CVE 101 3.pdf Engineer in Society PDF

2/12/2021 COURSE OUTLINE COLLEGE: Science, Engineering And Technology (SET) FACULTY: Engineering Philosophy of Engineering DEPARTMENT: Civil Engineering...

2/12/2021 COURSE OUTLINE COLLEGE: Science, Engineering And Technology (SET) FACULTY: Engineering Philosophy of Engineering DEPARTMENT: Civil Engineering History of Engineering and Technology COURSE CODE: CVE 101 COURSE TITLE: Engineer in Society Branches of Engineering UNIT: 2 Safety in Engineering LECTURER: Introduction to risk analysis ENGR ADEBANJO, ABIOLA USMAN Roles of Engineer in Nation Building Philosophy of Engineering The philosophy of Engineering is concerned with all the assumptions, foundations, methods, implications of Engineering, and with the use and merit of science. Philosophy of engineering looks at WEEK 1 How we do engineering Why we do engineering The way we do engineering In the end, a philosophy of engineering must help to advance engineering practice, including the process of engineering design. 1  2/12/2021 Philosophic Ideologies of Engineering Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Engineering Demarcating Engineering The public view of engineers is often that we are not reflective; we just do what needs to be done and then Engineering uses the knowledge provided by science, but move on to the next project. despite the widespread assumption to the contrary, engineering is not simply applied science. Most engineers do this at some level, but making it a Moreover, the aims of engineering are different; while regular practice can prove useful in enhancing our science aims for knowledge, engineering aims for useful performance as engineers. change. Such reflection may also lead to deeper thinking about Science is supposed to be concerned with necessity, the fundamentals of our engineering practice, certainty, universality, and abstractness. It seeks objective examination of our implicit philosophy of engineering, knowledge-that of timeless truth that is based on reality, and an opportunity to make it more explicit. for the purpose of intellectual contemplation and understanding. Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Engineering Engineering By contrast, engineering is characterized by Engineering Education contingency, probability, particularity, and Another distinction is manifest in how engineers are concreteness. educated (note that engineering education has changed noticeably over the past century. Prior to World War II, engineering still exhibited much Engineers rely on subjective knowledge-how of its origins from the trades. Engineering students had and opinions that are derived from personal and shop classes and had to do a significant amount of historical experience, with the goal of willful drafting. action and use. 2  2/12/2021 Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Engineering Engineering Engineering science was secondary to art and practice. That was Models beginning to change even in the early 20th century, and the process accelerated after World War II. By 1965, most Arguably, we cannot access reality directly or even engineering programs had moved away from the art and practice “mirror” it in an exact way. Instead, both of engineering and made engineering science the primary basis philosophically and cognitively, our interaction with of engineering education. reality is always mediated by models. The form of a model may be conceptual, mathematical, More recently, this trend has begun to reverse, and art and computational, or physical, and all of these forms are practice have been brought back into the curriculum; e.g., introduction to design relatively early, and a capstone design used in engineering (Alvi 2013a). project near the end. Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Engineering Engineering Some key goals of modeling in engineering include Uncertainty explaining, predicting, and controlling the behavior of Much of what is required for design of non-prototypical engineered systems engineered systems is driven by the way practicing developing intuition and associated engineering judgment; engineers must deal with the significant uncertainties that instructing in both academic and practice settings are inherent in the process designing and evaluating engineered systems; and providing (Bulleit 2008). These uncertainties can be separated into a context for experimenting and collecting data in order to two broad categories: develop models further. – Aleatory, related to chance, e.g., the innate randomness in material properties and external loads 3  2/12/2021 Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Engineering Engineering – Epistemic related to knowledge (Der Kiuerghian and Codes of Practice Ditlevsen 2009). Elms (1999) looks at the problem as Codes of practice are one of the key ways that engineers the “three enemies of knowledge,” which are of non-prototypical systems reduce – Ignorance uncertainty in design (Bulleit 2008, 2013b; Bulleit and – lack of technical knowledge that a designer should Adams 2011). Codes provide a link know between technology and society (Allen 1992), and a way for society to help ensure its safety – uncertainty, essential knowledge that is missing, but (Elms 1999). whose absence is recognized; and complexity, which means that there is no reliable way to predict behavior. Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Engineering Engineering Heuristics are thus central to engineering practice. Heuristics and Judgment In this context, a heuristic is "anything that provides a Scientists observe natural phenomena, propose plausible aid or direction in the solution of a problem but is hypotheses in an effort to explain them, and conduct in the final analysis careful experiments to test their theories. unjustified, incapable of justification, and potentially Although the will is implicitly involved, the fallible" intellect is primary, because the goal is ideal: The bottom line is that engineering is not deterministic; it additional knowledge that is supposed to be routinely requires setting priorities and selecting the best objective. way forward from among multiple options when there is no one "right" answer 4  2/12/2021 Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Basic Philosophic Ideologies of Engineering Engineering Competence and Expertise Quality Two-thirds of the knowledge used by engineers on a daily When engineers develop options for consideration or make basis is "practice-generated," rather than "historically a decision based on a certain amount of information, how established"; i.e., gained by means of experience instead of do they choose the best option and make the best formal education or reference materials. decision? They produced a plausible model of skill acquisition that Considerations such as durability, constructability, and includes five distinct stages: novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert. The higher levels can other constraints could be added to these three. One other only be attained through extensive experience and are term that is often used is quality, which – characterized by less rational deliberation and greater depending on one's viewpoint – may comprise all or some emotional involvement subset of these criteria Introduction Definition of Engineering ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES – Mathematics Chemical Engineering – This involves – Empirical and theoretical principles application of physics, chemistry, biology, and – Economic consideration Engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such Origin of Engineering as petroleum refining, microfabrication, Latin: ingenium meaning ‘cleverness’ fermentation, and biomolecule production 5  2/12/2021 Civil Engineering – This involves the design Electrical Engineering – This Engineering and construction of public and private works, involves the design, study and manufacture of such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, various electrical and electronic systems, such as water supply and treatment etc.), bridges, dams, electrical circuits, generators, motors, and buildings. electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, controls, and electronics. OTHER RELATED DISCIPLINES Mechanical Engineering – This profession According to United Kingdom Engineering deals in the design and manufacture of physical Council, a number of other branches can be recognized. These include naval and mining or mechanical systems, such as power and engineering. Modern fields also describe the energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, following as engineering weapon systems, transportation products, professions: manufacturingengineering, acoustical engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic engineering,corrosion, aerospace, automotive, computer, electr chains, vacuum technology, and vibration onic, petroleum,systems, audio,software, architectural, agricult isolation equipment. ural, biosystems, biomedical, industrial, materials and nuclea rengineering. 6  2/12/2021 ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH THE AGES Stone-Age Stone age came between 4000-5000 B.C. Scientists believe this is the earliest time of technology WEEK 2 where man used stone as a hard and sharp object or tool for cutting, defence, digging, construction and so on. Stone served the purposes of axe, saw, knife, scrapers, and so on. It can be inferred that man’s technical skills have greatly Bronze Age improved in this age. Owing to the ease of melting Following development in science, man improves his these metals, great achievements were made in making technology by graduating to the use of bronze which is a them into different shapes and constructions. This age kind of alloy of some metals (copper, tin and minute led to the introduction of tongs for handling small quantity of aluminium, manganese, nickel or zinc). pieces of hot metals, the development of wax process Bronze age happened between 2000 -4000 B.C. In this for castings, the introduction of bellows for age, blends of metals were used for weapons, tools, metallurgical processes. Items made in the period buildings and wears. include axes, chisels, gongs, drills, knives, saw nails, clamps, needles, razors were made 7  2/12/2021 Engineering in Nigeria Iron age Traditional history – era of stones and sticks Iron age was a great leap in the advancement of science, engineering and technology for man. This – Blacksmith description is even obvious when viewed with the fact – trans-sahara trade influence that the use of iron has grown into the modern time. – period of colonization The Iron Age began around 1300 BC. The iron age led Civil Engineering through the construction of buildings to our present age of high-tech. – roads, city-walls, waterways – Mechanical/Electrical engineering, through traditional iron and textile industries – Chemical engineering through dying and foundry industries Northern Nigeria Ifes and Benins Long before the colonial era, there was booming practice Cast products from bronze and other metals are of cloth dying in the ancient city of Kano. Also notable popular among the Ifes and Benins. These products are the building of city walls locally called “GANUWA” serve as ornaments and statues. The traditional for security in Sokoto, Kano, Katsina, Zaria and other practitioners use metal scraps obtained both from northern cities of the Fulani, Hausas, Kanuri, Nupe, Tiv within and outside the locality. Pit furnaces were often and other chiefdoms. employed to melt the scraps. 