Cropping Pattern PDF

 MAJOR CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN Student Notes: Contents 1. Cropping Pattern................................................

 MAJOR CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN Student Notes: Contents 1. Cropping Pattern........................................................................................................................ 2 1.1. Cropping Systems................................................................................................................ 2 1.2. Significance of Cropping System......................................................................................... 2 1.3. Factors Affecting the Cropping Pattern............................................................................... 3 1.4. Types of Cropping Systems.................................................................................................. 3 1.4.1. Mono-Cropping............................................................................................................ 3 1.4.2. Multiple Cropping........................................................................................................ 4 2. Major Crops in India................................................................................................................... 6 3. Cropping System in India............................................................................................................ 8 3.1. Evolution............................................................................................................................. 8 3.2. Categories of Crops in India................................................................................................ 9 3.2.1. Based on End Usage..................................................................................................... 9 3.2.2. Based on Seasons....................................................................................................... 10 3.3. Cropping Patterns in India................................................................................................. 10 3.4. Major Agricultural Regions or Zones of India.................................................................... 11 4. Miscellaneous.......................................................................................................................... 13 4.1. Conservation Agriculture.................................................................................................. 13 4.1.1. Benefits and challenges of conservation agriculture................................................. 14 4.1.2. Conservation agriculture and Climate-smart agriculture........................................... 15 4.1.3. Is conservation agriculture organic?.......................................................................... 15 4.2. Green Revolution – Krishonnati Yojana............................................................................. 15 4.3. Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI)......................................................... 16 4.4. Operation Greens.............................................................................................................. 16 4.5. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)................................................................................ 17 5. Previous Years UPSC Mains Questions..................................................................................... 18 6. Previous Years Vision IAS GS Mains Questions........................................................................ 18 Copyright © by Vision IAS All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 1 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS 1. Cropping Pattern Student Notes: Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of area under Temporal Arrangements (time) refers different crops at any given point of time in a unit area. to the yearly sequence of growing different crops on a piece of land. For It indicates the temporal and/or spatial arrangement of example, if only one crop is grown on crops in a particular area. There are different types of a particular land year after year (like cropping patterns depending on the availability of rice in various floodplains) it is called various factors/resources (as discussed further). Mono cropping. Spatial Arrangements (space/land) 1.1. Cropping Systems refers to the arrangement of crop/s on a piece of land in various patterns. A cropping system is a broader term than cropping For example, if two crops are grown pattern and includes the sum total of all crops and the on a land in alternative rows it is practices used to grow those crops on a field or farm. It called Row inter-cropping. comprises of all components, such as water, soil, technology etc. required for the production of a particular crop and the interrelationships between them and the surrounding environment. For example, in a Simple Cropping System only one variety of crop is grown each year in the same field with regular fertilizer application to replenish the soil nutrients. While in a Complex Cropping System multiple crops like fruits, vegetables, tree crops, grain, fodder crops and livestock are all grown on a farm during a year with multiple harvests along with managed recycling of nutrients within the system. While talking about cropping systems we tend to apply systems approach to crops. Difference between Cropping Pattern and Cropping System Cropping Pattern Cropping System Includes crop rotation practiced by a majority of Includes cropping pattern and its management to farmers in a given area or locality. derive benefits from a given resource base under specific environmental conditions. Type and management of crops in time and The cropping patterns used on a farm and their space. interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their make-up. Yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops Pattern of crops taken up for a given piece of or crops and fallow on a given area. The land, or order in which crops are cultivated on a proportion of area under various crops at a point piece of land over a fixed period, associated with of time in a unit area soil, management practices such as tillage manuring and irrigation The two concepts are, however, overlapping, in various ways. 1.2. Significance of Cropping System All around the world, different variations are adopted in agriculture, which have some common associated benefits, such as: Maintain and enhance soil fertility: Growing of different crops such as nitrogen fixing leguminous crops enhance the nitrogen content of soil. Growing of perennial forages and millets help to enhance soil organic content. Minimize spread of diseases: It encourages biodiversity by providing a habitat for a variety of insects and soil organisms. Some of them may act as predator for the certain diseases, thus limiting the outbreaks of diseases. Inhibit pest and insect growth: It reduces the homogeneity of farm. This heterogeneity increases the barriers against biological dispersal of pests in the field. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 2 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  Control weed: It reduces the likelihood that specific weed species will become adapted to Student Notes: the system and become problematic. For example, rotation of crops is the most effective means yet devised for keeping land free of weeds. Use resources more effectively: Multiple activities, if scientifically planned, lead to better usage of resources. For example, fodder crops can be used for livestock feed, animal dung can be used as organic manure and dairy products helps to enhance farmer’s income. Reduce risk for crop failure: Different crops have different response to the climate vagaries and varied degree of susceptibility to disease attack. Due to such heterogeneity, the risk of total crop failure is reduced. Improved food and financial security: By reducing the risk of crop failure & diversifying the income opportunities for the famers, scientifically designed cropping system improves food and financial security. Crop diversification refers to the 1.3. Factors Affecting the Cropping Pattern addition of new crops or The cropping pattern and crop diversification in a particular cropping systems to agricultural geographical area depends on different categories of factors. production on a particular farm taking into account the different All the factors vary in their impact on the crops under returns from value-added crops different circumstances and times. These factors have been with complementary marketing differently classified by different researchers/ institutions. opportunities For example, World Bank (1990) has put forward a detailed list of factors under the broad categories of agronomic, economic and policy factors in this regard as determinants of cropping system strategies as mentioned in the table below. All these factors are interrelated and their relative importance changes over time. Agronomic, Economic and Policy Factors Agronomic/Technical Economic Government Policy Climate and soil type Flow of market signals and Non-distortionary policy to avoid (irrigation, communication and discrimination among crops. (eg. topography, fertility, information systems, for MSP Policy) drainage etc.) example, regarding prices in Efficient research and extension Availability of the market, supply –demand programmes, without any bias for required inputs etc. major crops or against high value (fertilizer, chemical, Venture capital and crops. credit, tractors etc.) entrepreneurship. Contract-farming opportunities Plant/seed of high Transparency of input and Rural credit. genetic quality. output prices. Off-farm employment Management Information on export opportunities. techniques and standards, market demand Marketing systems including quality managers. and relative profitability. quality standards. Abundance of labour. Efficient marketing systems. Involvement of the private sector. (Source: World Bank (1990) 1.4. Types of Cropping Systems Crop rotation: Crops are changed in the field from year 1.4.1. Mono-Cropping to year according to a planned Mono-cropping or monoculture refers to growing of only sequence rather than the same one crop on a piece of land year after year. crop being grown in the same field again and again. It may be due to climatic and socio-economic conditions or due to specialisation of a farmer in growing a particular crop. For example, groundnut or cotton or sorghum are grown year after year due to limitation of rainfall, while in canal irrigated areas, under a waterlogged condition, rice crop is grown as it is not possible to grow any other crop. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 3 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS 1.4.2. Multiple Cropping Cropping Intensity Student Notes: It is the practice of growing two or more It refers to number of crops cultivated in a piece of crops in the same field within a given land per annum. year. Cropping Intensity = Gross Cropped Area / Net Sown Area x 100 It is the intensification of cropping in time and space Gross Cropped Area (GCA) is the total area sown once as well as more than once in a particular dimensions, i.e., more number year. When the crop is sown on a piece of land for of crops within year and more twice, the area is counted twice in GCA. On the other number of crops on same piece hand, Net Sown Area is the area sown with crops but of land in any given period. is counted only once. It includes mixed-cropping, In Punjab and Tamil Nadu, the cropping intensity is inter-cropping and sequence more than 100% (i.e. around 140-150%). In Rajasthan, cropping. the cropping intensity is less. A. Mixed Cropping: Two or more crops Need for intensive cropping grown in the same field within a The increase in population has put pressure on given year without a definite row land to increase productivity per unit area, unit arrangement. It is a common time and for unit resource used. practice in most of dry land tracts of Moreover, for efficient use of available natural India. Seeds of different crops are resources, the cropping system has to evolve with mixed in certain proportion and are change in climate, soil and water availability. sown. Thus, cropping system should provide enough The objective is to meet the food for the family, fodder for cattle and generate family requirement of cereals, sufficient cash income for domestic and pulses and vegetables. Ex: cultivation expenses. sorghum, pearl millet and cowpea are mixed and broadcasted in rain-fed conditions. B. Inter-cropping: It includes growing two or more crops simultaneously with definite row arrangement on the same field with an objective of higher productivity per unit area in addition to stability in production. It was earlier practiced as an insurance against crop failure under poor rainfall conditions. If done unscientifically, it might lead to intercrop competition for available resources. Requirements for successful Inter-cropping: o The timing of peak nutrient demands of component crops should not overlap. o Competition for light should be minimum among the component crops. o The difference in maturity of component crops should be at least 30 days. Types of Intercropping: Combinations of various crops can vary in terms of spatial or temporal arrangement. On the basis of these variations, following types of intercropping have been identified. 1. Row intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are planted in rows. It is a variation in space dimension. For example, maize + greengram (1:1), maize + blackgram (1:1), groundnut + redgram (6:1) Variations include alley cropping, where crops are grown in between rows of trees, and strip cropping, where multiple rows, or a strip, of one crop are alternated with multiple rows of another crop. 2. Strip-intercropping: Two or more crops are planted in the same field in alternate strips. Strips are wide enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crops to interact. Ex. groundnut + redgram (6:4) strip. Advantages of intercropping It leads to better use of growth resources including light, nutrients and water. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 4 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  Intercropping of compatible plants also encourages biodiversity by providing a habitat Student Notes: for a variety of insects and soil organisms that would not be present in a single-crop environment. This in turn can help limit outbreaks of crop pests by increasing predator biodiversity. Along with suppression of weeds it causes yield stability - even if one crop fails due to unforeseen situations, another crop will yield and gives income. Successful intercropping gives higher equivalent yields (yield of base crop + yield of intercrop), higher cropping intensity. It reduces pest and disease incidences and improves soil health and agro-ecological system. Reducing the homogeneity of the crop increases the barriers against biological dispersal of pest organisms through the crop. Mixed Cropping vs Intercropping Mixed Cropping Intercropping Aimed to minimize the risk of crop failure Aimed to increase productivity from unit area Seeds of different crops are mixed together before Seeds are not mixed sowing All the crops are sown at the same time. Crops can be sown at the same or different time. Crop sowing is random. Different crops are grouped in different rows or columns. Pest control is relatively difficult. Pest control is relatively easier. Equal emphasis is given to all the crops. More emphasis is given to main crops. Same fertilizer and pesticide is applied to all crops. Specific fertilizer and pesticide is applied to each crops. C. Sequence Cropping or Sequential Cropping or Crop Rotation: It can be defined as growing of two or more crops in a sequence on same piece of land in a farming year. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested. Crop variation is done with respect only to time. There is no intercrop competition. Its various types are: o Double Cropping: Growing two crops on the same land in a year in sequence(across time). Ex. rice→cotton o Triple Cropping: Growing three on the same land in a year in sequence. Ex. Triple cropping: rice→rice→pulses o Quadruple: Growing four crops on the same land in a year in sequence. Ex. tomato→ridge gourd→amaranthus greens→baby corn. (NOTE: The various terms defined above bring out essentially two underlying principles of growing crops simultaneously in mixture, i.e., intercropping; and of growing individual crops in sequence, i.e., sequential cropping. The cropping system for a region or farm may comprise either or both of these two principles). D. Other Types of Multiple Cropping Alley cropping: It is planting rows of trees at wide spacing with a companion crop grown in the alleyways between the rows. It diversifies the sources of farm income, improves crop production and provide protection and conservation benefits to crops. Common examples of alley cropping plantings include wheat, corn, soybeans or hay planted in between rows of black walnut or pecan (a type of walnut) trees. Relay Cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously during the part of the life cycle of each. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 5 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  The second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage of Student Notes: growth, but, before it is ready for harvest. Ex: rice fallow pulses i.e pulses gown on land where rice is nearing its harvest season. This allows farmers to grow two crops in one season in places where the growing season is not long enough to accommodate two crops. Ratoon cropping: Ratooning is a method of harvesting a crop which leaves the roots and the lower parts of the plant uncut to give the ratoon or the stubble crop. Crop regrows out of roots or stalks after harvest of crops. The main benefit of ratooning is that the crop matures earlier in the season. Ratooning can also decrease the cost of preparing the field and planting. However, this method cannot be used endlessly as the yield of the ratoon crop decreases after each cycle. Ratooning is most often used with crops which are known to give a steady yield for three years under most conditions eg sugarcane, banana, pineapple. 2. Major Crops in India Crop Characteristics Climatic Condition Remarks/Distribution Rice Staple food crop of High temperature (above Plains of North and North-Eastern India. 25° C) India, coastal areas and the deltaic Kharif Crop High Humidity with average regions Aus, Aman and Boro rainfall above 100 cm Punjab, Haryana, West UP and are varieties of rice in Parts of Rajasthan (with help of Kharif, Rabi and Zaid irrigation) seasons. Wheat Second most important Requires a cool growing The Ganga-Satluj plains in the crop season and a bright northwest and black soil region of Main food crop in north sunshine at the time of the Deccan. and north-western ripening. The major wheat-producing states India Winter temperature from are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Rabi Crop 10°-15° C and summer Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts temperature from 21°-26° C of Madhya Pradesh. 50-75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing seasons Millets Jowar, bajra and ragi Jowar is a rain-fed crop Major Jowar producing States were are important millets in mostly grown in the moist Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra India. areas which hardly needs Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Have high nutritional irrigation. ( Kharif- 26°-33° C; Major Bajra producing States were: value Rabi- above 16°C) Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bajra grows well on sandy Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. soils and shallow black soil. Major ragi producing states are: (Temperature- 25°-30° C, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal rainfall- 40-50 cm) Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Ragi is a crop of dry regions Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh. and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils. ( Temperature- 20°-30° C; rainfall- 50-100 cm) Maize Is used both as food Temperature between 21°C Major maize-producing states are and fodder. to 27°C and grows well in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 6 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  Kharif Crop. old alluvial soil. Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Student Notes: In some states like 50-100 cm rainfall Madhya Pradesh Bihar- Rabi crop also. Requires four and a half frost free months in a year Pulses Major source of protein less moisture and survive Major pulse producing states in in a vegetarian diet. even in dry conditions. India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Tur (arhar), urad, Gram prefers 20°-25° Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra moong, masur, peas temperature and 40-50 cm and Karnataka. and gram are major rainfall Being leguminous crops, all these pulses in India. crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air. Sugarc Tropical as well as Hot and humid climate with The major sugarcane-producing ane subtropical crop. a temperature of 21°C to states are Uttar Pradesh, Main source of sugar, 27°C and an annual rainfall Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil gur (jaggary), khandsari between 75cm and 100cm Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and molasses. Can be grown on a variety of Bihar, Punjab and Haryana. soils and needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting Tea Plantation Crop Grows well in tropical and Tea is a labour-intensive industry. sub-tropical climates It requires abundant, cheap and endowed with deep and skilled labour. fertile well-drained soil, rich Major tea-producing states are in humus and organic Assam, hills of Darjeeling and matter. Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Ideal temperature- 20°-30° C Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Himachal Requires warm and moist Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, frost-free climate all through Andhra Pradesh and Tripura are the year. also tea-producing states in the Frequent showers (150-300 country. cm) evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves Coffee The Arabica variety Requires hot and humid Intially its cultivation was initially brought from climate with temperature introduced on the Baba Budan Hills Yemen is produced in varying between 15°-28° C and even today its cultivation is the country. and rainfall from 150-250 confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, cm Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Rubber Equatorial Crop, but Moist and humid climate Mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil under special with rainfall of more than Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and conditions 200 cm. and temperature Nicobar islands and Garo hills of Also grown in tropical above 25°C. Meghalaya. and sub-tropical areas. Cotton Fibre Crop It requires high temperature Major cotton-producing states are– Kharif Crop and (21° -30° C), light rainfall Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya requires 6 to 8 months (50-100 cm) or irrigation, Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra to mature. 