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A cow experiences anestrus when it has a functional corpus luteum.
A cow experiences anestrus when it has a functional corpus luteum.
False
Induced ovulation occurs when mating takes place, such as in the case of a rabbit doe.
Induced ovulation occurs when mating takes place, such as in the case of a rabbit doe.
True
Seasonal monoestrus animals can have estrus multiple times during a single breeding season.
Seasonal monoestrus animals can have estrus multiple times during a single breeding season.
False
Diestrus is the stage of the estrous cycle characterized by the presence of the dominant follicle.
Diestrus is the stage of the estrous cycle characterized by the presence of the dominant follicle.
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The calf hood period in dairy cows lasts until the age of approximately 6 months.
The calf hood period in dairy cows lasts until the age of approximately 6 months.
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Follicles produce oestrogen as they grow, leading to the development of the antrum.
Follicles produce oestrogen as they grow, leading to the development of the antrum.
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Spontaneous ovulation occurs uniformly in all mammals without the need for mating.
Spontaneous ovulation occurs uniformly in all mammals without the need for mating.
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The adolescence phase of a dairy cow lasts from the 6th month of age until she calves for the first time at around 2.5-3 years old.
The adolescence phase of a dairy cow lasts from the 6th month of age until she calves for the first time at around 2.5-3 years old.
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Artificial insemination (A.I.) is responsible for 70% of pregnancies in Holstein-Friesian cows.
Artificial insemination (A.I.) is responsible for 70% of pregnancies in Holstein-Friesian cows.
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The observation of cows in estrus should be conducted only once daily for best results.
The observation of cows in estrus should be conducted only once daily for best results.
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Silent heats are situations where ovulation occurs but the behavioral signs are absent.
Silent heats are situations where ovulation occurs but the behavioral signs are absent.
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Nymphomania in cows is characterized by the absence of estrus behavior.
Nymphomania in cows is characterized by the absence of estrus behavior.
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A vasectomized bull can be effectively used to detect estrus in cows.
A vasectomized bull can be effectively used to detect estrus in cows.
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Heat mount detectors apply a dye to the cow that becomes visible when another cow mounts her.
Heat mount detectors apply a dye to the cow that becomes visible when another cow mounts her.
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Freemartin heifers are less likely to mount estrous cows compared to regular cows.
Freemartin heifers are less likely to mount estrous cows compared to regular cows.
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The incidence of nymphomania in cows can sometimes be successfully treated with luteinizing hormones.
The incidence of nymphomania in cows can sometimes be successfully treated with luteinizing hormones.
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The cervical glands during pregnancy secrete a liquid that becomes gelatinous and forms a plug sealing the canal.
The cervical glands during pregnancy secrete a liquid that becomes gelatinous and forms a plug sealing the canal.
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Ultrasound scanning for pregnancy can be performed with a rectal probe after at least 28 days from service.
Ultrasound scanning for pregnancy can be performed with a rectal probe after at least 28 days from service.
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The barium chloride test is conducted by adding barium chloride to blood serum to diagnose pregnancy.
The barium chloride test is conducted by adding barium chloride to blood serum to diagnose pregnancy.
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The detection of high progesterone levels in milk is an indicator of pregnancy if measured after 60 days from service.
The detection of high progesterone levels in milk is an indicator of pregnancy if measured after 60 days from service.
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One of the signs of pregnancy in cows is the cessation of estrus.
One of the signs of pregnancy in cows is the cessation of estrus.
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During the last two months of pregnancy, cows should reduce their feed intake to conserve energy for parturition.
During the last two months of pregnancy, cows should reduce their feed intake to conserve energy for parturition.
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As parturition approaches, the glands and teats of a pregnant cow exhibit a waxy appearance.
As parturition approaches, the glands and teats of a pregnant cow exhibit a waxy appearance.
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The abdomen of a pregnant cow becomes less enlarged as the pregnancy proceeds.
The abdomen of a pregnant cow becomes less enlarged as the pregnancy proceeds.
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In dairy cows, high-ranking animals typically lead the group during forced movements.
In dairy cows, high-ranking animals typically lead the group during forced movements.
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Cattle use a variety of visual signals for communication, including head butting and shoulder pushing.
Cattle use a variety of visual signals for communication, including head butting and shoulder pushing.
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The 'mm' call is a signal used by cows primarily when they are isolated from their groups.
The 'mm' call is a signal used by cows primarily when they are isolated from their groups.
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Exploratory behavior in animals decreases when they encounter environmental novelty.
Exploratory behavior in animals decreases when they encounter environmental novelty.
