/transferring knowledge) task-based + cooperative learning rich learning environments support, guidance, scaffolding © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 45 Hypothesis vs. Theory cf. Richards, Jack, "speculation concerning either "a statement of a general Richard Schmidt, Heidi Platt, and observed or expected principle or set of Markus Schmidt. Dictionary of Language relationships among propositions, based upon Teaching and Applied phenomena" reasoned argument and Linguistics. Paperback Harlow: supported by evidence, Pearson Education, 2002 that is intended to explain a particular fact, event, or phenomenon." © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 46 Hypotheses of L2 Learning Question is: L1 = L2 or L1 ≠ L2 ? Observer-Listener-Hypothesis (Allwright 1984) Output-Hypothesis (Seliger 1977, Swain 1985) Negotiation-of-Meaning-Hypothesis (Long 1985) Subject-Control-Hypothesis (Ellis 1984) … Interlanguage Hypothesis (Selinker 1972) Monitor Model (Krashen 1982) (cf. also Natural Approach or Second Language Acquisition Theory) © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 47 Interlanguage Hypothesis (Larry Selinker 1972) starting point: IL1 IL2 IL3 IL4 IL5... target: L1 competence L2 competence ‣ L2 learning characterized by idiosyncratic interim languages (developmental stages): experience with L2 ‣ dependent on overgeneralized L2 features & retained L1 characteristics positive & negative transfer (interference) problem: fossilization ‣ important: providing facilitating conditions (feedback, motivation, instruction, aptitude) © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 48 Stephen Krashen (1982): The Monitor Model Five Hypotheses: 1. Acquisition vs. Learning Hypothesis You can personalize those hypotheses by 2. Natural Sequence Hypothesis thinking of an example or personal experiences with language learning. How does it illustrate that 3. Monitor Hypothesis hypothesis? Does ist support or even contradict that hypothesis. 4. Input Hypothesis 5. Affective Filter Hypothesis © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 49 Stephen Krashen (1982): 1. Acquisition vs. Learning Acquisition Learning untutored/natural tutored, instructed, guided implicit, intuitive explicit subconscious conscious little or no monitoring high degree of monitoring monitoring receptive & productive language processes may improve language skills in the long run (especially regarding structural accuracy) © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 50 Stephen Krashen (1982): 2. Natural Order Hypothesis acquisition of grammatical structures follows gradual, predictable + systematic sequence teaching order ≠ natural order aspects: description of L structures fixed sequences level of fixed order of acquisition analysis of personal characteristics Sequences occur in all grammatical fields 1. Level (subject - verb - object, general order) You are student? 2. Level (no change in word order by adding words) Why you not eat? 3. Level (change in word order) You can take your coat off. 4. Level (identification of grammatical categories & their correction) She eats too much. 5. Level (identification & correction of embedded structures) He has never met her. © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 51 Stephen Krashen (1982): 3. Input Hypothesis quality of attention: comprehensible input (i+1) - support of context or extralingual information allow learning/ understanding of what is minimally beyond current competence - if communication is successful, if input comprehensible & provided in sufficient amount -- i+1 automatically provided ability to acquire language develops without need for direct tutoring: - only comprehensible input is triggering L acquisition - the how and the what of acquisition is not influenced by tutoring, i.e. L teaching has only limited role in L acquisition © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 52 Stephen Krashen (1982): 4. Monitor Hypothesis language learning has only one function: monitor (i.e. previously acquired knowledge) very limited role of internalization for L learning conditions to activate monitor: There has to be time. There has to be concentration on linguistic form rather than content. The linguistic rule has to be known. Learned information functions ONLY as monitor during L production: Learned information cannot be regarded as acquired. Grammatical rules cannot be internalized. © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 53 Stephen Krashen (1982): 5. Affective Filter Hypothesis affective filters can (only) have negative effect on L learning affective filter may answer questions regarding the differences in learning outcomes learners have different fears, motivations & do not use input in the same manner filter assumed between input & LAD: the stronger the filter, the smaller the intake © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 54 Stephen Krashen (1982): 5. Affective Filter Hypothesis learned affective filter system (monitor) acquired output input LAD system (production) Focus: on learner‘s creative construction of language attention on internal processes © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 