210 frost-free days and Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, bright sun-shine for its Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Cotton grows well in growth. Pradesh. drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan Plateau. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 7 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  Jute Known as Golden fibre Grows well on well-drained Major jute producing states are Student Notes: fertile soils in the flood West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha plains where soils are and Meghalaya. renewed every year. High temperature is required during the time of growth 3. Cropping System in India 3.1. Evolution The cropping system of a region is a cumulative result of long term agricultural practices, social customs and traditions, physical conditions, Government policies, monetary considerations and historical factors. In India, over last 50 years, the trend in the land use pattern and cropping pattern has shown increasing use of land for the purpose of cultivation with slight variations. The change in land use pattern and cropping pattern is vastly affected by irrigation expansion, infrastructure development, penetration of rural markets, development and spread of short duration and drought resistant crop technologies, rapid urbanization. The higher cultivable area has been achieved by bringing large acreage of uncultivable land into cultivation. Some of the observable trends/issues in Indian agriculture system can be seen as under: Dominance of food crops over non-food crops At the time of Independence, over 80% of the gross cropped area in the country was devoted to the production of food crops. Reason: Gradually with commercialization of agriculture, farmers in India have started shifting area to non-food crops mainly due to relatively better price realization. Variety of Crops Almost every kind of crops are grown in India as it is endowed with a variety of soils. Cash crops have gradually cached up with the production of food crops and more and more farmers are moving from subsistence to commercial farming. Horticulture crop production (305.4 MT in 2017-18) has recently overtaken the total foodgrain (279.5 MT in 2017-18) production in India. Besides, medicinal plants, fruits, flowers and vegetables are gradually getting special attention due to their demand in food processing and export potential. Plantation crops are highly profitable but require huge capital and large tracts of land. Thus it is confined to limited parts of country. Emphasis is placed now on production of oilseeds through various initiatives like Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Maize and Oilpalm (ISOPOM). DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 8 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  Reason: After ensuring the food security, now the policy emphasis is on increasing farmers Student Notes: income, boost exports, save foreign exchange spent on import of edible oils. Dominance of cereals among food crops Within broad group of food crops, cereals like wheat and rice dominate. About 82 per cent of the area under food crops has been put to cultivation of cereals. Reason: This is due to better prices, less risk in production and the availability of better seeds. Decline in coarse cereals Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Millets, Barley etc. are called coarse or inferior cereals. The area under these crops to the total area under cereal crops has declined significantly from 48 per cent in 1950-51 to about 25 per cent in 2016. Reason: This is due to spread of irrigation facilities, improved inputs and a shift in consumption patterns of the people. Declining importance of Kharif crops The share of Kharif has declined from 71 per cent in the 1970’s to 49 percent in 2015-16. The share of Rabi foodgrain production in total foodgrain production of the country has increased from 36.4% in 1970-71 to 50.83% in 2015-16. Reason: The Kharif crops are not reliable because they are mostly dependent on monsoon rainfall which in itself is unreliable. Contrary to this, mostly Rabi crops in India are raised on irrigation which offers a degree of reliability. 3.2. Categories of Crops in India Crops can be categorized differently based on end usage and on the growing season. 3.2.1. Based on End Usage Food Crops Cash Crops Plantation Crops Horticulture crops These are the Cash Crops are crops A plantation is a large-scale Horticulture is the crops which are that are especially used farm that specializes in science and art of grown as food for profit rather than cash crops. growing and caring for the consumption by a family. The term Plantation crops for plants, especially producer's family They can be consumed refers to those crops which are flowers, fruits, and or for the directly or processed usually cultivated as a single vegetables. producer's own into other products, such crop on an extensive scale in a The word horticulture livestock. as sugar and biofuel. large contiguous area, owned comes from Latin and Example wheat, and managed by an Individual means "garden They consist of foods like rice, jowar etc. or a company. cultivation." tobacco, tea, coffee, The scale of cardamom, fruits and These plantation crops are Whereas agronomy (a operations is vegetables, grains, etc. high value commercial crops branch of agriculture) quite small so as of greater economic refers to the growing They are sold, but some to fulfil the basic importance of field crops, are not edible. Cotton needs of a family. horticulture refers to and tobacco are The crops include tea, coffee, examples of non-edible rubber, cocoa, coconut, small-scale gardening. cash crops. arecanut, oil palm, cashew, cinchona etc. *All food crops can be cash crops but not all cash crops can be food crops. Food crops can be eaten by someone somewhere and so have a cash value. Food crops can be sold, which would make them cash crops as well. *Kindly note that the Plantation and Horticultural crops are a subset of food/cash crops. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 9 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS 3.2.2. Based on Seasons Student Notes: There are three distinct crop seasons namely Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid. Kharif season largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon and corresponds to the rainy season. The area under Rabi crops is 22.4% Rabi season begins with the onset of winter in less than under Kharif crops. October-November and ends in March-April. The low temperature conditions during this season facilitate the cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops such as wheat, gram and mustard. Zaid is a short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of rabi crops and the sowing of the Kharif crops. The cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during this season is done on irrigated lands. Cropping season Major crops cultivated Northern States Southern States Kharif Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Jowar, Tur Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar, Groundnut June-September Rabi Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds and Mustard, Barley Rice, Maize, Ragi Groundnut, Jowar October-March Zaid Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder Rice, Vegetables, Fodder April-June However, this type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in southern parts of the country. Here, the temperature is high enough to grow tropical crops during any period in the year provided the soil moisture is available. Therefore, in this region same crops can be grown thrice in an agricultural year provided there is sufficient soil moisture. 