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The Flehmen response is seen only in female ruminants in response to males.
The Flehmen response is seen only in female ruminants in response to males.
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Low producers generally enter the milking parlor before high producers.
Low producers generally enter the milking parlor before high producers.
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Auditory signals are important for cattle to communicate general safety or danger.
Auditory signals are important for cattle to communicate general safety or danger.
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Investigatory behavior is predominantly characterized by behaviors in older animals.
Investigatory behavior is predominantly characterized by behaviors in older animals.
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If the calf's shoulders are free of the mother's vulva, the grooming behavior begins during parturition.
If the calf's shoulders are free of the mother's vulva, the grooming behavior begins during parturition.
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A calf will be completely rejected by its mother if contact is delayed for 5 hours postpartum.
A calf will be completely rejected by its mother if contact is delayed for 5 hours postpartum.
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Licking of the calf is important for stimulating lactation in the cow.
Licking of the calf is important for stimulating lactation in the cow.
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Calves typically begin to stand and nurse within 2 to 5 hours after birth.
Calves typically begin to stand and nurse within 2 to 5 hours after birth.
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The typical four-step ambulation form is seen in new lambs and foals immediately after birth.
The typical four-step ambulation form is seen in new lambs and foals immediately after birth.
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Calves can remain motionless for up to 30 minutes after birth with head and neck extensions.
Calves can remain motionless for up to 30 minutes after birth with head and neck extensions.
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Primiparous mothers often exhibit persistent negative reactions to their newborn's teat-seeking behavior.
Primiparous mothers often exhibit persistent negative reactions to their newborn's teat-seeking behavior.
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The refusal of a cow to be milked can occur even in the absence of its calf.
The refusal of a cow to be milked can occur even in the absence of its calf.
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Calf vocalizations are most prominent if they are removed from their mothers 24 hours after birth.
Calf vocalizations are most prominent if they are removed from their mothers 24 hours after birth.
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Tongue-rolling in cattle is a behavior that exclusively occurs in older breeds.
Tongue-rolling in cattle is a behavior that exclusively occurs in older breeds.
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The mother cow can help the calf find the udder through licking, nuzzling, and nudging.
The mother cow can help the calf find the udder through licking, nuzzling, and nudging.
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A nutritional deficiency can trigger tongue-rolling in cattle.
A nutritional deficiency can trigger tongue-rolling in cattle.
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Cattle breaking fences can be caused by the perception of more abundant grass on the other side.
Cattle breaking fences can be caused by the perception of more abundant grass on the other side.
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A rubber bag applied to the tip of a horn serves no purpose in managing cow behavior.
A rubber bag applied to the tip of a horn serves no purpose in managing cow behavior.
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Isolation is one of the control measures for managing tongue-rolling behavior in cattle.
Isolation is one of the control measures for managing tongue-rolling behavior in cattle.
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The condition of tongue-rolling is very rare among cattle and not breed-specific.
The condition of tongue-rolling is very rare among cattle and not breed-specific.
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Study Notes
Behavior and Management of Cattle
- Cattle are a valuable source of food, work, and by-products.
- Domestic cattle reached Egypt before 4,000 years BC.
- Cattle are primarily kept for beef production, milk production, and dual purpose.
Systems of Management
- Subsistence/Peasant Producer: Cows are used for work and milk, then sold for slaughter when too old. Feeding is inconsistent and management is poor.
- Specialized Dairy Farmer: Cows are kept solely for milk production with improved management and feeding practices. Breeding stock is also increased.
- Large-Scale Producers: Large-scale private or government-owned farms have superior management, feeding and breeding practices due to the operators' greater knowledge and resources.
Type of Cattle Used
- Indigenous cattle are well-adapted to the environment, with selection for high productivity.
- Importing highly reproductive temperate-type cattle, with selection for adaptability in a tropical environment.
- Importing highly productive temperate-type cattle, with the improvement of management, to improve the tropical environment.
- Importing highly productive temperate-type bulls and/or semen to upgrade less productive indigenous cattle.
Breeding Definitions
- Puberty: Stage of an animal's life when secondary sexual characteristics appear or the estrus cycle begins, affected by age, body weight, and condition.
- Sexual Maturity: Age at which an animal is capable of reproduction with a significant increase in genital organ size.
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Estrus Cycle: The interval between two periods of estrus (heat) divided into four periods:
- Proestrus: Corpus luteum regresses, progesterone declines, estrogen increases, and secondary estrus symptoms appear.
- Estrus: Period when a female is receptive, standing heat.
- Metestrus: Occurs after estrus with ovulation and corpus luteum development.