55 Stephen Krashen (1982): The Monitor Model: Critique main points of critique: hardly any empirical data to support Krashen - What exactly is the difference between acquisition and learning? - What about positive emotions or affective filters? Why are they not considered? - What exactly is i+1? How to 'measure' it? - The learner is mostly considered as receptive (passive role only). - Learning considered individual action vs. social interaction. © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 56 Stephen Krashen (1982): The Monitor Model: Impact broad impact of Krashen’s hypotheses: - 're-adjust' role of grammar teaching - parallels between L1 & L2 acquisition - early onset of L2 learning in school curriculum - importance & power of reading (Krashen 1993) - questioning immersion classrooms © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 57 Stephen Krashen (1982): The Monitor Model: Implications for Teaching 1. Expose learners to greatest possible contact with natural communication. 2. Begin class with period of silence. Develop strategies for relaxation. 3. Use concrete objects (dt. ) to make new expressions comprehensible. 4. Consider certain amount of time for formal grammar teaching. 5. Find out how to motivate learners. 6. Create atmosphere where mistakes don‘t make learners feel insecure. 7. Work with dialogue to create socially useful routines. 8. Certain structures are learned earlier than others. Don‘t expect learners to learn ‚later‘ structures first. 9. Don‘t refer to L1 of learners when teaching L2. © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 58 L1 vs. L2 Development L1 L2 INITIAL STATE innate capacity (innate capacity?) L1 knowledge, world knowledge, interaction skills INTERMEDIATE STATES child grammar learner language/interlanguage Saville-Troike, Muriel. basic processes 20016. Introducing Second Language transfer Acquisition. New York: maturation Cambridge University re-constructing meaning Press. 17. necessary conditions input input reciprocal interaction facilitating conditions feedback, aptitude, motivation, instruction... FINAL STATE native competence bilingual/multilingual competence © 2023 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 59 Differentiating Languages language natural artificial language language Saville-Troike, Muriel. 20016. Introducing L1 L2 Second Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge University lingua franca Press. 2-6. target L library L primary ESL/EFL second foreign EAP language ESP language language (mother TESOL tongue) ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 60  How is L1 acquired? Behaviorism (first half of the 20th century) objective: find regular relationship between (learning) environment & behavior psychological research at the time restricted to experimental methods focus on physiology & stimuli as means of John Watson (1878-1958) producing conditioned responses ‘black box argument’: black environment box behavior ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 61 Behaviorism Benjamin F. Skinner (1904-1990) Verbal Behavior (1957) "verbal conditioning" operant conditioning/learning: behavior modefied due to consequences pattern-drill: find stimulus-response-sequences to reinforce learning Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement (SRR) Law of Frequency (practice) Law of Effect (reinforcement) Law of Shaping (simplify complex behavior: small steps) ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 62 Summary: Behaviorist Language Acquisition How is L1 acquired? SRR sequence (selective pattern practice): parents/caretakers provide patterns keywords & concepts: nurture (black-box-argument) imitation & habit formation contributors/representatives (Ivan Pawlow) John Watson B.F. Skinner ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 63 Example One: Logical Problem of L Learning a.k.a. Poverty-of-Stimulus-Argument „If general-purpose intelligence were sufficient to extract the principles of mental grammar, linguists (or psychologists or computer scientists), at least some of whom have more than adequate general intelligence, would have discovered the principles long ago. The fact that we are all still searching and arguing, while every normal child manages to extract the principles unaided, suggests that the normal child is using something other than general-purpose intelligence.“ (Jackendoff 1997 in Saville-Troike 2006, 22) ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 64 Example Two: Critical Period Hypothesis Eric Heinz Lenneberg (1921-1975): "Biological Foundations of Language Acquisition" (1967) L acquisition is linked to maturation after “cut-off“ age (around 12/13 years) L learning slows down ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 65 Summary: Cognitivist L Acquisition: Innatism/Nativism How is L1 acquired? LAD – language acquisition device ('Universal Grammar'/'Principles + Parameters’) keywords/concepts: logical problem & poverty of stimulus critical/sensitive period nature (biological endowment) contributors/representatives: Noam Chomsky Eric H. Lenneberg ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 66 Cognitivism (second half