8  2/12/2021 Leather Tanning in Nigeria There were salt mines in Jukun, iron smelting in Ajilete and tin smelting in Jos. Leather tanning was also rife to preserve animal skins and convert them to leather products. Furthermore, architectural beauties can be found in cities like Ibadan, Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, Maiduguri, Calabar, Opobo, Benin, Lagos, Zaria, Onitsha and Owerri NOTABLE ENGINEERING WORKS IN HISTORY Pyramids of Egypt: They are ancient pyramid- Pharaohs of Egypt: It was a lighthouse built shaped masonry in Egypt built as tombs for the by the Ptolemaic Kingdom between 280 and 247 country’s pharaohs. The most famous Egyptian BC which was between 393 and 450 ft (120 and pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Several of the Giza pyramids are counted 137 m) tall. It was listed among the seven among the largest structures ever built. The shape wonders of the ancient world. For many of a pyramid is thought to be representative of the centuries in the world history, it stands as one of descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids the tallest man-made structures.It has a circular were faced with polished, highly reflective white shape at the top, octagonal at the middle while limestone, in order to give them a brilliant the base is square. appearance when viewed from a distance 9  2/12/2021 Hanging gardens of Babylon: It was a distinctive Roman aqueducts: The Romans constructed feature of the ancient Babylon reportedly built in numerous aqueducts in order to bring water from 600 BC, in the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar II. distant sources into their cities and towns, supplying It was described as an ascending series of tiered public baths, latrines, fountains and private gardens containing all manner of trees, shrubs, and vines. The gardens were said to have looked like a households. Aqueducts moved water through large green mountain constructed of mud bricks. gravity alone, being constructed along a slight The ancient city of Babylon can be found downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick nearHillah, Babil Province, in the present day Iraq. or concrete. Most were buried beneath the ground, However, owing to lack of physical evidence, it was and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were referred to by the modern historian as mythical. circumvented or, less often, tunnelled through. Great wall of China: This is a series of Inca and Aztec Empire:Several magnificent fortifications made of stone, brick, wood, and structures and beneficial sciences and highly- other materials, generally built along an east-to- developed artworks are found in the Aztec west line across the historical northern borders empire, which originated in 1427. The Aztec of China to protect the Chinese states and people were certain ethnic group of central empires against the raids and invasions of the Mexico. various nomadic groups of the Eurasian Steppe. 10  2/12/2021 Notable Engineers in History History has records of high-achieving engineers and learned men and women, who contributed in no small way to the modern development. It will appear unfair to consider the list below as WEEK 3 exhaustive. Indeed, uncountable number of learned men and women have done exceedingly well in the propagation of knowledge and development, throughout history. However, the list below identifies some of these engineers and their contributions. Out of these, an iconic figure in the history of engineering was expatiated. 1. Nicolaus Otto 3. Mikhail Kalashnikov Nicolaus Otto was noted for the development of the four-stroke or Otto- While much of Kalashnikov’s AK-47 was borrowed from other guns, cycle engine and the first internal combustion engine, where fuel is his simplification of their designs to make a nearly flawlessly functioning rifle was his genius. The gun is cheap to manufacture, burned directly in the piston chamber. The Otto-cycle is still used in the easy to use, and hard to break. After over five decades, the AK-47 is internal combustion engines that run all of our cars today. still in production, and there are dozens of different varieties from shotguns to sniper rifles and the familiar assault rifle. It is arguably one 2. Alan Turing of the best guns in history, and definitely one of the most influential. He developed the binary architecture now used in all computers, as well as 4. Archimedes of Syracuse much of the theory behind computers. He is regarded as the father of computer science. The computer you’re currently using would not exist Archimedes accomplished many engineering feats including a crane capable of lifting and smashing Roman ships. He did improve the without his contributions to the field. He also broke the German Enigma catapult, develop levers and pulleys, and