Cattle Behavior and Management PDF

BEHAVIOR AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE Cattle are essential as a source of food, work and many by- products of great value. Domestic cattle had reached Egypt before 4.000 years B.C. Cattle are kept for: a) Beef production b) Milk production c) Dual purpose Systems of manag...

BEHAVIOR AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE Cattle are essential as a source of food, work and many by- products of great value. Domestic cattle had reached Egypt before 4.000 years B.C. Cattle are kept for: a) Beef production b) Milk production c) Dual purpose Systems of management: 1. The subsistence or peasant producer: A cow is expected to work and milk during her lifetime. When she is too old for work purposes, she will be sold for slaughter. Feeding will be haphazard and management is poor. 2 2. The specialized dairy farmer: Animals are kept for milk production. The type of management and feeding is improved. The breeding stock is increased. 3 3. The large-scale producers: There are a small number of large-scale private or government-owned dairy farms or organization and military farms. Management, feeding and breeding practices are usually superior on these large farms than the smaller ones because of the superior knowledge and resources of the operators. 4  The type of cattle used can be one of four choices a. The utilization of indigenous cattle those are already well adapted to the environment, with selection of high productivity. 5 b. The importation of highly reproductive, temperate-type cattle with selection for adaptability to a tropical environment. 6 c. Importation of highly productive temperate-type cattle with improvement of management to ameliorate tropical environment. 7 d. The importation of highly productive, temperate-type bulls and or semen for use in upgrading less productive indigenous cattle. 8 Breeding definitions: Puberty: Stage of animal's life in which the secondary sexual characters become remarked for the first time or the estrus cycle begins in the female. Puberty affected by many factors as age, body weight and condition. Sexual maturity: Age at which the animal is capable for reproduction and genital organs undergo a great increase in size and capable for carrying a newly born. Estrous cycle: Interval between two periods of estrus this cycle divided into four periods as follows: Proestrus: Phase of the estrous cycle when the corpus luteum regresses, progesterone concentrations decline, and final maturation of the dominant follicle occurs, and estrogen increases. During this phase, some secondary symptoms of estrus begin to be exhibited. 9  Estrus (Heat): Period of time when the female is receptive to mounting and will stand to be mounted by another animal (standing heat). Metestrus: Phase of the estrus cycle beginning immediately after estrus. Ovulation and early development of the corpus luteum occur during this period. Diestrus: The period within the estrous cycle when the corpus luteum is functional. Anestrus: Absence of estrus cycle. 10 Types of estrous cycle: 1. Continues polyestrous: where the estrus comes at certain age (puberty) and animal continues cycle till ovulation of last egg such as cow and she- buffalo. 2. Seasonal polyestrous: Where the estrus comes at age of puberty and continues to cycle during breeding season and stop till the next breeding season such as mare, ewe, doe, queen and she-camel. 3. Seasonal monoestrus: where the estrus comes one time in each breeding season such as bitch. Ovulation: Process of follicle rupture and release of the egg there are two type of ovulation: a. Spontaneous ovulation: Where ovulation occurs regularly without mating such as in cow, she-buffalo, queen and sow 11 b. Induced ovulation: Where the ovulation occurs with mating such as she- camel and rabbit doe. Follicle: The ovarian structure, which contains the oocyte (egg). As follicles grow, a fluid cavity (antrum) develops. Cells within the wall of the follicle produce oestrogen. Dominant follicle (Graffian follicle): Generally the largest follicle within a wave of developing follicles, which eventually suppresses the continued growth of other follicles. Toward the end of the estrous cycle, the dominant follicle becomes the ovulatory follicle. Corpus luteum: Ovarian structure that develops at the site of ovulation during metestrus and continues to produce progesterone throughout diestrus and during pregnancy. 12  The life of a dairy cow is divided into 3 periods a. Calf hood: This lasts from birth up to about the age of 6 months. 13 b. Adolescence: This period lasts from the 6th month of age till the heifer calves for the first time (2.5-3 years old). c. Mature or producing dairy cow: period starts when milk production occurs and afterwards. 14  DAIRY CATTLE BEHAVIOR 1. INGESTIVE BEHAVIOR: a. Grazing and feeding:  Grazing: As the cattle have no incisors in the upper jaw they rely for food intake on mobility of tongue, which is used to encircle a patch of grass and then to draw it into mouth, where lower teeth used for severing bound grass, then grass is swallowed without much chewing. 15  Feeding: In byre, feed is poured into a trough, from which the animal eats by gathering up the feed with its tongue into the mouth. Since feed in the form of moderately small particles, no biting action is necessary although chewing movements are evident.  New-born do not graze until they are several days old and their first attempts are usually inefficient. But as the periods of suckling are reduced, grazing becomes more regular and calves become highly selective in their grazing intake. 16 b. Rumination:  Def. Rumination is the act of regurgitating, remasticating, and reswallowing of previously ingested feed.  Position: Usually cattle prefer to lie down during rumination although they may stand or walk slowly. 17  Age: Rumination occurs in young calves but only takes up a proportion of daily time comparable to that in adults after about 6-8 month of age.  Time: Rumination takes place in periods each of which may last only 2 minutes or continue up to one hour or more at one lying bout. The peak period for rumination is shortly after nightfall, Rumination times may differ, however, according to diet.  Factors disturb or cause cessation of rumination includes:  During estrus ruminating nearly always falls away, but it does not stop.  Any incident which gives rise to pain, hunger, maternal anxiety or illness affects ruminating activities.  The period's pre and post-parturition are not conducive to rumination and it may decline to a low level. 18 c. Drinking behavior:  Def.: Ingestion of water. Cattle drink by dipping their muzzle into water and sucking fluid into mouth, tongues plays passive role in drinking. Nostrils are never under water. Water intake by mouth is swallowed and passes into rumen. The head need not to be raised. 19  Factors affecting: Drinking behavior is controlled by: Interoceptive receptors "Thirst''. & Extroceptive stimuli "sight of water''.  Frequency: Cattle pastured on grass drink from 1-4 times daily. Grazing cattle usually drink in the late afternoon and evening, they seldom drink at night or in the early morning. Dairy cattle tend to drink after milking. 20 2. BODY CARE BEHAVIOR: a. Methods of grooming: Licking: Cattle lick and thereby clean every part of their bodies that they can reach. 21 Scratching: To groom inaccessible parts they often make use of trees and fence staves as scratching posts. Tail-switching is part of grooming behavior in that it is customarily used to keep off flies and brush their skins. It may also be used to express intensive emotion. 22 b. Function and significance of grooming: Grooming results in removal of harmful contaminants such as feces, urine, mud, and possibly some external parasites and thus greatly reduces the risk of disease. 23 It has been suggested that one animal grooms another to enjoy the salt properties or some other desirable chemical compound of the other skin layers. It could also be the behavior of subordinate creature appearing its superior or even indicate motives not yet appreciated. Milk yield and milking order are correlated with being groomed.  