Biotechnology PDF

BIOTECHNOLOGY CONTENT  Biotechnology  Genetic Engineering  Chromosomes  Bloodgroups  Recombinant DNA  DNA Fingerprinting  DNA Profiling  Genome  Gene Editing – CrispR  Gene Therapy  Stem Cell Research  Mitochon...

BIOTECHNOLOGY CONTENT  Biotechnology  Genetic Engineering  Chromosomes  Bloodgroups  Recombinant DNA  DNA Fingerprinting  DNA Profiling  Genome  Gene Editing – CrispR  Gene Therapy  Stem Cell Research  Mitochondrial DNA  Gene Cloning  Genetically Modified Crops  Biotechnology Institutions in India  Biotechnology Regulation in India BIOTECHNOLOGY  Biotechnology is the branch of applied science that uses living organisms and their derivatives to produce products and processes.  These products and processes feature in healthcare, medicine, biofuels, and environmental safety.  For example, a simple process of making bread using yeast can also be categorized as Biotechnology.  However, in modern-day parlance with the emergence of genetic engineering in the 1970s, new possibilities have emerged.  Today, biotechnology deals with industrial-scale production of biopharmaceuticals and biological using genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants, and animals.  The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment, energy production, etc.  Food Bioinformatics processing Genetic Bioremediatio engineering n Waste Diagnostics treatment Energy Therapeutics Biotechnology production GENETIC ENGINEERING  Genetic engineering involves the techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA) and thus change the phenotype of the host organism.  Asexual reproduction preserves genetic information, while sexual reproduction permits variation.  Traditional hybridisation procedures used in plant and animal breeding, very often lead to the inclusion and multiplication of undesirable genes along with the desired genes.  There are three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism —  Identification of DNA with desirable genes;  Introduction of the identified DNA into the host;  Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its progeny.  Stem Cell therapy Gene Gene transfer Mathematics Cloning Biostatistics Recombinant Genetic DNA Bio Physics technology engineering CHROMOSOMES  Chromosomes are thread-like structures present in the nucleus.  These are nothing but DNA tightly coiled around a protein called histone.  Chromosomes exist in pairs. Human cells contain 23 such pairs or 46 chromosomes.  Each chromosome is comprised on one super-long DNA molecule.  Notice how the DNA is coiled around histone and then many such histones are packed together to form a chromosome. Mendel Laws of Inheritance  Inheritance is defined as the process of how a progeny receives genetic information from the parent.  The whole process of heredity is dependent upon inheritance and it is the reason that the offsprings are similar to the parents.  Mendel was the first to study this phenomenon systematically.  While studying the pattern of inheritance in pea plants of contrasting characters, Mendel proposed the principles of inheritance, which are today referred to as ‘Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance’.  He proposed that the ‘factors’ (later named as genes) regulating the characters are found in pairs known as alleles. Law of Independent Law of Dominance Law of Segregation Assortment This is Mendel’s first law of The law of segregation states Also known as Mendel’s second inheritance. that during the production of law of inheritance, the law of According to law of gametes, two copies of each independent assortment states dominance, hybrid offsprings hereditary factor segregate so that a pair of trait segregates that offspring acquire one independently of another pair will only inherit the dominant factor from each parent. during gamete formation. trait in the phenotype. In other words, allele As the individual heredity The alleles that are suppressed (alternative form of the gene) factors assort independently, are called as the recessive pairs segregate during the different traits get equal traits while the alleles that formation of gamete and re- opportunity to occur together. determine the trait are known unite randomly during as the dormant traits. fertilization. This is also known as Mendel’s third law of inheritance.  BLOODGROUPS  In 1900-1902, K. Landsteiner classified human blood into four groups A, B, AB, and O.  The cells of these groups contain corresponding antigens – A, B, and AB except O.  That is why O is donated to any of the groups and so is known as a Universal donor.  AB group is known as Universal recipient because it can receive A, B, AB, and O blood groups. Rh factor  It is a blood antigen discovered in 1940 by Landsteiner and A.S Weiner and played an important role during a blood transfusion.  The Rh factor is an agglutinogen found in RBC of most people called Rh+.  