invent the Archimedean code during WWII, without which victory would have been far more screw, a device used to raise water for irrigation or mining. He also difficult, if not impossible. After the war he made many other contributions calculated “pi” and developed many mathematical insights without to code making and breaking. which modern engineering would be impossible 11  2/12/2021 5. Wilbur and Orville Wright 7. James Watt His development of the steam engine ushered in the Talking of engineering per excellence, the duo displayed engineering brilliance Industrial Revolution. His centrifugal system kept the engine by inventing their field-aeronautics. Other pioneers of flight came before running at the desired rate, and is a modification so simple them whose work was invaluable, but it was the Wrights who truly created aeronautical engineering. In a time when people thought of the mechanics of and elegant that it may be one of the best ideas of all time. flight as ground locomotion in the air, the Wright brothers saw it as The centrifugal system was only one of his countless something wholly new. Their development of the three axis control system modifications to one of the most influential devices of all was necessary to fly controllably. They were also the first to really look at time. Watt’s perfection of one of the most important devices propeller design and aerodynamics. Their work profoundly changed the world. in history easily puts him in the top ten engineers. 6. Hero of Alexandria 8. Thomas Edison Edison is the most prolific inventor in history, holding a In 50 AD, he could have started the Industrial Revolution with the invention of the Aeolipile, a form of steam or jet engine where jets of steam spin a record 1,097 patents. He developed the phonograph, ball. However, he failed to realize what the device could do, and thought of it incandescent light bulb, stock ticker, motion picture camera as nothing but a toy. It was speculated that the abundance of slave labor and projector, and hundreds more. He also created the first negated any need for a labour-saving device, so no one applied his device in electrical plant and distribution infrastructure. Without these the manner of the Industrial Revolution. Hero also wrote many works on subjects ranging from pneumatics to mathematics to physics. inventions, modern life is almost inconceivable. 9. Nikola Tesla Nikola Tesla is perhaps the greatest electrical engineer of all time. His inventions include fluorescent lighting, the Tesla coil, the induction motor, and 3-phase electricity. He developed the AC-current generation system comprised of a motor and a transformer. WEEK 4 12  2/12/2021 Engineering Regulations in Nigeria COREN The Council for the Regulation of Engineering In order to ensure standard practices, regulatory in Nigeria, COREN, was established by decree bodies are needed to monitor activities and 55 of 1970 and amended by Decree 27 of 1992, performances of practitioners. In Nigeria, now the “Engineers (Registration, etc) Act, CAP regulation of engineering practices and E11 of 2004” Law of the Federal Republic of practitioners are vested in The Council for the Nigeria. The Act establishes COREN as a Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria, COREN. statutory body of the Federal Government The COREN activities are supported by various empowered to regulate the Practice of engineering societies across the country. Engineering in all aspects and ramifications in Nigeria. MANDATE OF COREN COMPOSITION The Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Chairman – to be appointed by the President Nigeria, COREN, is a body set-up by the Decrees 55/70 and 27/92 (now Acts 110). The Decrees 1 representative of the Honourable Minister empowered the Council to regulate and control the 1 representative from the University training and practice of engineering in Nigeria and 1 representative from the Polytechnic to ensure and enforce the registration of all engineering personnel (i.e. Engineers, Engineering 1 representative each from the Associations - Technologists, Engineering Technicians, and (NSE, NATE, NISET & NAEC) Engineering Craftsmen) and consulting firms 2 representatives from States, 1 each from the wishing to practice or engage in the practice of engineering. North and South of the Country. 13  2/12/2021 REGULATION & CONTROL (SUMMARY) to regulate and control the practice of the engineering profession in all its aspects and ramifications to determine who are engineering personnel and to register them in their respective registers. to examine the data of firms seeking to become registered. to submit a report to Council on every Firm referred to it and to recommend for registration those firms who satisfy the requirements of registration of Consulting Firms. to update the regulation on registration and practice of Engineering Consultancy Firms from time to time and recommend as appropriate to Council. to set up a department and a Committee of Council (the Regulation and Control Committee (RCM) ) and endorsed certain programmes (as Engineering Regulation Monitoring (ERM) through which it can fulfill its mandate. REGULATION & CONTROL (SUMMARY) RCM organizes and supervises the ERM programme of COREN. TECHNICAL SOCIETIES RCM determine the qualification for appointment as an ERM inspector. Continuing effectiveness of an engineering personnel depends RCM recommends appropriate action to impose appropriate penalty