Culling good social groomers may result in decreased milk yield and higher mortality. 24 3. ELIMINATION:  Def.: Elimination includes defecation and urination or emptying the digestive and urinary system from excreta. 25  The frequency and volume of excreta varies with the nature and quantity of food ingested the ambient temperature and the individual animal itself.  Stance: o Defecation stance for both male and female animals is one in which the tail is flexed away from the posterior region, the back arched and the hind legs placed forward and apart. Calves take more care to expel the feces well away from the body. o Urination stance: Bulls can walk while urinating but cows cannot. Urination postures of females are similar to that employed while defecating. 26 4. Resting and sleeping: 1. Standing idle: Cattle rest at standing without rumination but healthy cattle stay in such position for short time. 27 2. Alert Wakefulness recumbency: During the day cattle usually rest in sternal recumbency while ruminating. They may also lie at rest without ruminating, while not actively grazing. 28 3. Drowsiness: Most characteristic of ruminant rest are the extensive periods of drowsiness usually associated with rumination. At this time they usually lie on their sternums. Periods of drowsy state may precede or follow sleep. 29 4. Sleeping: when cattle are body sleeping they usually are lying down with their heads turned back into their flanks, and with their eyes closed. This position lasts for short time. Rumination and sleep are inversely related so that sleep time decreases with alimentary development. Also sleep decreases as the percentage of roughage in the diet increases. Normal behavior pattern of sleep have been used as an indication of stress free husbandry. a. Types: a. Cattle show both the two forms of sleep, viz. brain (Brain sleeping or slow wave sleeping or non rapid eye movement sleeping) and b. Body sleeping (paradoxical sleeping or rapid eye movement sleeping. 30 5. Laterality or lateral recumbency: In the morning either side is favored but after receiving their meal, which often contains a large amount of forage, the majority of cattle (60%) prefer to lie on the left side in order that their loaded rumen would be supported to some extent by the ground. 31 5. SOCIAL BEHAVIOR: Farm livestock associate together in groups. Where, in bovidae family, the most common spontaneous groups are: a. Matriarchal herd: built from the permanent association of an old female over her adult female offspring and their young. 32 b. Bachelor herds: The mature males are often either solitary or in “bachelor herds” joining the females only at the mating season. When the animal is placed in isolation it shows visible signs of stress and its habit patterns become disrupted. Its intake of food and water declines. The different types of social behavior are: 1. Social Hierarchy (Dominance order or bunt order): a. Def.: the relationships amongst all individuals in a given situation. The existence of a solid social hierarchy is important for the welfare of a herd. b. The evolution of the social order depends on age, chest girth, and height at the withers, total weight, strength, or hereditary characteristics. 33 c. Dominance relationships are established in a number of ways which includes: a) Non threat aggression, b) Aggressive threat and c) after aggressive acts or after fights. These aggressive acts include approaching, threatening, physical contact and with-drawl and the most common form are butting. 34  d. Types of social hierarchy are Linear hierarchy usually only exists within quite small herds. Linear-tending hierarchy occurs more frequently; Complex H.' seen in large herds. 2. Leadership: a. Leader-follower Order: in free-range conditions group of dairy cows usually lead with mid-order animals in the social hierarchy, high-ranking animals occur the middle, and subordinates are in the rear. 35  b. During forced movements: while, forced movements as away from danger or disturbance they are led by subordinates. c. Milking Order: In parlor entrance, high producers enter early whereas low producers and older cows enter last. But generally correlation for entrance order and production are small. 3. Communications: a. Visual communication: In cattle there are fewer signals and action including a head threat (lowering and turning of head), which may be followed by head butting, other contacts are head to heat and pushing with shoulder. b. Auditory: Vocal communication important in transmitting information about general safety or danger and in some particular situations as:  The “mm” call is a common call given by a cow to her calf or while waiting to be fed or milked. 36   A “mm (h)” call is given in a slightly more frustrating situation, for example, when a cow is isolated.  A roar of high amplitude given as threatens by bull.  High-intensity “menth” call given by a very hungry calf.  Grunting sounds are heard during copulation. c. Olfactory: Olfactory communication is very important for sexual activity in ruminants. Cattle can distinguish conspecifics by means of urine. The Flehmen response is shown by all males of ruminants in response to a female in estrus. 37 6. INVESTIGATORY BEHAVIOR (EXPLORATION)  All Animals show a strong motivation to explore and investigate their environments. When the environment has become very familiar, exploratory behavior subsides but it repeats when there is an environmental novelty.  The sensory information which the animal perceives as a result of investigative activities prompts the nervous system to produce appropriate process of behavior.  The animal assumes a posture similar to that of submissiveness, but with nostrils lowering and sniffing. It sniffs the object and may lick or even chew the objects if the object is malleable enough.  As the environment, are less curious and exploratory behavior is therefore a character of young animals. 38 7. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR: THE COW 1. Puberty: occurs from 6 to 8 months of age, while, sexual maturity usually at 15 to 18 months for foreign breeds (360 kg) and 20-24 months for native heifers (260 kg body weight). 2. Breeding season: The cow is a no seasonal, continuously cycling breeder, but shows peak fertility from May to July and a low from December to February. This seasonal peak is related to the desirable early spring calving. 3. The Estrous cycle is 18 to 24 days long (mean = 21 days), the estrus period or heat period is 14 hours in cows and somewhat shorter in heifers 12 hours. Onset of estrus occurs more in the evening and ceases in the morning. 4. The gestation or pregnancy period is 9 to 9.5 months (280 day) and slightly longer by 4 days in male calf than female ones. 39 5. Signs of estrus:  Behavioral signs: a. The estrus cow shows a general increase in activity and tail switching. b. Decrease feed intake. c. She will bellow a great deal (Vocal signals). d. Frequent galloping with raising the tail or deviate it to one side. 40 e. She urinates frequently to increase the spread of pheromones. Flehmen will also exhibit to aid reception. f. Homosexual activity: Mounting by other cow will permitted, the very typical behavior in the estrous cow. The estrous cow will attempt to mount other females. 90% of mounted cows and 79% of the mounting cows are in estrus. 41 g. Cows exhibit prolonged ano-vaginal sniffing and licking of the flank area of other cows. h. Marked increase in aggressive behavior. i. She may fail to take her customary place in the milking parlor. 42  j. Bull seeking behavior: where the cow searches grassing beside the bull. k. Standing out to be mounted is the most accurate signs of estrus.  Physical signs: 1. A temporary drop in milk production of estrus the cow. 2. Swelling and reddening of the vulva. 3. Mucous discharges from the vulva in the form of long viscous, clear elastic strands and some cows and most heifers have a bloody mucous discharge one to three days after estrus, but onset of this symptom, called metestrus bleeding. 