It was initially found in the rhesus monkey and later in man.  People who do not have this antigen in their blood are called Rh-.  The Rh- blood does not carry anti- Rh antibodies naturally but could synthesize them if synthesized through blood transfusion of Rh+ blood.  RECOMBINANT DNA  Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning).  To bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.  Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure.  They differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure.  In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal phenotypes. That is, their appearance, behavior, and metabolism are usually unchanged.  The cutting of DNA at specific locations became possible with the discovery of the so-called ‘molecular scissors’- restriction enzymes.  Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases. These are of two kinds 1. Exonucleases 2. Endonucleases  Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA whereas; Endonucleases make cuts at specific positions within the DNA.  The cut piece of DNA was then linked with the plasmid DNA. These plasmid DNA act as vectors to transfer the piece of DNA attached to it.  You probably know that mosquito acts as an insect vector to transfer the malaria parasite into the human body.  In the same way, a plasmid can be used as a vector to deliver an alien piece of DNA into the host organism.  The linking of the antibiotic resistance gene with the plasmid vector became possible with the enzyme DNA ligase, which acts on cut DNA molecules and joins their ends.  This makes a new combination of circular autonomously replicating DNA created in vitro and is known as recombinant DNA.  When this DNA is transferred into Escherichia coli, a bacterium closely related to Salmonella, it could replicate using the new host’s DNA polymerase enzyme and make multiple copies.  The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic resistance genes in E. coli was called cloning of antibiotic resistance genes in E. coli. DNA FINGERPRINTING  DNA fingerprinting is a method used to identify an individual from a sample of DNA by looking at unique patterns in their DNA.  Every cell in our body contains our DNA. On average, about 99.9 percent of the DNA between two humans is the same.  The remaining 0.1% percentage is what makes us unique.  No two humans have identical DNA. (In some cases, identical twins have the same DNA)  Every unique DNA has Minisatellites which are short sequences (10-60 base pairs long) of repetitive DNA that show greater variation from one person to the next.  This variation is exhibited in the number of repeated units or ‘stutters’.   It is this Minisatellite Stutters that help in DNA fingerprinting. Application of DNA Fingerprinting 1. Personal identification 5. Genome project 2. Criminal justice system 6. Understanding Mass 3. Understanding hereditary disasters disorders 7. Historical analysis etc 4. Paternity testing DNA PROFILING  DNA profiling is the process of determining an individual's DNA characteristics.  DNA profiling is the process where a specific DNA pattern (DNA Fingerprint) called a profile, is obtained from a person or sample of bodily tissue.  Through storing DNA data in computer data banks, DNA analysis can be used to solve crimes without suspects. GENOME  A genome is all the genetic matter that is present in an organism.  Genome is basically defined as “an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes”.  A genome contains all of the information needed to build and maintain that organism.   In humans, an entire genome would probably lead to 3 billion DNA base pairs. Genome India Project  The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) initiated the ambitious Genome India Project” (GIP) in 2020.  It aims to collect 10,000 genetic samples from citizens across India, to build a reference genome.  Gene Mapping project involves 20 leading institutions of the country with the Centre for Brain Research of the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore as the nodal point. IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project  The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) concluded the six-month- long exercise of conducting a “whole-genome sequence” of a 1,008 Indians that belonged to diverse ethnicities.  The project is part of a programme called “IndiGen” and is a precursor to Genome India Project” (GIP).  The project involved the Hyderabad-based Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) and the CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB). Indian SARS-CoV-2 Genomics Consortium (INSACOG)  It is a network of 10 laboratories established in December 2020.  It aims at continuously monitoring the genomic changes of SARS-CoV-2 in India.  Monitoring is done through Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS).  