the 20th century) Jean Piaget (1897-1980) ‘Stages of Cognitive Development’ (1975) knowledge/not just picked up but constructed by individual: constructed, tested, discarded/modified & reconstructed thought develops through equilibrium of: schema: mental representation/organization assimilation: fitting new information into existing schemes accommodation: new information not consistent with existing schemes causes change/reconstruction of scheme ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 67 Cognitivism Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) ‘Thought and Language’ (1962) social interaction major factor in child development (cognitive processes develop in interaction of individual with its environment) language, interaction, & thinking are mutually intertwined language & thought develop at the same time in parallel pattern (cf. pre-linguistic thought: non specific, nonverbal & pre- intellectual thinking: not structured) language & thought fuse (around age four): thought is verbal, language is rational interaction speech vs. inner speech (comment about ongoing events, moves from self-reassurance to control of behavior) ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 68 Cognitivism Lev Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Development: actual development level: functions/activities a child can perform without help potential development: cognitive functions are beyond learners current level – can be achieved only with assistance ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 69 The Cognitive Learning Pattern Information Processing "Learning essentially involves the development of controlled automatic processing of component skills, freeing learners' controlled processing capacity for new information and higher- order skills." (Saville-Troike 2006, 73) Learning: restructuring & reorganizing of mental representations makes structures more coordinated, integrated & efficient faster responses due to: formation organization & regulation of internal representations retrieval output strategies ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 70 Knowledge declarative procedural ‣ descriptive statements on linguistic ‣ ability to produce or to understand facts & rules regularities without resorting to rules ‣ retrievable for application in linguistic performances ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 71 The Cognitive Learning Pattern Information Processing 1. Input - perception of L2 (speech, writings, signs) - available for processing only if noticed by learner: attentional effort (intake) 2. Central Processing 3. Output ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 72 The Cognitive Learning Pattern Information Processing 1. Input 2. Central Processing - ‘learning occurs’ (restructuring of knowledge): mental representations made more coordinated, integrated, efficient - automatization: movement from controlled to automatized processing automatized lower-level skills free capacity for higher-order thought Behavior under attentional control is permeable, yet, automatized behavior is faster, more efficient and difficult to change. - proceduralization: movement from declarative to procedural knowledge acquisition of isolated facts & rules processing relatively slow & under attentional control 3. Output ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 73 The Cognitive Learning Pattern Information Processing 1. Input 2. Central Processing 3. Output production of L2 (speech, writings, signs) increased fluency: (1) automatized rule-based systems (2) memory-based chunks serving as exemplars/templates ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 74 Cognitivist L Acquisition: Interactionism How is L1 acquired? information processing: cognitive understanding builds on interaction (observation, touching, manipulating) keywords/concepts: modified interaction: zone of proximal development L & thought, assimilation & accommodation information processing contributors/representatives Jean Piaget Lev Vygotsky ©© 2024Universität 2023 UniversitätTübingen, Tübingen, Küchler Küchler | | 75 Overview of Learner Variables What Makes a Good L2 Learner? © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 76 Age 1 children 2 adolescents 3 adults REASONS for age difference: neurological & cognitive development socio-psychological factors © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 77 Sex and/or Gender ‣ male/masculine: more dominating + competitive in the classroom? (or is that a cliché?) ‣ female/feminine: more communicative + caring in communication? (or is that a cliché?) UP FOR DISCUSSION: ‣ overlap in learning styles ‣ ‘gendered grading’ ‣ ‘literacy gender gap’ (reading skills) © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 78 Personality ‣ collective variables family peer group ‣ norms, morals, values ‣ habits learning environment ‣ religion culture & society ‣ learning traditions ‣ individual variables dis/abilities & impairments general personality traits risk-taking/risk-avoiding tolerance for ambiguity self-confidence extraversion/introversion... traits specific to learning field prior knowledge (L1, L2, L...) aptitude for L2 