3.3. Cropping Patterns in India Different parts in India follow different cropping patterns during a year. It is largely due to variations in physical factors, size of land holdings, market facilities, government policies, infrastructure facilities etc. These factors are discussed below. Crop diversification and intensification depends on various factors related to: Soil and climatic parameters: It determines overall agro-ecological setting Resource: It covers irrigation, rainfall and soil fertility Technology: Varieties of seeds, cultural requirements, mechanization, plant protection, and access to information etc. Infrastructure facilities: Irrigation, transport, storage, trade and marketing, post-harvest handling and processing etc. Condition of Household: Food and fodder self-sufficiency requirement as well as investment capacity. Socio-economic conditions: Financial resource base, land ownership, size and type of land holding, household needs of food, fodder, fuel, fibre and finance, labour availability etc. Pricing Structure: It includes output and input prices as well as trade policies and other economic policies that affect these prices either directly or indirectly. Institutions: It covers farm size and tenancy arrangements, research, extension and marketing systems and government regulatory policies. Apart from this the factors determining the choice of crops by a farmer may depend largely on: Size of the Land Holding: In India marginal and small farmers represent the majority of farming community. So the mono crop paddy has become predominant as it fulfils the household needs and perpetuates the subsistence agriculture with little scope for commercial Cop husbandry. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 10 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  Literacy: Majority of the farmers are ignorant of the scientific methods involved in mixed- Student Notes: cropping, mono cropping and other technological knowhow for practicing better Disease and pest: The cropping pattern also depends on the possibility of disease and pest infections. Ecological Suitability: The cropping pattern of a particular region is highly dependent on the ecological condition (temperature, rainfall, humidity, etc.). Moisture Availability: The source of irrigation greatly determines the type of the cropping pattern to be practiced. For example, in low rainfall area, dry land farming is best possible way to profit maximisation. Financial Stability: The economic condition of the farmers also affects the cropping pattern. As the cash crops (for example, cotton) involve high capital investments, these are practised only in estate farming. The marginal section of the farms community adopts low cost crops. Examples of Cropping Patterns Followed in India Major categories of cropping pattern followed in India are- Kharif (monsoon crops) Rabi (post-monsoon crops) Rice based Non-Rice-Based Wheat and Gram Based Rabi-Jowar Based Relay Cropping - seed of succeeding Maize-based These two crops are Along with Jowar, crops like lentil, gram, pea, lathyrus, Bajra-based grown under identical bajra, pulses, berseem, linseed etc. is sown climate and can often be oilseeds and Cotton-based through broadcasting in maturing substituted for each tobacco are rice crop. It is done in both upland other. grown as and lowland rice culture*. alternative crops. Mixed varietal cropping of rice - Mixing the seeds of early rice (ahu) with late maturing deep water rice (bao). It is mainly practiced in West Bengal. 3.4. Major Agricultural Regions or Zones of India On the basis of some homogeneity and commonness, major crop regions in India may be Upland rice is grown in rainfed, naturally well-drained soils with bunded or divided as follows: unbunded fields without surface water Rice Region accumulation. Wheat Region Lowland rice is grown on land that is Jowar-Bajra Region flooded or irrigated. Cotton Region Millet and Maize Region Fruit and Spice Region Rice region Rice is considered as the major crop in the vast region stretching from lower Gangetic plain to Brahmaputra valley in the east and the circum-coastal alluvial tracts of the peninsula region. Though rice displays overall dominance, considering the secondary importance of other crops, this region may be subdivided into following zones: Rice-Jute-Tea: This association of crops occurs in far east, near Assam Valley, north-west Bengal and lower Gangetic plains. Rice-Pulses-Millets-: This association occurs in the western section of the former zone, covering central Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Rice-Millets: This zone comprises the entire Andhra Pradesh, southern Orissa and some parts of Tamil Nadu. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 11 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  Rice-Coffee-Spices: This zone is found in the southern extremity of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Student Notes: Wheat region Other wheat based systems: This region covers the entire north-western India including Wheat –chickpea the state of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Wheat-rice-wheat The major sub-regions are: Wheat-green manure-wheat Wheat-fallow-wheat Wheat-Maize-Sugarcane: This region comprises a great part of wheat regions, covering West Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu. Wheat-Jowar-Bajra in Indus Plain covering Punjab and Haryana. Wheat-Jowar-Bajra in Vindhyan scarp land and Malwa Bundelkhand plateau. Jowar-Bajra Region This crop combination is practised in drought prone region (rainfall 50-100 cm). Jowar-Cotton in Maharashtra. Jowar-Cotton-Oilseeds-Millets in Karnataka and Maharashtra. Jowar-Wheat in entire Rajasthan, Haryana and some parts of Uttar Pradesh. Bajra-Jowar-Pulses in Rajasthan desert and semi-desert areas. Cotton Region Cotton cultivation predominates in the black cotton soil (regur) region in the North West India. It covers the Deccan trap region and Gujarat plain. The Narmada, Tapti, Purna, Sabarmati River Valleys are basically heartlands of cotton cultivation. As a cash-crop, cotton cultivation is always associated with one food grain cultivation, preferably Jowar, Bajra or oil seeds. The different sub-regions are: Cotton-Jowar-Bajra grows in close association with one another in the Maharashtra and Western Madhya Pradesh. Cotton-Oilseeds combination developed in Gujarat. Cotton-Pulses-Rice region developed in Narmada banks and Eastern Gujarat. Millet-Maize Region The cultivation of millet, maize and ragi are found in close association with other major cereals like bajra, wheat, rice etc. Maize cultivation dominates in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. In Himachal Pradesh, Maize-Barley-wheat combination has developed, particularly in the foothills of the Himalayas. Some parts of the Aravalli have DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 12 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS the peculiar crop