Knowledge generated through this research consortium will assist in developing diagnostics & potential therapeutics & vaccines in the future. GENE EDITING – CRISPR  The CRISPR is an acronym for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, developed in the year 2012  CRISPR has made gene editing very easy and simple, and at the same time extremely efficient.  The technology works in a simple way — it locates the specific area in the genetic sequence which has  been diagnosed to be the cause of the problem, cuts it out, and replaces it with a new and correct sequence that no longer causes the problem.  The technology replicates a natural defence mechanism in some bacteria that use a similar method to protect it from virus attacks. GENE THERAPY  All concepts like Genome editing, Gene editing gene therapy, or CRISPR CAS9 are interlinked.  Gene therapy is a technique that involves the replacement of defective genes with healthy ones.  It is an artificial method that introduces DNA into the cells of the human body.  Gene therapy can be employed on Somatic cells as well as Gametes.  GT is mainly used in the replacement of genes that cause problems. (Genetic Disorders).  It can also be used to help the body to fight against diseases by adding genes to the human body. STEM CELL RESEARCH  Special human cells that have the capability to develop into wide-ranging types of cells in the human body, from muscle cells to brain cells, are called stem cells.  2 unique properties of Stem Cells: 1. Split to form similar cells 2. Develop into different specialized cells that perform a distinct function.  Classification based on Stem Cells formation at different times of human lives 1. Embryonic stem cells 2. Adult stem cells 3. Induced pluripotent stem cells or iPSC Embryonic Stem cells  These are the Stem cells that exist only during the earliest stage of development. Adult Stem Cells  These are the cells that can multiply when there is a need to repair adult organs and tissues.  These cells are present in almost all organs of the human body. Pluripotent stem cells   These cells are not found in the body but made in the laboratory from cells of the body.  The iPSC cells have properties similar to those of embryonic stem cells.  Human iPSC’s were generated in 2007. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA  Mitochondrial DNA is the small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria which are called the “powerhouse of the cell”.  The peculiar thing about mitochondrial DNA is that it is passed almost exclusively from mother to offspring through the egg cell.  If we study, mitochondrial DNA, it is easier to track across the maternal generations. Mitochondrial DNA Disorders  Mitochondrial diseases are long-term, genetic, often inherited disorders that occur when mitochondria fail to produce enough energy for the body to function properly.  One in 5,000 individuals has a genetic mitochondrial disease.  Common clinical features of mitochondrial disorders include external ophthalmoplegia, proximal myopathy, and exercise intolerance, cardiomyopathy, sensorineural deafness, optic atrophy, pigmentary retinopathy, diabetes mellitus, etc. Designer Baby  A designer baby is a baby whose genetic makeup has been selected or altered, often to include a particular gene or to remove genes associated with disease. GENE CLONING  Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a complete organism.  Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.  They cloned successfully a sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born in 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.  Gene Cloning can be employed for 1. Therapeutic use  2. Reproductive use  It can be the artificial breaking of an embryo or using donor gametes and somatic cells of the original organism. GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS  Genetic engineering has been used in agricultural applications as well to produce GM crops.  GM crops are derived from plants whose genes are artificially modified, usually by inserting genetic material from another organism, in order to give it a new property, such as increased yield, tolerance to a herbicide, resistance to disease or drought, or to improve its nutritional value. GM Crops in India  GM plants have been useful in many ways. Genetic modification has made crops more tolerant of abiotic stresses.  In some cases, it has reduced reliance on chemical pesticides.  It has also increased the efficiency of mineral usage by plants and added the nutritional value of food.  In India, a few Bt variety of crops has been approved.  Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis.  Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain insects like budworm, armyworm, beetles etc.  Bt toxin protein exists as inactive protoxins but once an insect ingests the inactive toxin, it is converted into an active form of toxin & kills the insect.  Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria and been expressed in plants to provide resistance to insects without the need for insecticides. Examples include Bt cotton, Bt corn, Bt rice etc.  Bt Cotton-In India, for the time being, the only genetically modified crop that is under cultivation in India is Bt cotton which is grown over 10.8 million hectares.  Bt Brinjal-In 2007, GEAC recommended the commercial release of Bt Brinjal, which was developed by Mahyco & Dharwad University of Agricultural sciences. It was disallowed in 2021 after protests.  GM-mustard-Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 or DMH-11 is a genetically modified variety of mustard developed by the Delhi University. It is still under review to be approved. GM Varieties in Action  GM Corn is resistant to larval pests.  GM soybeans that are resistant to weed-killers   GM maize is used for animal feed. It’s resistant against pests.  GM Cotton is resistant against Pink bollworm and has been approved by many countries.  GM Canola is used or oils & emulsifier in packaged foods BIOTECHNOLOGY INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)  It is a statutory committee & functions in the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).  As per Rules, 1989, it is responsible for the appraisal of activities involving large-scale use of hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production from the environmental angle.  The committee is also responsible for the appraisal of proposals relating to the release of genetically engineered (GE) organisms and products into the environment including experimental field trials.  GEAC is chaired by the Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of MoEF&CC and co- chaired by a representative from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).  Presently, it has 24 members and meets every month to review the applications in the areas indicated above. BIOTECHNOLOGY REGULATION IN INDIA  The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986  Rules for the Manufacture, Use/Import/Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro Organisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells (Rules,1989)  Genetic Engineering Approval Committee renamed as Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee in 2010.  The Biological Diversity Act, 2002  Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003  Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006  4- - - ह ह और और र ह इ और , , और र र ह हर , र र र र ह  ह , 1970 इ र , र ह , र , , और र र और औ र ह , , , , र, र, ह र इ र र र ( और र ) र ह और इ र इ ह  र र र ह, ह और र र र र , र र और र र ह - ✔ ह ; ✔ ह र र ; ✔ र र र र और र र र र - और ह र र र ह ह ह ह 23 46 ह ह ह ह  ह र र ह ह और र ह ह इ र ह - र र ह र र र ह और ह र ह - ह ह इ र ह र र र , र , ' ' ह र ' र '( ) ह ह  ह ह र, र इ र ह, ह ह, र र ह, ह र ह ह र , र ह ह - र र र , ( ) र ह ह और र र र ह इ र ह इ र ह, र ह ह र र ह ह र ह ह, ह र ह  1900-1902 ,. र र र ह A, B, AB और O इ ह O ह ह - A, B और AB ह र ह O ह र ह और इ इ ह AB ह ह ह A, B, AB और O र ह र ह Rh ह 1940 र और र र र ह और र र ह ह Rh र RBC ह Rh+ ह ह ह र र और र ह ह ह ह Rh- ह ह Rh- र -Rh र ह ह ह, Rh + र र ह र र ह ( र ) ( ) र ह ह , ह  ह र र र ह र र इ ह ह र , इ ह ह , , ह र और र र र रह ह ' '- इ र ह इ इ ह 1. 2. र इ ह ह: , र र ह  र इ र र र ह ह र रर र र र र ह र ह , र र इ इ ह , र र ह और र ह ह र र ह और इ ह इ र र ह, ह, ह र र र इ र हर ह और ह. र र. र ह  ह र रर हर ह र ह ह औ , 99.9 ह ह 0.1% ह ह ह ह ह ( , ह ह) इ ह ह हर (10-60 र )ह ह र ह ह हर इ इ ' र' ह ह ह इ रह र र ह 1. ह 5. र 2. र 6. ह 3. र 7. ह 4. र  इ र र ह इ ह ह ह ( र ) इ ह ह, र र ह र ह र , र ह र ह ह र ह ह ह " " र ह और र र ह ह , र र  ( DBT) 2020 ह र र (GIP) इ र र र 10,000 र ह र 20 ह, र (IISc) र र र र ह : और औ र ( र) 1,008 र " - " ह ह ह र "इ " ह ह और र र ( ) ह इ र ह र र र र र (CCMB) और CSIR- इ ऑ इ (IGIB) SARS-CoV-2 (INSACOG) ह र 2020 10 ह इ र SARS-CoV-2 र र र र र ह (WGS) र ह इ और और र ह र - CRISPR 2012 र र र इ र र ह  CRISPR और र ह, और ह - ह ह र ह, इ ह, और इ और ह ह र ह ह र र ह र ह र ह , CRISPR CAS9 र ह ह ह ह र ह रर र ह ह - र ह ह र ह ( र) इ रर र रर र र ह  रर र र ह र ह, ह ह 2 : 1. 2. ह र ह - 1. 2. 3. र iPSC ह र र ह ह ह ह और र ह र र ह रर ह ह रर ह रर ह iPSC ह ह iPSC 2007  इ इ र र ह ह " रह " ह ह इ र ह ह ह र ह ह ह इ र ह, र ह ह इ र , , र र रह ह ह ह इ रर र र रह ह 5,000 इ र ह इ र हर र , , ह , , र र हर , ऑ , र र , ह ह इ र ह ह र र र ह ह ह , , ह  र इ इ और ह र ह र र 1996 और ह ह ह 1. 2. ह और ह र ह ह G - ह ह ह ह ह, र र , इ , , - ह , र र , इ र रह रह ह ह ह ,इ र र र र ह इ र ह और ह र र ह  र र ह ह र र ह , , र ह ह ह र इ ह, ह र ह ह और र ह ह और र र ह हर , , ह - र , ह , र ह ह ह 10.8 ह र ह - 2007 , र र र , ह और र र इ र ह 2021 इ र - - र र हइ -11 -11 र र ह इ र ह ई र ह र र र ह र ह ह र ह र ह और इ र ह और र ह  (GEAC) ह ह और ह र , और र (MoEF&CC) र ह 1989 र, ह र और औ र और र रह र ह र र( ) और रह रह GEAC MoEF&CC / र र ह और ह- (DBT) र ह ,इ 24 ह और र हर ह ह ह र ( र ) , 1986 र / र , / / और र ( , 1989) 2010 इ र र इ र र , 2002 र ( र ) , 2003 र और , 2006