Diabetes Mellitus: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment PDF

**General Terms & Definitions** 1. **Diabetes Mellitus** -- A chronic metabolic disorder affecting how the body turns food into energy due to insulin deficiency or resistance. 2. **Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus** -- Autoimmune destruction of β cells in the pancreas, leading to absolute in...

**General Terms & Definitions** 1. **Diabetes Mellitus** -- A chronic metabolic disorder affecting how the body turns food into energy due to insulin deficiency or resistance. 2. **Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus** -- Autoimmune destruction of β cells in the pancreas, leading to absolute insulin deficiency. 3. **Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus** -- Characterized by insulin resistance and β cell dysfunction, leading to reduced glucose uptake and increased glucose production. 4. **Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)** -- Glucose intolerance that develops during pregnancy, increasing the risk for type 2 diabetes later in life. 5. **Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY)** -- A rare form of diabetes caused by a single gene mutation, typically appearing before age 25. 6. **Iatrogenic Diabetes** -- Diabetes induced by medications such as glucocorticoids, antipsychotics, antiretrovirals, and immune inhibitors. 7. **Hyperglycemia** -- High blood glucose levels, typically above 180-200 mg/dL. 8. **Hypoglycemia** -- Low blood glucose levels, usually below 70 mg/dL. 9. **Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)** -- A life-threatening complication of diabetes where the body produces excess ketones due to insulin deficiency. 10. **Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (HHS)** -- A serious complication of diabetes involving severe hyperglycemia (\>600 mg/dL) and dehydration without significant ketone production. 11. **Metabolic Syndrome** -- A cluster of risk factors that increase the risk of heart disease and diabetes, including obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance. **Clinical Manifestations (Signs & Symptoms)** 1. **Classic \"3 Ps\" of Type 1 Diabetes** - **Polyuria** -- Excessive urination - **Polydipsia** -- Excessive thirst - **Polyphagia** -- Excessive hunger 2. **Additional Symptoms of Type 1 Diabetes** - Unexplained weight loss - Fatigue - Gastrointestinal symptoms 3. **Type 2 Diabetes Symptoms** - Fatigue - Blurred vision - Slow-healing wounds - Frequent infections 4. **Hypoglycemia Symptoms** - Pallor, moist skin - Shakiness - Hunger & irritability 5. **Hyperglycemia Symptoms** - Increased thirst - Frequent urination - Fatigue - Fruity-smelling breath (in DKA) **Contributing Factors** 1. **Type 1 Diabetes Risk Factors** - Genetic predisposition - Viral infections - Certain climates - Maternal weight during pregnancy 2. **Type 2 Diabetes Risk Factors** - Obesity - Sedentary lifestyle - Family history - Hypertension - High cholesterol 3. **Gestational Diabetes Risk Factors** - Maternal obesity - Family history of diabetes - Advanced maternal age 4. **Metabolic Syndrome Components** - Abdominal obesity - High triglycerides - Low HDL cholesterol - Hypertension - Insulin resistance **Screening & Diagnostic Tests** 1. **Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C)** -- Measures average blood glucose levels over 120 days. 2. **Fasting Blood Sugar (FBS)** -- Blood glucose level after an 8-hour fast. 3. **Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)** -- Measures blood glucose response after consuming a glucose solution. 4. **C-Peptide Test** -- Measures insulin production. **Nursing Actions** 1. **For Hypoglycemia** - Follow the \"15/15 rule\" -- Give 15g of carbohydrates, wait 15 minutes, then reassess. - If severe, administer **IM or SQ glucagon** or **IV dextrose**. 2. **For Hyperglycemia (DKA & HHS)** - Maintain airway and oxygenation. - Administer **insulin drip** and monitor for **hypokalemia**. - Initiate **isotonic fluid replacement** to correct dehydration. 3. **For Type 1 Diabetes** - Educate about **insulin administration** and blood glucose monitoring. - Teach sick-day management to prevent DKA. 4. **For Type 2 Diabetes** - Encourage **dietary modifications** and increased **physical activity**. - Monitor for complications such as neuropathy, nephropathy, and retinopathy.