on on his contact with a recognized professional society. persons, group of persons, establishments and organizations who are Therefore, it is advisable for engineering personnel to belong violators of Council Regulation or provisions to a recognized professional society. These societies include to recommend to Council on withdrawal of registration due to violation of ERM codes and deletion of names from the Registers due to any other Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers violations. (IEEE): is dedicated to advancing technological innovation & to execute the Continuing Professional Development Programme. excellence for the benefit of humanity & inspire a global to carry out preliminary investigations, as may be directed by the community through its highly cited technology standards & Registered Engineering Personnel Investigation Panel, on allegation of educational activities. professional misconduct brought against any registered engineering personnel or consulting firms as may be referred to it by Council or the Nigerian Society of Chemical Engineers (NSChE): It is President, and advise Council as appropriate. the only professional membership organisation in Nigeria for chemical, biochemical and process engineers and other professionals involved in the chemical, process and bioprocess industries. NSChE is dedicated to advancing the science and practice of chemical engineering in Nigeria for the benefit of society and support the professional development and ethics of our members. 14  2/12/2021 TECHNICAL SOCIETIES Nigerian Institute of Appraisers and Cost Engineers: is a Institute of Drilling and Petroleum Engineering: a division of the Nigerian Society of Engineers that aims to world-class educational institution in oil & gas & allied promote specialized fields of cost engineering, engineering valuation and economy. energy sectors that advance knowledge & provide Nigerian Institution of Agricultural Engineering: modern professional engineering education with proper It promotes the science and art of engineering in agriculture balance between theory & practice. & also encourage the enhancement of professional Nigerian Academy of Engineering: promotion of competence of its members. excellence in engineering training and practice in order to Nigerian Institution of Civil Engineers: It is a division of ensure the technological growth of Nigeria. the Nigerian Society of Engineers that promote understanding among members and encouraged the formation Nigerian Institute for Biomedical Engineering: of divisions along disciplinary lines. represents and advocates for the biomedical engineering Nigerian Institution of Safety Engineers: It is the highest and technology profession and its members, and regulate ruling body of the safety engineer society and a division of the its practice in Nigeria and internationally. the Nigerian society and engineers providing its members with careers and development advice, advocacy and more. Nigerian Naval Engineering College: It is an TITLE engineering institute that offers training courses on marine and weapon engineering, mechanical and air engineering among others. A Registered Engineer shall use the abbreviation Nigerian Institution of Mechanical Engineers "Engr" before his name (NIMechE): It strives to be a premier Institution A Registered Engineering Technologists shall for professional development, knowledge use the abbreviation "Engr. Tech" after his acquisition and dissemination of mechanical engineering and allied disciplines in Nigeria. name. The Nigerian Institution of Structural A Registered Engineering Technician shall use Engineers: It is a division of Nigeria Society of the abbreviation "Tech" after his name. Engineers and a body that governs and represent structural engineers and the profession at large in A Registered Engineering Craftsman shall use Nigeria. his full title "Craftsman" with his trade in bracket under his name. 15  2/12/2021 Engineering Design Engineering Design Process The engineering design process is a series of steps that engineers follow, in which the basic and WEEK 5 engineering sciences together with mathematics and economics are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective. Stated objective is often a solution offered to a problem or challenge. Engineering design is concerned with the creation of systems, devices, and processes useful to, and sought by, society. The design loop The design process can be summarised as a From the diagram, an idea is generated as shown three-step loop: in (1). This idea is implemented by the step (2). After the idea is implemented, the designer or group would test the product or evaluate the result of the implementation through testing (3). Typically, during this testing and evaluation, additional ideas are generated, and the process starts over again. This cycle and repetition is why it can be said that design is an iterative process. 