combination of Maize-Cotton-Oilseeds-Millets-Wheat. Ragi cultivation Student Notes: predominates in South of Karnataka. Maize based cropping systems Maize has wide adaptability and compatibility under diverse soil and climatic conditions. It is cultivated in sequence with different crops under various agro-ecologies of the country Among different maize based cropping systems o Maize-wheat ranks 1st having 1.8 m ha area mainly concentrated in rainfed ecologies. o Maize-wheat is the 3rd most Related Information important cropping systems (after rice-wheat and rice-rice Agro-ecological/climatic zoning (AEZ) that contributes about 3 % in It defines zones on the basis of combinations of soil, the national food basket.) landform and climatic characteristics. The particular parameters used in the definition focus attention on Rice-maize has emerged a potential the climatic and edaphic requirements of crops and on maize-based cropping system in the management systems under which the crops are peninsular and eastern India. grown. Each zone has a similar combination of Compared to existing cropping systems constraints and potentials for land use and serves as a like rice-wheat and rice-rice, maize focus for the targeting of recommendations designed to improve the existing land-use situation, either based cropping systems are better user through increasing production or by limiting land of available resources and the water degradation. use efficiency of maize based cropping With the 329 million hectares of the geographical area systems is about 100 to 200 % higher at the country presents a large number of complex agro- different locations. climatic situations. Several attempts have been made Fruit & Spice Region to delineate major agro-ecological regions in India for macro-level planning on a more scientific basis. They This is the smallest region among the are as follows. different crop regions. High-altitude Agro-climatic regions by the Planning Commission hilly areas come under the territory of Agro-climatic zones under National Agricultural this region. The ‘Duns’ and valleys in Research Project (NARP) Himalayas, foothills of Nilgiri, Annamalai, Palni and Cardamom hills in Agro-ecological regions by the National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP) Tamil Nadu and Kerala may be classified as fruit and spice region. Here, the dominant agricultural activity is fruit orchards and plantations. Plantation and Other Commercial Crops Crops under this category include sugarcane, tobacco, potato, jute, tea, coffee, coconut, rubber and other crops, such as spices and condiments. Some of them are seasonal, some annual and some perennial. Most of them require specific environmental conditions and from the point of view of cropping patterns, they are concentrated in some particular regions. Besides, certain horticultural crops, such as apple, mango and citrus, are important. In the case of plantation-crops, intercropping with pulses and fodder crops is common. Spices and condiments are generally grown on fertile soils. Chillies are rotated with jowar, whereas onion, coriander, turmeric and ginger are grown as mixed crops with other seasonal crops. 4. Miscellaneous 4.1. Conservation Agriculture Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that can prevent losses of arable land while regenerating degraded lands. It promotes maintenance of a permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance, and diversification of plant species. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 13 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  It conserves natural resources, biodiversity and labor. It increases available soil water, Student Notes: reduces heat and drought stress, and builds up soil health in the longer term It is based on the interrelated principles of minimal mechanical soil disturbance, permanent soil cover with living or dead plant material, and crop diversification through rotation or intercropping. It helps farmers to maintain and boost yields and increase profits, while reversing land degradation, protecting the environment and responding to growing challenges of climate change. To reduce soil disturbance, farmers practice zero-tillage farming, which allows direct planting without plowing or preparing the soil. The farmer seeds directly through surface residues of the previous crop. Zero tillage is combined with intercropping and crop rotation, which means either growing two or more crops at the same time on the same piece of land, or growing two different crops on the same land in a sequential manner. These are also core principles of sustainable intensification. 4.1.1. Benefits and challenges of conservation agriculture Zero-tillage farming with residue cover saves irrigation water, gradually increases soil organic matter and suppresses weeds, as well as reduces costs of machinery, fuel and time associated with tilling. Leaving the soil undisturbed increases water infiltration, holds soil moisture and helps to prevent topsoil erosion. Conservation agriculture enhances water intake that allows for more stable yields in the midst of weather extremes exacerbated by climate change. While conservation agriculture provides many benefits for farmers and the environment, farmers can face constraints to adopt these practices. Wetlands or soils with poor drainage can make adoption challenging. When crop residues are limited, farmers tend to use them for fodder first, so there might not be enough residues for the soil cover. To initiate conservation agriculture, appropriate seeders are necessary, and these may not be available or affordable to all farmers. Conservation agriculture is also knowledge intensive and not all farmers may have access to the knowledge and training required on how to DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 14 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  practice conservation agriculture. Finally, conservation agriculture increases yields over Student Notes: time but farmers may not see yield benefits immediately. However, innovations, adapted research and new technologies are helping farmers to overcome these challenges and facilitate the adoption of conservation agriculture. 4.1.2. Conservation agriculture and Climate-smart agriculture While conservation agriculture and climate-smart agriculture are similar, their purposes are different. Conservation agriculture aims to sustainably intensify smallholder farming systems and have a positive effect on the environment using natural processes. It helps farmers to adapt to and increase profits in spite of climate risks. Climate-smart agriculture aims to adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change by sequestering soil carbon and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and finally increase productivity and profitability of farming systems to ensure farmers’ livelihoods and food security in a changing climate. Conservation agriculture systems can be considered climate- smart as they deliver on the objectives of climate-smart agriculture. 