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Standpoint theory Standpoint theory was created by Patricia hill Collins and Sandra Harding, the theory argues that KNOWLEDGE is created through historic and social experiences. It takes away the notion of objective knowledge production. Within standpoint theory there is the concept of situated kno...

Standpoint theory Standpoint theory was created by Patricia hill Collins and Sandra Harding, the theory argues that KNOWLEDGE is created through historic and social experiences. It takes away the notion of objective knowledge production. Within standpoint theory there is the concept of situated knowledge which is that all knowledge is produced from SPECIFIC historic and social practices and strong objectivity, that dominant groups tend to reproduce a world perspective while minority groups bring in unbiased points of view. Standpoint theory is not the criticism of individuals but the criticism of all dominant groups in academia. Standpoint theory was created, as the notion of western experiences shaping the majority of “classical sociology” was very tailored to the west. Eurocentric standpoint The Eurocentric standpoint is the general belief that the west is superior to the rest of the world. Within the Eurocentric standpoint there are two concepts, Bifurcation which is the belief that the west can be studied separately from the rest of the world and using their knowledge as a universal standpoint, and Orientalism which is the belief that the west is generally superior to the rest of the world, as it is less civilized than the west. An example of orientalism would be Marx making general negative assumptions on Asian communities without conducting any relevant research. Southern standpoint The southern standpoint is basically the opposite of the Eurocentric standpoint, its main idea is the fact that society should consider experiences of all cultures, and histories, dismantling the superiority of the west. The southern standpoint has 2 main concepts, RADICAL RELATIONISM, which holds an emphasis on the global interconnectedness of histories and rejects using experiences of the west on universal bases. And REJECTION OF ORIENTALISM, the dismantling of the west superiority, and trying to create an interconnected and globally representative discipline. However, there are a few challenges to the southern standpoint, the essentialization of diverse experiences and the question of whether shared colonial history is enough for a unified standpoint. Marxist Theory The theory was created by Karl Marx, who lived between 1818 - 1883 and believed that there was a strong class imbalance, during that time society was based of proletariats (the working class) and the bourgeoisie ( the upper class), he felt that the bourgeoisie was exploiting the working class by extracting SURPLUS VALUE which is when the labour put into the product does not reflect what the person is getting paid. This social structure was named “the base and superstructure of society”. Marxist theory looks at the way society functions through an economical lens, believing that social conditions drive historical development, and society evolves through stages based on changes in how wealth is produced and distributed. Marx believed that “the mode of production” served as the real force of capitalism, it being the economy itself. Within the modes of production there is, “means of production” which are privately owned belongings such as machinery and factories, and relation of production which is the relationship between the employers and the employees. Within the social structure there are individuals and groups, which have a false understanding of what class they belong to, THEY HOLD THE ATTITUDE WITHOUT IT OBJECTIVELY REPRESENTING THEIR SOCIAL CLASS POSITION, this concept is referred to as false consciousness. The opposite is class consciousness which is when a social class has complete awareness of their social position and are uniting to take collective action to change their social position. Social stratification is how people are ranked in society, and lastly the theory intel’s how there is a reproduction of inequality through academic institutions and cultural practices. Bourdieu’s Field Theory - fields WHERE POWER STRUGGLES OCCUR IN SOCIETY Bourdieu’s field theory encompasses the idea that society is composed of multiple fields, fields are mostly autonomous, each having its own rules hierarchies and forms of capital. Such as economic capital, which is material earnings, cultural capital which has embodied, which are the internalised traits (i.e. speaking patterns) objectified which are physical objects representing culture and institutionalised, which are official credentials. Then there is social capital which can be said as networking abilities and symbolic capital which is prestige and recognition that is tied to other forms of capital. Within the field theory there are two poles, Autonomous which is independent of external pressures and influences and heteronomous which is highly influenced by political or economic agendas, while all fields are ultimately autonomous, they do have influences on one another, such as for example economic fields having an effect of cultural fields. Chinese cinematic films Independent International Main melody Alexander and sociology of the arts, Field of power is where the elites compete with one another for economic, political, and cultural assets, for hegemony over the working class. Artistic fields are also split into autonomous and heteronomous poles, with heteronomous art having a higher status of bourgeois art, it is popular with the middle class, industrial art is commercial art and brings economic capital. The autonomous art relies on “Pure gaze” which is the notion of appreciating art of the sake of it being art and not its economic value, most autonomous sectors of the artistic fields are rich in cultural capital not economic, where the recognition is the pay off, autonomous artistic field sectors produce art for their audience, and it is not commercial. Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice – habitus HOW INDIVIDUALS PARTICIPATE IN AND REPRODUCE THESE STRUGGLES THROUGH ACTIONS AND DISPOSITIONS Habitus is defined as the internalised dispositions, habits and ways of perceptions of the world individuals gain based on their surroundings and upbringing, theory of practice also has different capitals. CRITICISM OF BOURDIEU'S THEORY without the correct cultural knowledge of higher social classes, a person may struggle to reduce E, C S differences between the classes. I.e.. Lower class in college, not familiar with expectations and hence will not be able to differentiate between good and bad = feel out of place, might not do well in college , feel less entitled to seek academic help GENDER AND TASTE: through everyday practices macro structures of societies are institutionalised and then reproduced by individuals, micro actions are small actions which are bound by our habitus, and they have an effect/ shape macro structure. Symbolic violence: dominant class imposes its lifestyle as the only one. Foucault Post Structuralism In the mid 20th century, the post structuralist movement emerged as a response to structuralism, a movement which seeks to understand the world by identifying the deep, universal structures that govern human behaviour. Structuralism emphasises the importance of language, binary oppositions and systems when shaping meaning, mostly focusing on collective rather than individual experiences. Post structuralism challenged the core ideas and argued that meaning is not fixed or universal, it is instead fluid, contingent and is shaped by social, historical, and cultural contexts. Foucault emphasised the relativity of truth, which is the idea that knowledge is constructed through discourse and social practices and is not based on universe truths, discourse is the ways of describing, defining, and classifying people/things/knowledge. Power and knowledge are interconnected, with institutions and social structures using knowledge in order to exert control. Foucault further added the idea of decentering the subject, in other terms, the critique of the notion of a singular, autonomous individual, and viewing subjectively as shaped by historical and social contexts. DISCOURSE - ​ Ways of describing, defining, thinking about people and things, DISCOURSES ARE NOT FREE OF POWER RELATIONS NOR SHOULD THEY BE UNDERSTOOD AS PRODUCTS OF SOVEREIGN, CREATIVE MINDS. POWER AND KNOWLEDGE AND INTERTWINED TRUTH AND REASON SHOULD BE TREATED WITH SKEPTICISM. Discourses help us as a society decide its social norms. Discourses shifts over time what once was considered true or normal may change as new discourses emerge (change in context) - ​ WEAKNESS: OVEREMPHASIS ON LANGUAGE, COMPLEXITY AND INACCESSIBLE ANALYSIS. PANOPTICON The Panopticon was an architectural form, for a prison with a guard being in a central tower can see what is happening on the outside without anyone, or the prisoners being able to see him. This prison structure ultimately led to the prisoners internalising the discipline and normalising their behaviour. Foucault used the Panopticon, when talking about modern power dynamics and how it functions through surveillance and discipline. Using the analogy to show how modern societies have shifted from overt physical forms of control and have shifted to subtle internalized forms of power. Power in modern society is more about creating a system where individuals discipline themselves to conform to social norms rather than relying solely on direct, physical punishment. Basically, it is an metaphor for “governmentality” which are the techniques and strategies used by governments to regulate and control populations and “Biopolitics”, which is the regulation of life via discourse in human and social sciences, biopolitics has 3 key aspects to it, “regulation of life”, which are the policies and norms to control and enhance life rather than using direct coercion, “power over bodies”, which intel’s the shaping of individual behaviours to stay healthy, work efficiently etc and “ population management” which is the management of populations through state mechanisms POWER There are 3 types of power: I. ​ CAPILLARY: power is everywhere and not centralised, flowing through all levels of society II. ​ PRODUCTIVE: power shapes behaviours, knowledge, and institutions III. ​ INCOMPLETE: power is applied inconsistently and evolves with resistance. ARCHEOLOGY: THE SEARCH FOR DEEP STRUCTURES IN HISTORICAL PRACTICES AND KNOWLEDGE GENEALOGY: HOW OUR CURRENT UNDERSTAND OF MAN + SOCIETY HAPPENED Politics of identity HALL Politics of identity focuses on how identity is perceived and constructed, with an emphasis on the dynamics of power and representation. Identity politics often views identity as fixed, based on