4. Dirty flanks when cow have mounted by cattle with dirty hooves. 43 Factors control estrus signs: There are two factors in controlling the signs of estrus, which are: a. Internal factors 1. Genetic difference: There are inter-individual and interbreed deference, for example, the brown Swiss breed shows the least marked estrus activity of 44  the dairy breeds, and it has been reported that black-colored cattle may show stronger signs of estrus than red, roan, or white cattle. Moreover, there are a difference in the intense of estrus signs between the beef and dairy cows. 2. Hormone level: The expression of heat is due to the elevated level of estrogen in the blood when progesterone is very low. As the level of estrogen hormone is high the signs of estrus become clear. 45 b. External factors: There is a number of external factors affect the expression of estrus signs or heat such as: 1. The presence of bull was observed to supply with a prompting effect as for example in the form of nudging, is now appreciated to be an important contributor to estrus displays in females. This male influence of estrus behavior is termed Whitten effect or bio stimulation. 2. Adverse weather or sudden changes in the weather, which can suppress the displays of estrus and in buffalo high temperature during summer, result in anestrus period. Moreover, as the daily temperature increased from 23 C to 33 C the mounting activity increased but more than that the mounting activity decreased. 3. Nutritional factor: poor body condition, anemia, hunger, thirsts uterine infection, cystic ovaries and parasitism may cause anestrus. 46 4. Many type of stress such as rough handling, noise, and excess movement will suppress or inhibit estrus and ovulation. 5. Type of housing: Any housing arrangement that allows cattle to interact throughout the day provides more opportunity for mounting and standing behavior to be expressed. 6. Footing surface: Mounting and standing behavior are nearly doubled when cows are on dirt rather than concrete. 7. Feet and leg problem: Cows with sore feet or legs or poor structural conformation exhibit less mounting behavior activity. 8. Cow density: Crowded conditions may increase the incidence of false- positive heat, as the cows in crowded conditions cannot escape from mounting behavior. 9. Number of herd mates in prestrus or estrus: The number of mounts increased when two or more cows were in heat simultaneously. 10. Milk production: The high milk yield reduces estrous intensity. 47 Detection of Estrus: Detection of estrus becomes more and more critical in the dairy industry as artificial insemination becomes more widespread (70% of Holstein- Friesian cows are conceived via A.I.) This detection can be done by: 1. Herdsman: a. The farmer can detect the cows in estrus by observation the behavioral and physical signs. b. Time of observation: The most effective strategy for herdsman is dividing the observation period into three times each one 20 minutes at 06:00 am, 14:00 pm and 22:00 pm. The faults of this system are: 48 c. Faults of herdsman are: i. Missing of 19% of heats because behavioral signs are absent (Silent heat) even though ovulation occurs, some silent heats may have been behaviorally evident, but were not observed by the herdsmen as mounting behavior may not occur in the milking parlor or adjacent areas where the cows are usually observed. ii. 15% are labeled as estrus periods even though ovulation doesn’t occur (False heats) and pregnant cows may also show signs of estrus. This also may be due to incidence of Nymphomania, where the cow shows intense estrus behavior either persistently or at frequent, irregular intervals. The nymphomaniac cows seek other cows and mount them and refuse to be mounted and bellows like a bull. With time she become like bull in voice and body conformation. The incidence of Nymphomania is associated with 49  follicular cysts and sometimes successfully treated with L.H. hormones such as chorionic gonadotrophin or pituitary extract. 2. The bull is the best detector of estrus in the cow. 3. A vasectomized bull or teaser bull with a surgical deviated penis may also be used to detect heat. 50 4. A freemartin heifer and testosterone-treated cows may be used satisfactory. Freemartins are even more likely than the other cows in the herd to mount an estrous cow, and treatment with indictable androgens may heighten this behavior. 5. A commercial detection device or heat mount detector (Kamar pressure- sensitive mount detectors), which consists of a plastic vial containing a red dye, is glued to the dorsal tail base of a cow suspected to be in estrus. As other cows in the herd mount the dye is gradually expressed into the mounting cows. 51 6. Tail head marking: Marking the tail head with chalk, paint or crayon. 52 7. A colored chin ball: Worn by a bull running with cows or heifers or by a vasectomized “teaser” bull or possibly a cow treated with testosterone to exaggerate her natural behavior to cows in estrus. 53 8. Recently trained dogs have been trained to detect estrous cow, an interesting innovation presumably based on canine olfactory acuity. The dogs were 80% to 90% correct in detecting estrous cows. 54 9. Pedometer: It is an apparatus fixed on the hind cannon of the cow and measure the frequency of movement in cows and gives signals when the activity increased during the estrus period. 10. Progesterone concentration in milk: The secretion of progesterone from the corpus luteum is high during diestrus and increases further during pregnancy. The milk progesterone level in non-pregnant cow falls sharply 55  about 19 days from the previous estrus remains low during proestrus period (4 days). 11. Vaginal electrical resistance: The device measures the electrical conductivity of the tissue in the vulva and uterine wall. The lowest decline in electrical conductivity is coincides with standing estrus, ovulation or approaching of parturition. 56 THE BULL Courtship sequence is actually a series of reciprocal interactions between male and female before mating, which varies in degree between age groups and between breed types. This courtship includes: A. During proestrus: 1. Approaching and guarding: The bull will begin to graze beside the cow, guarding her from any other cattle. 57 2. Sniffing and Flehmen: Periodically the bull will smell and lick the cow's vulva (gustatory signals), often followed by the Flehmen response or lip-curl The Flehmen response has little or no visual effect on the female or other males, and it is believed that during this period the bull is testing the stage of estrus of the cow (olfactory signals). 58 3. Nudging: The bull frequently nudges the female's flanks (tactile signals) and either maintains head-to-head contact (Fig. 6), or because of mutual genitalia sniffing and licking stands in a reveres parallel (bigeminal) position with the cow. This position is common to the courtship sequence of all ungulates. The bull may rest his head across the cows back while they stand in a T-position. 4. Mounting attempts: He makes several mounting attempts with a partial erection before the female will stand for him. 59 B. During estrus: 1. Mounting: When the cow is in full estrus, she remains immobile and the bull mounts immediately. He fixes his forelegs just cranial to the pelvis of the female as he straddles her. 2. Ejaculation: occurs within seconds of intromission and is noted by a marked, generalized muscular contraction (Fig 6). The bull's rear legs may be brought off the ground during this spasm. Proper time of service or insemination: Cows normally ovulate about 12 hours after the end of standing heat. The optimal time of service or insemination is toward the end of estrus for example if the signs of estrus appear during morning milking the best time of serving 60 during the evening and if she shows signs of estrus during evening milking the best time of serving is the morning of next day. Sometimes it is preferable two do two serving one toward the end of estrus and another one 12 hr. after the first serving especially if the cow is suspected for delayed ovulation. Synchronization of estrus: Synchronization of estrus means using of some hormones (Luteinizing) or hormone like substance (Prostaglandin) to bring all females of a herd in estrus within a short time. The advantages of synchronization are: 1. Reducing the cost and effort for detection of estrus. 