16  2/12/2021 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING DESIGN STEP 2: EXPLORE Step 1 – DEFINE THE PROBLEM Here, engineers will do background research on the This is the single most important step in the design problem to be solving. They will investigate the process. It is important to define the true problem ways others have tackled similar problems. The one is solving, not just the symptoms of the tools that have been employed by other problem or the perceived problem. For example in investigators. Engineers will also gather details on the global warming/climate change problem, the the environment they’re dealing with, the situations real problem is the emission of greenhouse gases their solution will be used in, and the ways it will be (especially CO2) into the atmosphere. The gases, used. especially CO2, accumulate in the atmosphere and For example many works have been done on the form a kind of blanket, which traps heat, thereby global warming challenge. Engineers design warming the earth’s surface. An engineer must be solution to the problem are expected to explore able to identify this problem clearly, before these works in the literature before embarking on embarking on engineering design for solution. the design. Step 3: DEFINE THE SOLUTION Step 3: DEFINE THE SOLUTION In this step engineers will specify what the solution Again, specifications outline WHAT the solution will do will accomplish, without describing how it will do and how WELL it will do it, not HOW it will do it. So, in it. Specifications are made at this stage. A the climate change problem, the engineer may define “carbon capture” as a solution. That is to say the CO2 specification is defined as an explicit set of generated from industrial processes will be captured instead requirements to be satisfied by a material, product, or of allowing it to go into the atmosphere. The specification service. In this case, specifications are requirements would describe the solution-carbon capture, not HOW it for the solution of the problem defined in Step 1. will be done. Simply, the solution will reduce carbon Specifications are made based on the “Design concentration in the atmosphere. Thinking too much about Constraints” and the “Functional Requirements”. A “how” at this stage in the process can be counter- constraint is a condition that a solution to a problem productive and may stifle creativity. At the same time, designers need to keep the “how” in the back of their must satisfy. Constraints, in short, are restrictions, minds because they need to have a basic understanding of while Functional requirements describe how well the what is possible finished solution must perform. 17  2/12/2021 STEP 4: IDEATE STEP 5: PROTOTYPE Ideate means to formulate, imagine, or conceive In this stage of the process engineers take some of of an idea. Now that the engineer knows their concepts from the previous step and make WHAT the solution will do, he or she must mock-up versions of them. The goal of this stage determine HOW it will do it. This is a step that is to learn how each concept solution will function requires some creativity. The keywords here are: in “real life” and how it interacts with the real “imagination” and “think.” This is where the environment. This is also where a designer will designer needs to brainstorm multiple ways to start to determine which design concept will work the best. These prototypes are designed to be fulfill the specifications. For example, amine crude, but functional enough to be educational to solution can be used to capture CO2, but the the designer. The keyword here is “LEARN.” temperature and pressure of the system will Designers don’t need to prototype everything, just determine efficiency of the capture process the things they want to work! STEP 6: CHOOSE STEP 7: REFINE At this point in the process the designer or design This is the stage of the design process where group has several different potential solutions for the problem. This step is where the designers will engineers take their chosen concept and make it use the lessons learned from their prototyping to into something more “real.” This stage is all determine which concept is best and go forward about the details. At the end of this stage with it. This is not always an easy design teams should have everything necessary decision. Sometimes the “right” solution just so that the full design can be constructed or reveals itself. Other times it is difficult to even define “best.” Teams can compare how each implemented. Some of the pieces that may be concept fulfills the specifications from step three in generated during this step are CAD the process and see if one is significantly better Models, Assembly Drawings, Manufacturing Plans, Bill than the others. Designers should look for the of Materials, Maintenance Guides, User simple and elegant solution. Manuals, Design Presentations, Proposals and more. 18  2/12/2021 STEP 8: PRESENT STEP 9: IMPLEMENT The detailed design must often go through some Once the design has been completed and sort of design review or approval process before it can be implemented. A design review can come in approved, it needs to be many forms. Some reviews occur as a simple implemented. Depending on the nature of the conversation between two of the designers. Some problem being solved, the solutions to the reviews are done as a meeting of the Design Group problem could vary wildly. Depending on the where they recap and check the work that has been type of solution, the implementation could also completed and try to find any errors. Many reviews vary. The implementation could consist of involve presenting the detailed design to a customer, manager, or some other decision-maker using a new process that was designed, or it for final approval. could consist of following a manufacturing plan and producing some physical object. STEP 10: TEST STEP 11: ITERATE In this stage, engineers will test their The design process often involves repeating