- Diestrus: Corpus luteum is functional.
- Anestrus: Absence of the estrus cycle.
Types of Estrus Cycle
- Continuous Polyestrous: Estrus occurs at a certain age and continues until ovulation of the last egg (e.g., cow, she-buffalo).
- Seasonal Polyestrous: Estrus begins at puberty and continues during breeding season and stops until the next breeding season (e.g., mare, ewe, doe, queen, she-camel).
- Seasonal Monoestrous: Estrus comes one time in each breeding season (e.g., bitch).
Ovulation
- Spontaneous Ovulation: Ovulation occurs regularly without mating (e.g., cow, she-buffalo, queen, sow).
- Induced Ovulation: Ovulation occurs with mating (e.g., she-camel, rabbit doe).
Follicle, Dominant Follicle, and Corpus Luteum
- Follicle: Ovarian structure containing the oocyte (egg). As follicles grow, a fluid cavity (antrum) develops and cells produce estrogen.
- Dominant Follicle (Graffian follicle): Largest follicle that eventually suppresses other follicles' growth and becomes the ovulatory follicle.
- Corpus luteum: Ovarian structure that develops at the site of ovulation producing progesterone during metestrus and pregnancy.
The Life of a Dairy Cow
- Calfhood: From birth to 6 months of age.
- Adolescence: From 6 months to 2.5-3 years (when first calving).
- Mature Dairy Cow: After calving and milk production.
Ingestive Behavior
- Grazing: Cattle use their tongues and lower teeth to gather then swallow grass without much chewing.
- Feeding (Byre): Feed is poured into a trough, and the animal gathers it with its tongue without much chewing.
- Newborns do not graze effectively until they are several days old, becoming highly selective after the period of suckling.
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Rumination: The act of regurgitating, remasticating, and reswallowing previously ingested feed.
- Cattle usually lie down during rumination, although they may stand or walk slowly.
- Rumination occurs in young calves to an extent similar in proportion to adults after about 6-8 months.
- Rumination can be disturbed or cease during estrus, due to pain, hunger, maternal anxiety, or illness; pre- and post-parturition periods are not conducive, and rumination may decline during these periods.
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Drinking behavior: Cattle drink by dipping their muzzle into water and sucking liquid into their mouths. Their tongues play a passive role in drinking. Nostrils never go under the water. Water is swallowed and travels to the rumen. Head does not need to be raised for drinking.
- Influencing factors: thirst, sight of water
- Frequency: Grazing cattle usually drink in the late afternoon or evening, rarely at night or in the early morning. Dairy cattle tend to drink after milking.
Body Care Behavior
- Licking: Cattle use licking to clean any part of their bodies they reach.
- Scratching: Cattle use trees and fence posts to scratch inaccessible areas.
- Tail-switching: Part of grooming behavior to brush skin and keep flies off. Tail-switching can also be used to express strong emotions.
- Function and significance of grooming: Grooming removes harmful contaminants (feces, urine, mud, and parasites) and greatly reduces the risk of disease.
Elimination
- Defecation and urination involve emptying excreta from the digestive and urinary systems.
- Frequency and volume vary based on diet, ambient temperature, and individual animals.
- Stance for defecation or urination varies depending on the sex of the animal
Resting and Sleeping
- Standing Idle: Cattle rest while standing without ruminating; healthy cattle do this for short periods.
- Alert Wakefulness Recumbency: Cattle usually rest in sternal recumbency during day while ruminating. May lie at rest without ruminating, while not actively grazing.
- Drowsiness: The extensive periods of drowsiness are characteristic of ruminant rest and they often lie on their sternum. Periods of drowsy state may precede or follow sleep.
- Sleeping: When cattle are body sleeping, they lie down, with their heads turned into their flanks, and eyes closed. Rumination and sleep are inversely related, and sleep decreases with dietary roughage increases.
Laterality or Lateral Recumbency
- In the morning, either side may be favored, but cows generally prefer to lie on their left side after feeding to support their full rumen.
Social Behavior
- Farm Livestock associate together in groups:
- Matriarchal herd: Built from a mother and her female offspring and young.
- Bachelor herds: Mature males that are often solitary or in herds joining females for mating season.
- Social hierarchy (Dominance order or bunt order): Relationships of all individuals; important for the welfare of the herd. Social order depends on age, girth, height, weight, strength or inherited characteristics.
- Dominance relationships: Established in various ways such as non-threat aggression, threatening and physical contact; the most frequent method being butting.
- Types of social hierarchy: Linear hierarchy often found in small groups; tending or complex hierarchy more frequent in large herds.