2. The artificial insemination becomes easier. 61 3. The calf crop becomes more uniform. 4. Reducing the breeding and calving season. The disadvantage of synchronization: sometimes there is a lower conception rate. 62 Artificial insemination (A.I.): Artificial insemination has been employed very successfully in the breeding of dairy cattle this because: 1. A mean for prevention of venereal diseases. 2. Permits the use of superior bulls for much numbers of cows within the same herd or other herds. 3. Reduces the cost of using much number of bulls within the farm. 4. Improves the genetic character of the progeny produced in the farm. 63 Diagnosis of pregnancy in cows: The diagnosis of pregnancy in cows is very important for detection of non- pregnant cows and rebreeding of these cows or culling if they had incurable diseases in the genital system. This can be done by: 1. Rectal palpation: By examination of the ovaries, uterus and uterine arteries during early and mid-gestation period. 64 2. Vaginal examination: During pregnancy the secretion of the cervical glands become gelatinous and tough forming a plug for sealing the canal this plug could be seen by the aid of speculum and lamp. 3. By Ultrasound scanning: this carried out by using rectal probe at least after 42 days from service or insemination. 65 4. Laboratory tests: a. Physico-chemical test: This test depends on detection of the -globulin in blood serum. The percentages of the correct diagnosis at various stages of pregnancy are 76% at 10 days; 93% at 90 days; 98% at 120 days and 100% at 180 days of pregnancy. b. Barium chloride test: This test carried out on the urine of pregnant cow by adding 4-5 drops of barium chloride to same volume of cow urine. If the urine becomes turbid it indicates non-pregnant cow, while, in pregnant one the color of urine does not change. c. Oxidation-reduction test: by adding 0.6 ml of sodium benzoate to 3 ml of cow’s urine in a test tube. In case of pregnant cow the urine does not return to normal clearance. d. Detection of progesterone concentration: in milk the presence of high level of progesterone in milk after 24 days from service indicates pregnancy. 66 5. Signs of pregnancy: a. Cessation of estrus. b. The cow tends to become sluggish in temperament and more tractable. c. As pregnancy proceeds the abdomen becomes more and more enlarged. d. During the later stage it drops down and hollows appears in both the flanks. e. The muscles of the quarter appear to fall in and the hunches and the root of tail appear more prominent f. When the root of the tail is left high and both sides sink down, it may be expected that the cow will deliver its calf within 2 or 3 days. g. As parturition approaches glands becomes firm, turgid, enlarged and glossy, teats take a waxy appearance. 67 Management of pregnant cow: 1. Feeding: a. Pregnant heifers or cows must be well fed during pregnancy, increasing the level of nutrition. The feed requirement of the cows during pregnancy depends up on the stage of pregnancy and the milk produced by the cow. b. During the last 2-month of pregnancy the cows should be supplied with extra feed to provide sufficient nutrients necessary for development of the fetus and building up the body of the mother and make reserves for the next lactation. This nourishment in feeding during this period is known as “Steaming up”. The function of steaming up are:  For fetus development.  Build-up the body reserve for coming lactation.  Increase daily milk yield. 68   Lengthens the lactation of cows, which milked for short period.  Slightly increase butter fat percent.  Prevent difficulties of parturition such as retention of the placenta and milk fever. 2. Watering: 1. As milk contain large amount of water so the dairy cow must consume large quantities of water and the amount of water consumed by a cow will depend on her milk production. 2. A large cow will consume as much as 100 pounds of water a day. 3. It is better to have water always before the cattle so that the animal can drink water at will. There are automatic water bowls for this purpose. Some are fitted with perforated plates, which the animal soon learns to press down with its muzzle, thereby causing flow of water into the bowl. 69 3. Milking: The duration of lactation depends upon age, breed and feeding, but in case of first calver usually lasts from 8 to 10 months, while some adult heavy milking cows give up to 10, 11, 12 or more at the peak of production. If abortion takes place in a cow before the fifth month of pregnancy, no extra milk is produced after the abortion. The milk secreting portion of the udder begins to develop after the fifth month, and the later the abortion occurs after this time, the more milk is given by the dam, provided no complication have occurred. Types of milking: a. Hand Milking: This type of milking depends up on the negative pressure produced by the hand of the milker. 70  b. Machine Milking: This type of milking depends up on the negative pressure produced by the milking machine in the teat cups. Rules for good Milking: 1. Clean milking or Care to be taken before milking, which includes: a. For Animal: 1. Clipping of the long hairs from the flank regions, hind quarters and tail. 2. Dry cleaning with a straw or rubbing with brush is good for hindquarter and flank region other wise dirties, from these portions, will contaminate the milk. 71  3. Washing of the udder before milking. 4. Drying of the udder with a damp clean piece of cloth. b. For Milker: 1. The milker should have his nail pared and hand washed clean with soap and rinsed in disinfectant before the process of milking. 2. Removal of any rings in the hands of milker. c. For Milking Troughs: The milk pail should be thoroughly cleaned and washed with boiling water then dried in sun or in hot air. d. For Milking Place: The milking place should be clean and if possible milking is done in a separate milking room.(milking parlor). 2. Gentle: The cow should be stimulated by kind treatment, calling her with pet name, petting her on the back to let down her milk in such a manner that all of the milk obtained at each milking. 72  1. This can be done by sight of the calf and the manipulation of the udder and teats, which stimulates the secretion of oxytocin hormone from the hind part of the pituitary gland. 2. In hand milking take care not to injure the teats by rough handling, by exerting extreme pressure, or by continued stripping after the udder appears to be empty. The signs of bad handling are treat chapping, injury or sores on the teats. 3. Quick: As the milking process depend up on the secretion of oxytocin hormone this operation must be carried out as quickly as possible because the effect of this hormone lasts only for 5 minutes so that the milking process must ended before this time. If hand milking is practiced, use a pail with a partly closed top to aid in keeping the milk clean. Once milking is started, it is considered desirable the milker proceed steady and as quickly as he can. 73 4. Quiet: Avoid unusual things during milking e.g. strange noises. Loud taking, unkind behavior towards the cow, beating the cow etc. will cause the holding up of her milk. 5. Regular: The cow should be milked regularly two or three times a day and in each milking The common practice is to milk two times each day. The time between milking should be divided into periods as nearly equal as possible. 6. Complete: the milking should be complete. If milking is incomplete there is a tendency to dry off the cow. Caring for the milk: In the management of large herds of dairy cattle, a special trained dairyman is usually employed to care for and handle the milk. In this case, two items of care are important. 1. That milk is kept clean. 