certain steps multiple times until an acceptable result is achieved. This implemented solution to see how well it act of repetition is known as “iteration.” This iteration works. The implementation must be reviewed results in a better end result and is one of the most to see what worked, what didn’t, and what important parts of design; this is why it is said that design is an iterative process! should be improved. The testing procedures The greater the number of iterations a design goes and results should be well documented. The through, the better the final result will be. For example, main thing that should be determined during in the use of amine for carbon capture, iteration can be this stage in the process is whether or not the done by repeating the test several times and comparing the results. Slight variation in process routes and final implementation performs as expected and conditions might also be tested in the iteration. fulfills the specifications. 19  2/12/2021 Risk and Safety in Engineering Definition of risk. Risk is the chance of occurrence of an event or series of events together with the consequences of that event Risk is the possibility of adverse event together WEEK 6 with its consequences and contexts. The chance of risk occurring implies the probability. The enormity of risk will be measured by its consequences while the context implies the person who is analysing the risk and for whom the risk is being considered Aspects of Risk Analysis 2. Consequences 1. Probability Consequence is the second aspect of risk. It signifies Probability is the intrinsic nature of risk. 100% the weight or impacts of the risk itself. probability of risk turns it into certainty. This certainty This measurement uses the binary system of measuring occurs when the deed is done- the accident has simple failure by determining the probability of the happened, the machine has broken down, the house has event occurring: that is, it either a building collapses, or collapsed, the business has failed, and so on. A risk is it does not; or a car crashes or it does not, and so on. as awful as its probability value or level. This sort of risk problem is relatively straightforward. 20  2/12/2021 However, many times, risk is associated with more serious consequences like loss of life, serious injuries, loss 3. Context of money or fatal damage to the environment that affects the ecosystem. In risk analysis, context is the system, figure or Example to illustrate probability (chance) and personality in mind for whom the analysis is being consequences of risk Consider that I plan to cross a stream on which there is a conducted or that may be potential victim of the risk slippery log. This poses a reasonably high chance that I being considered. This context is concerned with setting may fall off. If the stream were shallow, just few centimetres below the log, the consequences of my falling the frame of reference of a problem. would be considered insignificant, so the risk would be small. If the stream were a raging torrent in a gorge, many metres deep, crossing would be a high risk which I probably would not accept. Calculating Risk Ascertain the purpose The following tasks must be performed to calculate risks 1. Ascertain the purpose The first step must always be to establish the aim of the 2. Understand the problem project and what the results will be used for. A clear 3. Set the scale or depth of analysis understanding of the purpose is essential and drives the 4. Develop risk models project at every level. The client should be persuaded to 5. Gather data 6. Perform risk assessment disclose reasons for the assessment. purpose will guide the 7. Disseminate the results strategically steps of the analyst as to the nature of the assessments and the details required. 21  2/12/2021 3. Set the scale 2. Understand the problem Since analysis of risk can extend complicatedly in some One of the main tasks in any risk analysis is to learn about ways, it is a wise practice to set a scale of analysis based on the problem. The analyst must know the nitty-gritty of the available or affordable resources and personnel. It is the system being analysed, for instance, the operation of a reasonable to perform a scoping study and then pilot one. plant, the ways in which a structure could fail or the Thus, mini-scale study may as well provide needed details that may make full-scale risk assessment unnecessary. The nature of a rail transport network. It also entails scoping study has a role in determining the nature and understanding the context of the problem and its quality of the data available and discovering the extent of constraints. the problem as a whole. 