- Leadership (Leader-follower order): In free-range condition dairy cows lead, mid-order animals in the social hierarchy are in the middle and subordinates are in the rear.
Communication
- Visual Communication: Head threat (lowering and turning of head) may be followed by head butting; or other physical contact (head to heat, pushing with shoulders)
- Auditory Communication: Vocal communication is important in transmitting information about general safety, danger or particular situations. Examples: "mm" call, roar, high-intensity calls, grunting(during copulation)
- Olfactory Communication: Important for sexual activity in ruminants; cattle distinguish conspecifics by means of urine and the flehmen response is shown by all males of ruminants in response to a female in estrus.
Investigatory Behavior (Exploration)
- All animals show a strong motivation to explore and investigate their environments, This behavior may subside after the environment becomes too familiar, but the behavior is repeated when there is an environmental change.
- Sensory information prompts the nervous system to produce an appropriate behavior.
- The animal tends to show a submissive posture when investigating objects, sniffing, and sometimes licking or chewing.
- Young animals tend to be more curious in their exploratory behavior than mature animals
Reproductive Behavior (The Cow)
- Puberty: Occurs at 6-8 months of age for foreign breeds (360kg), 20-24 months for native heifers (260 kg).
- Breeding season: Continuous cycling with a peak in May-July and low in December – February; related to ideal spring calving.
- Estrus cycle: 18-24 days (average 21 days); estrus period (heat) is 12-14 hours (heifers 12 hours). First estrus in the evening to cease in the morning..
- Gestation period: 9-9.5 months (280 days). Slightly longer in male calves than female calves.
Signs of Estrus (Behavioral and Physical)
- General increase in activity and tail switching; Decreased feed intake
- Frequent bellowing (vocal signals).
- Frequent galloping, tail raised or deviated.
- Frequent urination to increase pheromone spread.
- Flehmen to aid reception.
- Homosexual activity: Mounting activity by other cows is permitted.
- Prolonged ano-vaginal sniffing and licking of flank.
- Marked increased aggressive behavior
- She may fail to take her customary place in the milking parlor
- Temporary drop in milk production
- Swelling and reddening of the vulva, followed by mucous discharge
- Possible bloody mucous discharge in some cases.
- Dirty flanks when mounted by cattle with dirty hooves
- Bull seeking behavior.
Factors Controlling Estrus Signs
- Internal Factors: Genetic differences exist between breeds, and black-colored cattle generally show stronger heat signs than red, roan or white cattle. Hormone levels (estrogen very high, progesterone very low) influencing expression of heat.
- External Factors: Presence of a bull provides a prompting effect (Whitten effect). Adverse weather or sudden changes in weather can suppress heat displays (anestrus, particularly in high temperatures). Nutritional factors (poor body condition, anemia, hunger, thirst) may cause anestrus, as will uterine infection, cystic ovaries and parasitism. Many types of stress (rough handling, noise, excess movement). Type of housing: greater opportunity for mounting and standing behavior in more communal arrangements. Footing surface: more mounting and standing behavior with soft surfaces than concrete. Cow density: False-positive heat incidence is increased in crowded conditions. Number of herd mates in estrus: Increased mounting behavior when two or more cows are in estrus simultaneously. Milk production: High milk yield decreases estrous intensity
Detection of Estrus
- Herdsman: Observing behavioral and physical signs; Dividing observation periods (06:00 am, 14:00 pm, 22:00 pm) each for 20 mins.
- Faults of herdsman: Missing silent heats (absent behavioral signs but ovulation occurs), false heats (pregnant cows showing signs), nymphomania (persistent or irregular intervals of intense estrus behavior).
The Bull - Methods of Detection and Courtship
- Bulls are the best detectors of estrus
- Proestrus: Approaching and guarding the cow. Frequently nudges cow's flanks. Maintains head-to-head contact or stands in a reverse parallel to the cow. The bull may rest its head across the cow's back while she stands in a T-position.
- Estrus: Mounting attempts with partial erection before cow aligns; Mounting immediately once cow is in full estrus. Ejaculation occurs quickly, often accompanied by rear legs lifting off the ground.
- Other methods: Vasectomized bulls, teaser bulls with a surgical deviated penis/colored chin ball or freemartin heifers, heated-treated cows and detection devices.
Synchronization of Estrus
- Using hormones (Luteinizing or Hormone-like substances (Prostaglandin) to bring all females in a herd into estrus within a short time.
- Advantages: Reduced cost and effort for detection of estrus and easier artificial insemination.
- Disadvantage: Lower conception rate.