learning © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 79 (Language) Aptitude ‣ natural ability; characteristics correlating w/ success in L learning phonetic encoding (oral mimicry ability) identify + distinguish between sounds patterns imitate sounds not heard before learn sounds in connection with written forms inductive L learning & grammar sensitivity infer linguistic rules from exposure to L or functions of words in sentences ability to recognize grammatical rules, functions & patterns mnemonic ability quick processing of associative learning © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 80 Motivation ‣ the driving force in any situation that leads to action ‣ motivation = a combination of the learner's attitude, desires and willingness Richards, J., ‚Schmidt, R. (eds.) (2010) Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics. Harlow: Pearson. 377f. © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 81 Types of Learners’ Motivation Types intrinsic motivation (trigger (enjoy learning process) for learning) extrinsic motivation (external drivers: punishment or reward) integrative motivation (target (be like L1 speaker) of learning) instrumental motivation (concerned with practical outcome) © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 82 Howard Gardner (1983) Multiple Intelligences ‣ set general cognitive abilities, in part a disposition, problem-solving ability ‣ considered as multiple dimensions in all people (a set of different strengths) and in diverse combinations © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 83 Howard Gardner (1983) Multiple Intelligences the ability to use language in special and verbal linguistic creative ways logical mathematical the ability to think rationally, numerically musical rhythmic a good ear for musical patterns bodily kinaesthetic well-coordinated body + movement in space visual spatial the ability to form mental models of the world interpersonal the ability to be able to work with people the ability to understand oneself and apply intrapersonal one’s talent successfully the ability to understand and organize the naturalistic patterns of nature © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 84 Learning Strategies ‣ procedures used in learning or thinking... which serve as a way of reaching a goal ‣ conscious and unconscious processes © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 85 Learning Strategies social & internal effort affective attention time management external work place & learning environment learning with peers using additional resources cognitive organizing elaborating repeating critically evaluating meta-cognitive step-by-step planning of process regulating learning process monitoring learning process © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 86 Learner Autonomy "the principle that learners should be encouraged to assume a maximum amount of responsibility for what they learn and how they lean it. This will be reflected in approaches to needs analysis, content selection, and choice of teaching materials and learning methods." ‣ maximize potential for learning ‣ take responsibility for own learning process Longman Dictionary of ‣ learning awareness: critical reflection + self- Language Teaching and evaluation Applied Linguistics 2002, 297. ‣ active involvement in one's own learning process (goals, activities, evaluation) ‣ learners to become independent and self- reliant users of L2 © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 87 Autonomy in Practice Self-Instructed Learning Cooperative Learning learning and working classrooms are organized so without the instructions of a that students work together in teacher example: co-operative teams interactive computer programmes example: worksheets which allow students to work on peer tutoring, jigsaw, projects, individualized their own (only target/task given) work ‣ students' participation is ‣ target, strategy and time increased (speaking time in the organized & managed by FL classroom) the learner ‣ less threatening for many ‣ learners have a greater students control of their own learning process ‣ less competitive ‣ less teacher domination © 2024 © 2023 Universität Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Küchler | | Küchler 88 Defining Literature: ‘L’ + ‘l’ “[…] the historical development of teaching literary texts is defined by a movement from integrating classical texts, the ‘great’ texts of English literature, such as those by Shakespeare (i.e. Literature with a capital ‘L’ […]), into the Müller-Hartmann, Andreas, und Marita language classroom to an increasingly open approach in Schocker-von Ditfurth. terms of text selection and reading.” (121) 2004. Introduction to English Language Teaching. Berlin: Klett. “This is what McRae in 1991 ‘termed literature with a small ‘l’’, which includes ‘advertisements, jokes, puns, newspaper headlines, examples of verbal play’ […]” (126) © 2023 Universität Tübingen, © 2024 Universität Küchler Tübingen, Küchler | | 89 Defining Culture: ‘C’ + ‘c’ “a concept of ‘c’ulture with a small ‘c’ [...] Texts like soap operas, MTV films, cartoons, and comic influence our learners’ world to a large