74 2. That it can be cooled as promptly as possible and there after be kept cool by setting the containers in cold water, or by some other cooling device keeping milk or cream cold are the essential procedures in the proper care of milk. 4. Drying off: The practice of continuing lactation for 365 days without a complete rest before calving is not recommended as it puts too great strain on the cow. For milking cows a dry period from 6 to 8 weeks is important for: 1. Allow milk secreting organs to rest, recover and get ready for the next lactation. 2. Permit the nutrient in the feed to be used in fetus development. 3. Enable the female to replenish in her body the stores of minerals. 4. Permit her to build up a reserve of body flesh before calving. 75  The drying off carried out by: 1. Incomplete Milking: Do not extract all the milk from the udder at milking time for the first few days after the drying-off period has begun. When the production decreases to only a few liters daily, milking is stopped completely. 2. Intermittent Milking: The cow to be dried off will be milked once a day for a while then once in every next day and finally milking will be stopped altogether. 3. Complete Cessation: The complete cessation of milking is recommended safely with cows producing as much as 10 liters of milk per day. The udder fills until pressure increases enough to stop secretion inside the udder. After the cessation of secretion, the milk is gradually re-absorbed from the gland until it becomes completely dry. 76  During the drying off period change the green feed suddenly to a special dry ration high in mineral and vitamins. It should be not too high in protein. If the cow is on green pasture, take her off for 7 days and feed hay. Parturition: After more or less than 285 days gestation period, cows are going to give birth. Two weeks before the expecting date of calving they should isolate from the herd to the clean and disinfected calving shed or maternity. When parturition is imminent the following signs are observed: Signs of approaching parturition are: 1. Relaxation of the sacroshiatic ligament. 2. Slackening of the tissue of the perineum and vulva. 3. Distension of the udder and teats. 77 4. Mucous discharge from the vulva, which begins clear and then, becomes turbid with blood. 5. The normally lower body temperature of the cattle during afternoon below 39 C indicates parturition at even. Care of pregnant cow approaching parturition: 1. Separate (isolate) the pregnant cow in calving pen; the calving pen should be clean, roomy, well ventilated, and bedded and finally disinfected. 78 2. Choose the site of parturition: a. The best site for calving is the small pasture free from woods, wet brush areas and any foreign bodies. b. During period of adverse cold and wet weather, a dry, warm building or shed supplied with heat lamps is necessary. c. The disadvantage of pasture is that the frequently and close observation of animal cannot be followed. 1. Avoid noise and disturbances. 79  2. Handling or manipulation of udder and teat to prepare future let down of milk and suckling and to open the teat orifices before suckling the newly born calves to avoid inflammation of udder (mastitis). Parturient and maternal behavior: 1. Parturient behavior: a. Signs of 1st stage of parturition: 1. Loss of appetite and rumination. 2. Restlessness and preference for isolation. 3. Lying down and getting up again, frequently with short intervals. 4. Kicking at abdomen and locking around to flank. 5. Frequent shifting of her position and passing of small amount of faeces and urine. 6. Regular straining indicated by arching of the back and an elevated tail is observed for 1 to 3 hours before the chorioallantoic membrane rupture. 80 b. Birth stage (expulsive stage): 1. This stage begins with the rupture of chorioallantoic membranes; the cows often licked the fluid and tend to stay near the spot, where the fluid fell. 2. Ninety-five percent of all cows were recumbent at the actual time of delivery where there is a powerful straining at short interval. 3. Approximately 100 minutes elapsed from the rupture of the membranes to the birth of the calf where the amnion appears at the vulva followed by the fore-feet of the calf then the head and trunk. 81  4. With the birth of the anterior part of the calf the cow may rises to a standing position and the remainder of the calf slips from the pelvis by gravity. 5. Parturition is longer in cows that give birth to large calves and in nervous heifers. In fact, labor may cease if nervous heifers are disturbed. c. Post-parturient stage: 82  Once the calf is born, the cow rests for a variable length of time and then gets up and licks the fetal membranes and fluids from the calf. The placenta was eaten by 82% of the cattle. 2. Maternal behavior: Cows groom their calves during the early postpartum period, concentrating on the back and abdomen. The newborn calf shakes its head snuffles, and sneezes. This behavior may begin during parturition as soon as the calf's shoulders are free of the mother's vulva. This grooming or licking is important for: 83 a. Bonding formation: Contact between the cow and her calf as brief as 5 minutes postpartum results in the formation of a strong specific maternal bond. If the contact between the cow and her calf is delayed for 5 hours postpartum, 50% the calves will be rejected. The critical period for formation of the cow-calf bond must be the first few hours postpartum. When the calf is removed after a brief initial contact, the cow vocalises and become restless; but after 24 hours she can no longer distinguish her own calf. b. Licking of fetal fluid by cows is important to stimulate respiration in the neonate. 84  1. Licking stimulates the subcutaneous blood and lymph circulation of the calf. 2. Licking is also important for dryness of the calf and prevention of respiratory diseases. 3. Increase muscular tone and stimulate first standing of the calf after birth. 4. As the calf nurses the cow will lick the perineum stimulating urination and defecation by her calf and so getting red of meconium. Neonatal behavior: a. Co-ordinating recumbency: Some calves will remain motionless for up to 30 minutes after birth with body extension, raising the head and neck then rotates on to its sternum and collects' its hind quarters. b. Elevation: The young calves begin to stand within an hour. 85 c. Ambulation: When the stance has been secured, attempts at walking are quickly initiated. First tentative walking steps occur as the typical four-step form of slow ambulation. Calves and kids are hiders, where they would remain hidden while their dams grassed, while, lambs and foals are followers. d. Udder searching and nursing: 1. Newborn calves begin to suckle within 2 to 5 hours after birth. The neonate’s first movement after standing is generally directed towards the mother and it finds a teat with random searching and nuzzling movement. Mother seems to help the calf find a teat by positioning her body appropriately and licking, nuzzling and nudging the calf. 2. They nuzzle and lick along the cow, especially in high recess like the Axilla and groin, and will mouth any hairless protuberance as they seek the udder. They appear to be confused when the hairless teat like 86  object does not supply milk. They wag their tails while nursing, although not at as high rate as lambs. 3. Once the teat has been located for the first time, the calf will be able to locate much more quickly at subsequent nursing. 4. Newborn calves normally nurse 5-7 times a day. Each nursing bout lasts 8-10 minutes. Usually the number of nursing bouts decreases with age, but beef calves may actually suckle more frequently with age, possibly because the milk supply of the beef cows is small. Beef calves 0-7 months old suckle 3 to 5 times per day. Most suckling takes place during the day. 5. Typically calf stands along side the mother facing caudally but sometimes calf's body will be at right angle to that of mother. The calf suckles from right or left side and occasionally from the rear of cow. 87 Care of cow after parturition: 1. Washing the external genitalia, flank regions, buttocks and around udder with warm water containing mild antiseptics as crystal of potassium permanganate or any antiseptic substances. 