specific unchanging characteristics. This often resulted in certain communities forming a unified front by excluding others “it’s a women’s thing”. Identity politics assumes a singular universal experience. However Black feminists criticized traditional identity politics for overlooking differences within groups, ignoring the intersectionality of race, and suppressing the unique experiences of for example women of colour. Stuart Hall hence created 3 terms to address these issues, “difference”, which recognises that identities within a group a not monolithic and are instead shaped by both external and internal factors “Self-reflexivity” which emphases reflecting on one’s own positions biases and assumptions when speaking about identity and lastly the term “Contingency” which highlights the fluid context dependent nature of meaning, identity, and culture. Basically, stating that identity is not fixed or final, and it changes over time and with context. The idea of NEW ETHNICITIES challenges the traditional understanding of ethnicity as something viable and essential. Hegemony: dominance of one social group over others, dominant class shaping ideals and making them seem normal and unquestionable. THE TWO MOMENTS MOMENT 1: Traditional Identity Politics Focuses on unification of identity, and often involves a reversal of oppositional differences. It is a form of identity politics where groups come together by emphasising shared characteristics or experiences, typically in opposition to dominant or oppressive groups. - "Black" used to describe common experiences of racism and marginalization in Britain - Provided an organizing category for resistance across different groups - Created a cross-class, cross-ethnicity hegemony of the "black experience" - Formulated as a counter-discourse to white hegemony MOMENT 2: New Ethnicities and the Politics of Identity Moves away from the emphasis on unity and instead recognises the internal differences within groups, this moment challenged the idea of a singular, homogenous identity and switched to the acknowledgement of identity being complex, fluid and fragmented. - Post-modern approach viewing identity as constructed - Ethnicity based on culture, background, and history rather than biology - Allows for nuanced experiences and standpoints within a shared community - Challenges rise of nationalism and fixed ethnicity RECEIVER DECODING: The receiver must decode the message. DOMINANT HEGEMONIC POSITION, NEGOTIATED POSITION AND OPPOSITIONAL POSITION Black feminist Epistemology Black feminist thought emphasises the importance of intersecting oppressions and the subjugation of black women’s knowledge across various domains, such as music, literature, media, and education. Challenging dominant paradigms, which emphasise the importance of intersecting oppressions that are shaped by elite white male interests, contrasting them with black feminist concerns. The Eurocentric knowledge validation process is controlled by white male elites and ensures that knowledge claims are evaluated by experts who reflect their own experiences and interests. To maintain credibility, scholarly communities must align with dominant beliefs, which makes it difficult for black women’s perspective to be recognised. With limited access to literacy, quality education and faculty positions has historically excluded black women from influential academic spaces, prompting them to develop alternative frameworks to validate their experiences and knowledge. However once again due to the oppression black women face these alternative epistemologies have often been rejected by traditional academic disciplines, which selectively include only a few “safe” black women while maintaining structural barriers. The positivist approach, dominant in academics, relies on objective, large scale generalisations that require scientist to detach from emotions and context, further marginalising black women’s lived experiences. Black feminist epistemology challenges this standpoint to fit dominant frameworks but instead engage in conversations about the broader relevance and transversality of their perspectives. Overcoming these challenges required dialogue and recognition of black feminist through as legitimate and valuable form of knowledge production Habitus vs Emotional Habitus Habitus and emotional habitus are both concepts which explore how individuals are shaped by their environments and experiences, though they differ in focus. Habitus is proposed by Bourdieu, and refers to the ingrained dispositions, habits and behaviours shaped by an individual's background, education and life experiences. IT IS A SYSTEM OF LASTING TRANSFERABLE DISPOSITIONS THAT GUIDE PERCEPTIONS, THOUGHTS AND ACTIONS. On the other hand, emotional habitus focuses more specifically on how emotions, like actions, are structured and influenced by social settings, and that they form a part of our interactions and relationships. While Habitus shapes our broader behaviour and ways of being the world, emotional habitus emphasises how our emotional responses and experiences are shaped by cultural and social practices. HABITUS: BROADER SOCIAL BEHAVIOURS AND DISPOSITIONS EMOTIONAL HABITUS: EMOTIONAL RESPONSES AND ATTACHMENTS SHAPED BY CULTURE AND SOCIETY. IE. THE TAPES Dubois Dubois explored questions of race and racial identity, emphasizing that African Americans could be categorised into four distinct subgroups based on occupational, economic, and