4. Developing risk model 5. Obtaining the data Modelling of risk leads to the quantification of the risk. It is a kind of changing analogue to digital system. Common The next stage after setting the model is to obtain risk models include fault tree and event tree models. realistic data of the system under analysis. The quality of data will affect reliability of the analysis. Data should be about the structure of the system, e.g., the physical infrastructure of the company, the arms of operations, the major equipment, etc 22  2/12/2021 6. Assessing the model and data 7. Communicating the results It is important to run the model with the data obtained. At the end of a risk assessment, communicating the findings and recommendations are key to effective Model must be attested to be working correctly. As applications and operations of the system concerned. analysis continues, the model grows and develops from its Communication must be made carefully to avoid rough beginning. A sensitivity analysis is required to confusion, ambiguity and misinterpretations. The actors involved must all be taken into account. discover what parameters contribute most to the results. However, different ways can be used to communicate the results to different categories of people. WEEK 8 WEEK 9 TEST 23  2/12/2021 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN ENGINEERING Quality Characteristics PROJECTS There are four basic quality characteristics. These are: Quality is the conformance to satisfactory and serviceability, regulatory requirements. It describes the totality of the features and characteristics of an object or a service. safety, Quality Assurance (QA) is a series of procedure, environmental compatibility followed by a system in producing a product to durability. conform with satisfactory and regulatory requirements. 1. Serviceability 2. Safety This guarantees that the product will continue to serve the This is mainly connected to the danger posed by the product users for the agreed purpose and under the agreed to human life. For example, in building construction, there is a conditions of use. This use is based on the agreed distinction between hazards related to technical safety (load- threshold values and applies particularly to usability bearing capacity, fire safety, safety of mains supplies, operating conditions, e.g., deformation, leak tightness, vibrations, safety, etc.), physical safety (guarding against criminal activity, sabotage) and accident-related safety, which is related to appearance, installation and processing employees’ injuries or assaults (prevention of accidents) and inhalation of toxic pollutants. 24  2/12/2021 3. Environmental compatibility 4. Durability This refers to the effects of the artefact or product on This is the assurance that serviceability, safety and the environment, including air, soil, groundwater, environmental compatibility are maintained during the surface waters, etc. In the case of building structure, intended period of use of the products or artefacts. environmental compatibility is considered during the construction phase, the operating phase, the demolition phase and particularly as a result of failures and disasters, and the measures to be taken to reduce the effects to acceptable levels. Important QA Documents in Building Construction Safety Plan Utilization Plan In construction, planning and building of structures need safety plan to prevent misuse in the course of utilization. The plan has the The document defines the builder's requirements for following structure: suitability for use, to agree the service life and the 1. Specification of safety goals: This is given mainly by the safety conditions of use and to specify the measures needed. It is requirements in the laws, regulations, guidelines and so on. The the start for the selection of the right structural design. The acceptance level of risk and the costs of safety should also be put into considerations when working out the goals. final decision will, however, be determined by safety and 2. System analysis: Here, the structure or product should be presented durability as well as the environmental factors. as self-contained systems while the individual components are specified.. 25  2/12/2021 Environmental Report For structures or artefacts that has the potential to pose The report can be set out as follows: harm to the environment, there are needs to perform Needs for the structure and its purposes. environmental compatibility study more closely. Current conditions of the environment (air, Findings from such study should be set out in an environmental report. The report will show the likely soil, ground and surface water etc). effects on the environment and the remediation Others are: description of the production cycle measures needed to reduce this to acceptable levels. of the structures from building structure; effects of disasters and measures; environmental pollution in each phase and measures. Inspection Plan-Manufacturing and Construction Building Manual The inspection plan should give specific details of the An instruction booklet is always supplied with every piece inspections provided for in the utilization and safety plan of household equipment, saying how the equipment and the environmental report. The inspection plan is should be used, inspected and maintained. This kind of particularly important for detecting errors in the instruction booklet is not usually supplied, for example, manufacturing process and construction. with buildings. This mistake should be rectified by the production of building manuals, to guarantee the quality of the building while it is in use. 26  2/12/2021 Examples of Engineers’ Activities WEEK 11 27  2/12/2021 HAZARDS ON ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT DESTRUCTION BY TORNADOS AND STRONG WINDS EARTHQUAKES 28 2/12/2021 29  2/12/2021 REFERENCES Quality Systems, British Standard BS 5750, 1987, or corresponding International Standards IS0 9000,... , 9004, 1987. Quality Assurance for Building, Synthesis Report, CEB Comite Euro-International du Beton, Bulletin no. 184, May 1988 The International Organization for Standardization: General Principles on Reliability for Structures, International Standard IS0 2394, 1986. 30