2. Parturient cows should be given clean warm water as soon as she stands on legs in large amount to compensate the loss of great amount of fluids in calving and for milk secretion. 3. Cow should be given bran mash with lukewarm water to provide a laxative effect to be easily digested food. Do not give normal feed before 2 days after parturition, but can give mixture of bran mash and linseed. The amount of concentrate should be increased gradually till reaching normal amount after 15 days. 4. Squeezing few streaks of milk from each quarter to remove any bacteria that might be present in the teats of the udder. 88 5. Female must be kept with the calf in the calving pen for few days to increase or enhance the bond between them (cow-calf bond). 6. Breeding of the cow: the postpartum estrus comes during the first month after calving and may extend to 50 days, but the conception rate is only 50%. The greater number of cows comes into estrus and the highest conception rate occurs between 80 and 90 days after calving. Care of calf at calving time: 1. If the cow refuses to lick her calf, calf should be dried by straw or clean cloth. 2. Removal of the fetal membrane covers the nostrils of the calf. 3. The navel cord (Umbilical cord) should be cut with a clean knife at half an inch from the abdomen and should be soaked with dilute solution of iodine. 4. Remove few streaks of milk from each quarter should be squeezed out before putting the calf to them. 89 5. The calf attempts to stand up in a few minutes and it should be helped to do so. 6. Trimming the claws of the calf after birth to remove the gelatinous yellow horny substance that covers the claws by using drawing knife. 7. The calf should always be given the colostrums or first milk of dam. MANAGEMENT DURING CALF-HOOD Calf-hood: It is the stage of life extends from birth to about the age of six months. a. General management 1. HOUSING: 90 1. Many calves die from disease like calf scours and pneumonia. To reduce these losses care must be taken to raise calves with proper precautions. Cows should be calved in a well-cleaned and disinfected loose box. 2. For the first several weeks the calf should be kept in separate calf pen, which should be kept clean and well bedded. The minimum space of the dairy calves is 2 m2 per head with partitions at least 1.15 m high between the calves and may be either solid or rail. 3. Rails allow the calves to see each other easily and facilitate the free circulation of fresh air, while; solid divisions lessen the risk of draughts and the spread of diseases. 4. When calves reach 3 months age, they are best housed in small groups 3 m2 / calf and increase the area to 4 m2 / head at 6 months of age. 91 2. FEEDING: a. Feeding colostrums: The first milk produced by the cow during the first 3 to 5 days after calving. It is most suited food to the needs of the young calf. If the calf is left with its mother it will start to suckle almost as soon as it can stand. With calves removed from their mothers, the first milk or colostrums; must be provided regularly for at least first 3 or 4 days. The particular properties and functions of colostrums may be summarized as follows: 1. Colostrums contain 10 percent more protein and a little more fat than normal milk to suit the needs of calf stomach. 92 2. Colostrums is rather laxative and helps to clear the intestine of the young calf from the accumulated fecal matter called meconium. 3. At birth, calf is subjected to bacterial infection and colostrums is the most supplier of protective antibodies to disease infection. 4. Colostrums is normally rich in the important vitamins A, D and E. Substitutes: 1. Colostrums from the mother. 2. Frozen colostrums: The extra amount of colostrums stored in containers at – 20 C for subsequent use. It should be thawed and warmed to body temperature (38 C) before use. 3. Blood serum of cows. 4. Egg white emulsion. Amount: 93  For most breeds of cattle about 1 Gal. (4.5 liter) of colostrums per day is a normal requirement. It is better to under-feed than the risk of digestive disturbance through over-feeding. b. Feeding milk: Milk is the secretion of the mammary gland after the colostrums secretion (first 3-5 days after calving). There are two methods of raising young calves on milk: 1. The natural method: This method used mostly by farmers where the calf allowed suckling his mother directly. After suckling, the remaining milk should be milked out (stripped). Usually the calf is allowed to nurse only during the milking time. The suckling time and the amount of milk consumed by the young are related to age, breed and size of the calf. Calves with their dam, suckled 8-10 minutes per feeding and 37-57 minutes per day. 94  The portion of the udder allowed for the calf depends on its age as shown in the following table: Age of calf Portion of mother's milk allowed First two weeks All the mother's udder 3 weeks-2 months 1/2 The mother's udder 2 month to weaning 1/4 the mother's udder Weaning: The calf is weaned by holding it from nursing its mother at 3.5 to 4 months age depends on its condition. By this time the calf will have learned 95 to eat and depend on feed entirely. On the farms, weaning generally, takes place when the calf is weighed 80-90 kg or when it is able to consume 2 kg concentrate per day. 2. The artificial method or hand feeding: A. Bucket Feeding: 1. When the calf is about four days old and appears normal and healthy, take it away from the mother and teach it to drink whole milk from the pail. Hold the calf in the corner of the pen then wetting your finger put it in the calf's mouth and gently forces its head into the pail until its nose touching the milk. The calf usually begins sucking finger as soon as it is placed in its mouth and thus begins to suck milk into its mouth as soon as the nose touches the milk. 2. If the calf fails to get the idea at the first trial, you may have to let it go hungry until the milking time. After missing one or two feedings, a calf will 96  work hard to get some milk and in a few days will be drinking without using the finger. 3. The amount of milk given to the calf is divided into two or three portions each day. As for the mother, she will usually let down her milk normally without the calf. B. Nipple feeding: Nipples may be fitted on the pail and the calf allowed sucking this nipple. Nipple may also keep floating on the milk in a pail and the calf taught to suck nipple like the teat of the udder. 97 Advantages of artificial feeding: 1. The actual yield of milk of the cow can be judged accurately. 2. The use of the calf for letting down of milk introduces an uncertain item as the calf may suck more milk or less. 3. The amount of milk, which the calf should receive, can be controlled. 4. When the calf dies, the cow will refuse to give milk, but no such thing may happen in hand feeding. 98 Amount of milk and Frequency of feeding 1. The young calf should be fed singly due to much danger on first few days from over feeding than from under feeding. 2. Amount allowed for the first days 5 or 6 pounds of milk daily, for an average calf, with 7 pounds for a large one. The calf should not be offered more milk than 8% of its body weight. 3. The allowance should be divided into 2 or 3 feedings. It is better to feed the calf three times a day than two times. 4. The milk should be fresh as possible and at a temperature 90F to100F (Body temperature). c. Milk replacer composition: 1. Sweet milk powder (skim-milk based) 2. Acidified milk powders 3. Strong acid powders 99  4. Milk less powders 5. Fermented colostrums 6. Calf starter rations The most important nutrients in dried cow’s milk are the carbohydrate, lactose (360-400 g/kg), fat (300-400 g/kg) and milk protein (280-320 g/kg) made up principally of casein, which clots in the presence of rennin or pepsin and forms the crud, and the whey proteins (albumin and globulin). Skim- milk is the by-product of butter-making and consists of lactose and all the milk proteins. Whey is the by-product of cheese making and consists of lactose and the whey protein only. 1. Sweet milk powder (skim-milk based): Conventional milk replacer is made by adding animal fats to skim-milk. It is similar in composition to whole milk, suited to systems involving bucket- feeding warm milk replacer. 