cultural factors, which he termed Black underclass. His work demonstrated how biological arguments about race were invalid when analysed through the lens of socioeconomic divisions among African Americans, including the upper class, laborers, and the morally respectable poor. He identified key factors contributing to African American crime, such as poverty, racial discrimination in employment and competition for jobs with European immigrants. One of the concepts which was introduced by Dubois is double consciousness, which describes the African American experience of having a dual identity. African Americans perceive themselves both through their own cultural lens and through the eyes of the dominant euro American society, leading to a fragmented self-perception and a struggle to reconcile these two identities. Nietzsche Nietzsche proposed the revaluation of all values, which challenges modern morality, particularly the Judeo- Christian mentality of the self that is rooted in resentment. This reactive form of morality is based on the belief that individuals suffer due to an external source, leading to a worldview that necessitates the existence of enemies. In this framework individuals do not see themselves as inherently good but rather as victims of evil, which reinforces a culture of repression. He also argued that language does not objectively reflect reality, suggesting that meanings are constructed and contingent rather than fixed truths. Simmel Simmel believed that society is the result of endless interactions of individuals, emphasising the importance of analysing patterns of concrete interactions and the ways in which groups are formed. He argued that as customary constraints have diminished, the self has gained greater freedom, however relationships have become more anonymous due to advancements in science and technology. Highlighting the role of money in shaping human interaction, asserting that the economy is fundamentally based on interpersonal relationships rather than mere transactions. Lastly, he suggested that fashion serves cultural needs rather than practical purposes, functioning primarily as a social tool which helps individuals navigate and express their place in society. Marx Marx created the basic, superstructure model of society which focuses on the mode of production as the driving force of a capitalist society, dividing society into B and P , he argued that the dominant ideology reflects the interest of the B , and serves the perpetuate the class system and turning in an eternal set of “laws of nature and reason”. This ideology distorts reality, leading to false consciousness where people feel content despite their exploitation. Marx also introduced the concept of class consciousness which is the awareness of shared identity among the P. He argued alienation arises from the exploitation of labour, and the rise of commodities dehumanising workers. Durkheim A MAN, NOT EMILY He assumed culture fosters consensus and integration, thereby neglecting its potential to generate conflict. An advocate of functionalism and positivism, emphasising the importance of observable, verifiable facts, and casual relationships in sociology. He believed that collective action and social facts – objective realities to the individual shape society, often overriding personal will. Functionalism posited that institutions, sentiments and roles in society mutually reinforce one another. He distinguished between mechanical solidarity in simpler, traditional societies, where people perform similar tasks and organic solidarity in more complex, industrial societies, where there is division of labour. He argued that collective consciousness, the shared moral awareness, and emotional life within a society is vital for social cohesion. Durkheim also believed that religion plays a crucial role in maintaining this solidarity by distinguishing between the sacred and the profane with rituals, creating a sense of collective effervescence. Weber Focused on understanding the motives behind individual actions and emphasized the importance of verstehen, a method of reconstructing subjective meanings by sharing cultural values and emphasizing personal histories. He believed that while the mind is free, the body is constrained, and human life revolves around the pursuit of freedom. Weber distinguished between Wertational (driven by cultural beliefs and religions) and Zweckrational (driven by norms and efficiency). In the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, he argued the economic success became a sign of salvation fuelling capitalism through disciplined hard work. Highlighting the shift from meaningful cultural values to focus on efficiency, leading to disenchantment of modernity, where people are trapped in the iron cage of bureaucracy. He identified three forms of legitimate authority: I. ​ Traditional: things should be as they have been, small preindustrial societies II. ​ Charismatic: ruler possesses exceptional powers of divine gifts, instability III. ​ Legal rational: bureaucratized contemporary society, law procedure efficiency – causes disenchantment, repacking more religious and symbolically meaningful forms associated with tradition. Weber distinguished class (economic positions) from status ( shared lifestyle) underscoring the role of human agency in sociological explanation while linking power to culture and emphasising the universal significance of religion.