Artificial Insemination (A.I.)
- Means for preventing venereal diseases.
- Allows use of superior bulls for breeding more cows.
- Reduces the cost of using multiple bulls in a farm.
- Improves the genetic character of calves in the farm.
Diagnosis of Pregnancy in Cows
- Rectal palpation: Examining ovaries, uterus and uterine arteries during early and mid-gestation.
- Vaginal examination: Observation of cervical mucus plug during pregnancy.
- Ultrasound scanning: Using a rectal probe after 42 days from service or insemination for fetal diagnosis.
- Laboratory tests: Physico-chemical test (detects 8-globulin in blood serum); Barium chloride test (turbid urine in non-pregnant cows), oxidation-reduction test (urine clearance) to detect pregnancy and detection of progesterone in milk
Signs of Pregnancy
- Cessation of estrus (period of heat).
- Sluggishness and calmness in temperament.
- Enlargement of the abdomen.
- Hollows appear in the flanks during later stages.
- Root of the tail and muscles of quarter becoming more noticeable.
- Possible change in teat glands (firm, turgid, enlarged, glossy, waxy appearance).
Management of Pregnant Cows
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Feeding: Well-feeding of heifers/cows with increased nutrition levels based upon the stage of pregnancy/ milk level produced, especially during the last two months.
- Steaming up: Intensive feeding towards the end of pregnancy to build up body reserves for the next lactation.
- Watering: Large water consumption, especially during lactation (100 pounds or more per day is not unusual). Placement of water sources; automatic water bowls.
- Milking: Duration of lactation is dependent upon age, breed, and feeding. May last up to 8, 10, 11 or more months for heavy cows. Some abortion issues affect milk production.
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Types of Milking:
- Hand Milking: Based on negative pressure produced by the milker.
- Machine Milking: Based on negative pressure produced by the milking machine on teat cups.
- Rules for good milking: Clean milking procedures including clipping of hairs, udder washing before milking with antiseptic (crystal potassium permanganate), drying the area, and cleaning and sterilizing all milking utensils and milker equipment to prevent the spread of diseases.
Parturition (Calving)
- Change in diet: Change in green feeds to a special dry ration (high in mineral and vitamin and low protein) and hay.
- Isolation: Isolate cows from the herd 2 weeks prior to the expected calving date, and keep in a clean, disinfected calving shed (maternity).
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Approaching signs: Relaxation of sacrosciatic ligament, slackening of perineum and vulva tissue, distension of udder and teats; mucous discharge from vulva.
- Turbidity and blood in discharge indicate the nearing of parturition.
- Lower body temperature: Lower body temperatures during afternoon hours.
- Care of pregnant cow: Separate the cow in a calving pen; maintain clean, spacious, well-ventilated and bedded calving pen. Choose a calving site free from woods and brush and using a warm building in adverse weather.
Calf Management During Calfhood
- Housing: Calves should be kept in well-cleaned and disinfected loose boxes; kept in separate calf pens, with a minimum space or 2 m²/per head. Rails facilitate fresh air and less risk of drafts and diseases spread. Small groups (3m²/calf up to 3 months), and increased area (4 m2/head at 6 months).
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Feeding: Colostrum for the first 3-5 days.
- Amount of milk for calves depends on age.
- Method: Natural feeding by suckling or artificial hand feeding; usually 5-7 feedings/day, usually divided into 2 or 3 feedings.
- Milk should be at body temperature (90°F–100°F). Types of milk replacers:
- Weaning: Weaning (stopping the calf from getting milk from the cow). Depends on the calf's condition (3.5–4 months).
- Health Maintenance: Many calf deaths arise from diseases like calf scours and pneumonia. Prevention measures include cleanliness and sterilization of equipment, regular feeding routines, milk at body temp, and proper housing.
- Disbudding: Remove horns using caustic potash or electric hot iron (3 weeks to 7 months).
- Castration: Removing testicles; methods include surgical, Burdizzo castrator or rubber ring bands (a week old).
- Extra-teats removal: Removal (surgical) of extra teats on heifers.
- Vaccination: Calves are vaccinated against various diseases.
- Other considerations: Avoid unusual sights or noises, maintain quiet environment, keep milking routines regular, and complete the process each time (do not skip feedings).
- Avoid overfeeding
- Cleanliness and hygiene of equipment
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Test your knowledge on dairy cattle reproduction topics, including anestrus, induced ovulation, and the estrous cycle. This quiz covers various reproductive stages and practices in dairy cows, focusing on their breeding and lifecycle. Perfect for anyone interested in animal husbandry and veterinary science.