10 0  It contains the nutrients that the calf can digest and in the right proportions. It forms a clot in the abomasum and so provides a slow release of nutrients to the duodenum. It is suitable for once-daily feeding; it is palatable, but liable to sour quite quickly. 2. Acidified milk powders: Two forms: a. The milk acid: Milk powder, similar in composition to the sweet milk replacer, but has organic acids (citric or fumaric acids) added to reduce pH to 5.7, to increase keeping quality of the powder, so it can fed cold once per day. It is palatable, clot in the abomasum as feed. b. Strong acid powders: Has pH 4.2. It is used for calves giving free access to milk replacer dispensed through a teat. It is made by adding whey protein concentrate to conventional whey and fat to bring the protein 10 1  concentration of the powder up to that of conventional milk powders (i.e., 230 g/kg). It is not recommended to feed calves less than two weeks of age on this milk powder, due to lack of casein in it, which not clot in the abomasum and it may give rise to a number of digestive disturbances due to the abomasum emptying too rapidly, and because of the immaturity of the calf’s digestive system. 3. Milkless powders: (Powders containing little or no milk protein); Vegetable proteins like Soya flour, but it is highly antigenic when fed to young calves. These antigens may set up severe food allergies involving widespread damage to the absorptive surface of the epithelium of the small intestine. The interference with the mechanisms of secretion and absorption across the wall of the small intestine causes, a reduction in digestibility of food and diarrhoea. 10 2 4. Gruel: It used as starter ration fed as drink rather than in solid form. It should not be introduced until the third week of calf’s life, and fed up to about 7-12 weeks of age as a partial substitute for the starter ration that an early weaned calf would be consuming at this time. It consists of 240 g/kg protein, mostly of vegetable origin and about 55 g/kg fat. It contain ground oats, fine wheat, maize meal, linseed cake meal, blood meal, dried whey powder, dried skim milk powder and ground linseed (2.5, 2.5, 2.5, 1.5, 1, 2.5, 2, 2 part by weight). 5. Fermented colostrum: 10 3  Allowing souring colostrum and feeding to calves twice daily, it is taken from dairy cows (high producing) through the first 3 days after calving. The sour colostrum remains acceptable for about three weeks. Its keeping qualities may be improved by the addition of antibiotic-contaminated milk from mastitis cows. It can be feed alternately with conventional milk powder, a colostrum feed in the morning when calves are likely to be hungry and a conventional powder feed in the evening. 6. Feeding grains or calf starter: Start feeding grains to the calf at ten days to two weeks of age. A grain mixture such as equal parts of whole barley and whole corn is desirable until a calf is about three months of age. 10 4 d. Feeding hay for calves: Calves raised on skim milk should be provided with hay. A calf will usually begin to eat hay about two weeks and can use pasture better when they are 2 to 4 months old. Hay should be offered fresh twice a day. If the calves did not supplied with hay they will suffer from vitamin D deficiency. At six months of age it should eat 3 to 5 pounds of hay a day. e. Feeding mineral mixture: It is a good practice to keep a lump of rock salt in the trough, or to provide a mineral brick, which the calf will lick. 10 5 3. Drinking: The young calves should be provided with a plenty of fresh clean water at all times or at least twice a day. Principles of calf rearing: Successful calf rearing depends upon: a. Housing: 1. The building should be lighted, ventilated. 2. The floor must be impervious with good drainage to insure dryness of the building. 3. Fresh clean straw bedding should be provided liberally to protect them from cold during sleeping. 4. Avoid air droughts to protect them from chill diseases and position of house should be facing south to get all the possible sunlight. b. Feeding: 10 6 1. Cleanliness and sterilization by boiling water of all utensils used in calf feeding, to prevent calf scour. 2. Regular routines for feeding, making changes in feeding gradually to prevent digestive disturbances. 3. Feeding all milk or milk substitutes at body temperature. 4. At about 4 to 5 weeks a calf begins to ruminate (chew the cud) and from then onwards too much fluid or semi-fluid food is not desirable. b. Special management of calves: 1. Identification: Identification the calves are very important in order to avoid any mistake if several calves are born about the same time. Calves usually identified by using Ear-Marking which done by tattoo or ear tag. 10 7 2. Disbudding: In herds which are not naturally polled the disbudding of calves is frequently practiced as horned animals are dangerous to people working with them. Disbudding carried out by: a. Caustic potash, alternatively, collodion is administered to the horn bud during the first week or so of the calf's life. b. Electric hot iron is the most effective, with the calf, of about 3 weeks to 7 months. The calf must be held firmly and the point of the iron carefully but firmly applied to the buds. This effectively destroys the horn. c. Surgical method. 10 8 3. Castration: Male calves for beef are usually castrated between 2 and 6 month of age. There are three main methods of castration: a. By surgical method (open castration). It needs an experienced person. b. By Burdizzo Castrator, which is a large clamp used to crush blood and nerve supply of testes. There is no open wound but the testes will degenerate due to the lack of blood and nerves. c. By rubber ring bands “Elasterator” for calves about a week old. The calves castrated at an older age will have in their system a greater amount of the male sex hormone, leading to greater body size. 10 9 5. Removal of extra-teats: Heifers are sometimes born with extra teats. These generally are not functional and do not harm but removed from heifers that are going to be used as dairy animals as these teats act as a predisposing cause for mastitis. These teats are removed surgically by using surgical sterile scissors and wound treated with aerosol wound spray. 11 0 5. Vaccination: Calves should be vaccinated specially against Rinderpest, Hemorrhagic Septicemia, Black quarter and Anthrax. Management of heifer Adolescence: is the period lasts from about 6 months until the heifer calves for the first time, usually at about 2.5 years of age. 1. Housing: The young heifers from 6 month of age onwards must be fed and managed better. It is usual to put the young heifers together even size and age, so that older ones do not secure more than their share of food. 11 1 2. Breeding: When the young heifers reach about 18-20 months of age, a careful watch is kept upon them, and when she comes into season it should served. A young bull, which is not used for the service of old cows, should be kept for service of the heifers. In this way the transmission of venereal diseases such as contagious abortion, and trichomoniasis is avoided. Further injury to the heifers, which are not fully grown by the use of a heavy stock bull and difficulties of service, associated resulting from the size of male and female are avoided. It is desirable always to select a bull from a cow whose have higher milk yield (and if possible butter fat yield) than the average yield of the herd. 3. Manipulation of teats: After all heifers are served and in-calf, their management is continued along the same general lines. It is of good practice, at about 6 weeks to a month before calving, for the dairyman to massage and handle the udder and teats of a heifer so that she becomes accustomed to their manipulation and is less likely to resent milking. 11 2  Management of adult bull 1. Selection: The selection of a bull as a sire is very important as usually said, “Bull is half of the herd”. The general criteria on which dairy bulls are selected are largely concerned with the capacity to give their daughters good milking characteristics, good dairy temperament and good conformation. 2. Housing: Dairy bulls are seldom allowed with the cowherd. He should be housed in a suitable loosebox, with an outdoor run or yard attached for the 11 3  exercise, sunlight and fresh air. The box should be well constructed, having a concrete floor and a strong trough fitting, to which it can be tied. 3. Securing: They should be haltered as young as possible or provided with a small head-collar. At about one year of age, should have a stout ring inserted in the nose, and then replaced by a stouter one. 4. Exercise: After 6-7 months they should be exercised for about half an hour and gradually increasing to one hour or more every day. At about 10 months to one year they will be young and inspected for licensing purposes. Exercise is necessary to maintain muscular tone and activity, to prevent excessive fatness and to keep legs and feet in good conditions. Bulls may be exercised by turning them loose in a strongly fenced yard. 11 4 5. Feeding: The general management and feeding of young bulls should be similar to that of heifers. After 5 to 6 month of age, the bull calves should be separated from the heifer calves. Feeding should be adjusted; a mature bull requires about 4 to 8 lb. of concentrates daily when used for full service. Mineral and good supply of proteins is of great importance. Water should be provided at all times. Green food should be fed at a rate of 15 - 20 lb. daily. 6. Service management: Bulls vary in the length of their active life from 5-16 years. The age of a bull has no effect on quality of his offspring. Bulls can be used for the first time at 10 - 12 months of age or may be left for 18 months old till well enough grown. Bulls of tropical zones are not used for service before they reach two or more years and they do reach their maximum breeding power until they reach 3-6 years old. The average duration of service life of most bulls is not more than 3½ - 4½ years. 11 5  Young bulls can be used once or perhaps twice a week but older bulls may be used up to five times a week. It is not advisable to allow a young bull to serve more than 20 heifers during the first season, while adult is allowed to serve up to 50 - 60 cows per year. Very larger cows should be placed in a shallow pit for service by very young bulls. Small cows and heifers should be served in a service crate by very heavy old bulls. 7. Diagnosis of disease: The diagnosis of disease carried out by periodical examination for venereal diseases to avoid transmission for cows at breeding season. Moreover, periodical examination of semen is important for judgment of its reproductive efficiency and sexual fitness. ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOR OR VICES OF CATTLE 1. KICKING 11 6  During milking the cow kicks the milkier so the collected milk be drooped on the ground. Causes: 1. In cattle, kicking may be due to nervous action as a result of lacking of food e.g.: lacking of calcium and protein. 2. It may be due to any wound on the teats or udder. 3. Some animals are accustomed to be milked in a quit dark place, so if they are milked in a lighted sunny place it will kick. Remedy: 1. Plenty of good nutrient material infront of the animal at the time of milking. It should be of a good quality palatable and free from any bad smell. 2. Milking should be carried in a dark quit place away from any noise or crowdies. 3. Treat any wound or cracks on the teat or udder, by lubricating your hand before milking with zinc oxide ointment or Vaseline. 11 7 4. Apply hook strap. 5. Anti-cow kicking and tail holding device. 6. Loop from the tail around the right hind leg. 7. With a rope tied the right hind fetlock with one end its other end is tied on a pointed piece of wood fixed in the ground or fixed to a ring. 2. INTERSUCKING BETWEEN COWS 11 8  This behavior involves a cow or bull suckling milk from the udder of a cow. Such intersucking by adult cattle involves the withdrawal of milk from a lactating animal. Frequent sucking by an adult can lead to lose of milk, teat damage, pathological changes and deformation of the udder. Means of cure: 1. The animal should be separated from others. 2. Anti-sucking bit is applied and it must be removed at the time of feeding 11 9 3. Apply a muzzle, side stick or cradle. 4. Make partitions between the animals. 5. Apply anti-sucking shields or anti-sucking preventer Anti-sucking shield Anti-sucking preventer 12 0 3. INTERSUCKLING BY CALVES Calves separated from their mothers suck and lick at their own bodies, at objects in their pens and at parts of the bodies of other calves. They commonly suck on the navel, prepuce, scrotum, udder and ears of other animals. If the coat of the other calf is sucked significant quantities of hair may be ingested leading to formation of balls, or bezoar in the rumen which leads to digestive problems and even death. If the penis is sucked, urine is often produced and then drunk by the suck calf. This can lead to liver disorders and to reduced nutrient intake. Another adverse consequence of 12 1 inter sucking is that the part of the calf sucked may become inflamed, damaged and infected. Control: 1. By providing feeding condition which resembles those of normal ingestive behaviour in young animals. 2. The feeding of calves with milk through automatic nursers with teats whose aperture is such that the sucking times of each feed period is sufficiently prolonged will reduce the likelihood that other objects or calves will be sucked. 3. Young calves should be housed individually and tied shortly. 12 2 4. The supplement of roughage, such as 150 gm of a supply of straw, can result in a reduction in inter sucking. 5. Urine drinking can be reduced by the plentiful supply of water from a normal drinker for the calves. 4. MATERNAL FAILURE As the newborn commences teat-seeking behaviour, the mother shows persistent negative reactions, moving the udder away from the neonate and prevents it from sucking. Such behaviour is most frequently shown by primiparous mothers and is often very temporary. It may be due to sensitivity of the teats to suckling or the presence of any wounds. 5. HOLDING THE MILK The cow refuses milking except in the presence of its calf or its own milkers. 12 3 6. TONGUE-ROLLING The tongue is extruded from the mouth and moved by curling and uncurling outside or inside the mouth with no solid material present. The tongue is extruded and rolled back into the open mouth, after which partial swallowing of the tongue and gulping of the air takes place. The condition occurs in all ages and breeds but younger adult cattle and certain breeds such as Brown Swiss are though to exhibit it most frequently. It is believed that there may be a hereditary factor in this condition but it is also believed that nutritional deficiencies can precipitate it. It occurs more often 12 4 in cows within herds which are continuously confined indoors. When a feed is provided in a form low in roughage and not requiring significant oral activity in prehension and mastication, the condition may be encouraged. Control: 1. Insertion of a metal ring through the frenulum of the tongue. 2. The provision of diets improved by salt mixtures. 3. The provision of freedom of movement. 4. Isolation of the affected animals. 7. FENCE BREAKING Some animals have the habit of breaking the fences of their enclosures. Causes: 1. Feeling that on the other side of the fence the grasses are more green or plenty. 12 5 2. Some bulls behave similar behavior when show females in estrus outside the fence. Prevention: 1. Proper hitching. 2. Good arrangement. 3. Apply a rubber bag around the tip of the horn. 4. Dehorning. 8. STRIKING THE HORNS Cow may strike horns against the walls or the manger. A rubber bag around the tip of the horn, can be applied. 12 6