4.1.3. Is conservation agriculture organic? Conservation agriculture and organic farming both maintain a balance between agriculture and resources, use crop rotation, and protect the soil’s organic matter. However, the main difference between these two types of farming is that organic farmers use a plow or soil tillage, while farmers who practice conservation agriculture use natural principles and do not till the soil. Organic farmers apply tillage to remove weeds without using inorganic fertilizers. Conservation agriculture farmers, on the other hand, use a permanent soil cover and plant seeds through this layer. They may initially use inorganic fertilizers to manage weeds, especially in soils with low fertility. Over time, the use of agrichemicals may be reduced or slowly phased out. 4.2. Green Revolution – Krishonnati Yojana Objective To develop the agriculture and allied sector in a holistic and scientific manner to increase the income of farmers by enhancing production, productivity and better returns on produce. Salient Features It is a Centrally Sponsored Umbrella Scheme that has been implemented since 2016-17. It comprises of 11 schemes / missions: Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)- to promote holistic growth of horticulture sector. National Food Security Mission (NFSM) including National Mission on Oil Seeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP)- to increase production of rice, wheat, pulses, coarse cereals, oilseeds and commercial crops through area expansion, restoring soil fertility and improving productivity. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)- to promote sustainable agriculture practices focusing on integrated farming, appropriate soil health management and synergizing resource conservation technology. Sub-Mission on Agriculture Extension (SMAE)- to strengthen ongoing programmes of states/local bodies to achieve food security, empowering farmers, strengthen programme planning, ICT usage etc. Sub-Mission on Seeds and Planting Material (SMSP)- to increase production of certified / quality seed, increase seed replacement rate (SRR) and upgrade the quality of farm saved seeds. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 15 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM)- to increase the reach of farm Student Notes: mechanization, promote ‘Custom Hiring Centres’ to offset the adverse economies of scale arising due to small landholding and high cost. Sub-Mission on Plant Protection and Plan Quarantine- to minimize loss to quality and yield of agricultural crops, shield agricultural bio-security, facilitate exports and promote good agricultural practices. Integrated Scheme on Agriculture Census, Economics and Statistics- to undertake the agriculture census, study of the cost of cultivation of principal crops, to undertake research studies on agro-economic problems etc. Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Cooperation (ISAC)- to provide financial assistance for improving the economic conditions of cooperatives, remove regional imbalances. Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Marketing (ISAM)- to develop and provide agricultural marketing infrastructure, promote innovative and latest technologies and integrate markets through a common online market platform. National e-Governance Plan (NeGP-A)- to improve access of farmers to information &services, making available timely and relevant information to the farmers for increasing their agriculture productivity. Note: Kindly refer to Vision IAS PT 365 Government Schemes, 2020 document for details on the aforementioned specific schemes 4.3. Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI) The program was launched in 2010-11 to address constraints limiting the productivity of “rice based cropping system” in eastern India comprising seven states – Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Eastern Uttar Pradesh (Purvanchal) and West Bengal. Various initiatives under the scheme are – Block or cluster development of improved production technology. Asset building activities for farm improvement. Site specific activities for farm renovation. Seed production and distribution. Marketing support and post-harvest management. Objectives To increase production and productivity of rice and wheat by adopting latest crop production technologies. To promote cultivation in rice fallow area to increase cropping intensity & income of the farmers. To create water harvesting structures and efficient utilization of water potential. To promote post-harvest technology and marketing support. 4.4. Operation Greens Horticulture in India- Related facts Over the last decade, the area under Operation Greens was announced in the horticulture grew by 2.6% per annum and Budget speech of 2018-19 with an outlay of Rs annual production increased by 4.8%. 500 crores to stabilize the supply of Tomato, India witnessed the shift in area from food Onion and Potato (TOP) crops and to ensure grain towards horticulture crops over last availability of TOP crops throughout the five years (from 2012-13 to 2017-18). country round the year without price volatility. India is second largest producer of Vegetables and Fruits. Major objectives of “Operation Greens” The total horticulture production was highest in case of Uttar Pradesh (392.48 Enhancing value realisation of TOP farmers Lakh Tonnes) followed by West Bengal by targeted interventions to strengthen (324.2 Lakh Tonnes). DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 16 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  TOP production clusters and their Farmer Producers Organizations (FPOs), and Student Notes: linking/connecting them with the market. Price stabilisation for producers and consumers by proper production planning in the TOP clusters and introduction of dual use varieties. Reduction in post-harvest losses by creation of farm gate infrastructure, development of suitable agro- logistics, creation of appropriate storage capacity linking consumption centres to increase shell life. Increase in food processing capacities and value addition in TOP value chain with firm linkages with production clusters. Setting up of a market intelligence network to collect and collate real time data on demand and supply and price of TOP crops. 4.5. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) It is a natural farming technique, developed by Subhash Palekar, in which farming is done without use of chemicals and without using any credits or spending any money on purchased inputs. ZBNF reduces the cost of production down to zero due to utilisation of all the natural resources available in and around the crops. Farmers use earthworms, cow dung, urine, plants, human excreta and other biological fertilizers for crop protection. Features of ZBNF Inter-cropping: Under this, combination of various crops is grown simultaneously to produce greater yield on given piece of land by making use of resources that may be utilised by single crop. E.g. farmer grow combination crops such as pearl millet, red gram, foxtail millet, along with chillies and tomatoes or multiple crops with groundnut as main crop. Use of Bio-Fertilizers and elimination of chemical fertilizers and pesticides – Farmers have a practice named Jiwamrita in which they apply fertilizers made of local cow dung and cow urine. Utilization of soil moisture: Farmer of drought-prone areas adopt mulching and Waaphasa to reduce the loss of natural moisture of the soil, increase soil aeration, enhance soil health and fertility and ensure favourable microclimate in the soil. Reduce input cost of agriculture: ZBNF through reduced expenditure on expensive inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides cuts down on input cost and increases farmer income. Contours and bunds: to preserve rain water as it promotes maximum efficacy for different crops. ZBNF also includes replenishing water bodies such as farm ponds to ensure water availability during dry spells. Farmers also practice replenishing local species of earthworms on the farm to increase the organic matter in the soil which in-turn increases soil’s capacity to retain moisture. Way ahead In June 2018, Andhra Pradesh rolled out an ambitious plan to become India’s first State to practise 100% natural farming by 2024. It aims to phase out chemical farming over 80 lakh hectares of land, converting the State’s 60 lakh farmers to ZBNF methods. Himachal Pradesh, DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 17 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS Chhattisgarh, Kerala, Karnataka and Uttarakhand have also invited Mr. Palekar to train their Student Notes: farmers. NITI Aayog has been among the foremost promoters of Mr. Palekar and the ZBNF method. However, its experts have also warned that multi-location studies are needed to scientifically validate the long-term impact and viability of the model before it can be scaled up and promoted country-wide. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is studying the ZBNF methods practised by basmati and wheat farmers in Modipuram (Uttar Pradesh), Ludhiana (Punjab), Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) and Kurukshetra (Haryana), evaluating the impact on productivity, economics and soil health including soil organic carbon and soil fertility. If found to be successful, an enabling institutional mechanism could be set up to promote the technology 5. Previous Years UPSC Mains Questions 1. What are the major reasons for declining rice and wheat yield in the cropping system? How crop diversification is helpful to stabilize the yield of the crop in the system? 2. How has the emphasis on certain crops brought about changes in cropping patterns in recent past? Elaborate the emphasis on millets production and consumption. 3. How do subsidies affect the cropping pattern, crop diversity and economy of farmers? What is the significance of crop insurance, minimum support price and food processing for small and marginal farmers? 6. Previous Years Vision IAS GS Mains Questions 1. India has seen significant progress towards increasing production, yield levels and crop diversification in last three decades. Still, the agricultural productivity in India is among the lowest in the world. In this context, analyse the reasons for low productivity and suggest some measures to improve the same. Approach: Identify causes of low productivity in India in spite of the factors mentioned Suggest improvement measures Answer: Causes of low productivity Overcrowding in agriculture: Disguised unemployment and low marginal productivity because too many people are directly dependent on farming. Increased population led to sub-division and fragmentation of holdings thus there was a decline in the area of land available for cultivation per capita. Discouraging rural atmosphere: Very few farmers are quick in following modern technology exposed to them; but vast majority of farmers are not motivated to learn and try new ways. However, this has steadily changed in recent years. Inadequate Farm Credits: Farm Credits have been inadequate despite the efforts of the government and RBI to increase it. Small Size of Holdings: The average size of holdings in India is very low and they are fragmented and small. Since they are small, scientific cultivation techniques cannot be adopted. Small sized holdings lead to great waste of time, labour and cattle power, difficulty in proper utilization of irrigation facilities and consequent litigation among farmers etc. Inadequate irrigation facilities: Indian agriculture is mostly dependent on rainfall and very few farmers avail the facility of artificial irrigation. Though over the time, more area was brought under irrigation, still there is a great scope for improving the irrigation facilities DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 18 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  Improvement measures Student Notes: There should be necessary programmes which demonstrate the technology and show the importance of crop rotation, multi-cropping etc. to the farmers. An Agricultural Mechanization Corporation can be established which can help an average farmer who cannot manage with hired labour. Greatest importance should be given to the promotion of transport, marketing facilities and consolidation of holdings. Improvement in storage facilities, providing tenant security, implementing the recommended projects in rural areas for improving the irrigation facilities for supplementing better quality seeds and for increasing awareness among the people about hybrids, varieties, disease resistant varieties, drought resistant varieties, etc. are the other major aspects to be concentrated upon. There is little scope for increasing the area of cultivation in future but through multiple cropping, relying on irrigation facilities, high yielding varieties, etc. we can raise the agricultural productivity. 2. Food grain constitutes 64 percent of the gross cropped area (GCA), although it accounts for less than 25 percent of the total value of output of agriculture and allied activities. Give reasons for this existing imbalance in the current cropping pattern of food grains in India and steps needed to correct such an imbalance. Approach: Highlight factors incentivising food grain production Also focus on factors creating disincentive for non-food grain products like horticultural products etc. Mention some steps taken by government to correct such imbalance Suggest some more steps required Answer: In India, there is an existing imbalance in the cropping pattern of the food grains. The food grains occupied an area of 97.32 million hectare (mha) in 1950-51 has increased to 126.74 mha in 2011-12. In these years, the area under cereals such as rice and wheat has grown but the same under coarse cereals and millets has decreased. Reasons of imbalance in Crop Pattern: Prices of food grains have been rising quite fast and the farmers have started growing food crops in the similar way they grow commercial crops like cotton, oil seed crops sugarcane etc. Cultivation of food grains has become highly remunerative and productive under the influence of new technology. Traditionally, the Minimum Support Prices for wheat and rice have been maintained reasonably high (in comparison to millets such as Jowar and Bajra). This has helped the farmers to increase their production. There has been a change in the consumption pattern and people have moved from coarse cereals to wheat and rice for their main dietary grain. This is because of the increase in the income of the people and coarse cereals being the inferior goods. The strategic objectives of agricultural development in India have been changing over time. o In 1960s, it was to maintain the prices of food grains at low level. The government significantly supported the growth of wheat and rice cultivation via its policy intervention, procurement and technology. DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW CHANDIGARH 19 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS  o In 1960s to 1980s, it was to maximize food production. Student Notes: o In 1980s to 1990s, it was to go for a demand driven production pattern. o Since 1990s, it was to reduce inputs of agricultural commodities. Lack of market and storage facilities for horticultural products Absence of stable price regime for horticultural products Various steps taken by government Government through National food security mission focussed on increasing production of pulses, which India has been importing Oil seed production has also been emphasized under National mission on oilseed and oil palm National horticultural mission for promoting horticultural products. Some other steps like rationalisation of MSP for products other than cereals is necessary. 3. “Multiplicity of cropping systems has been one of main features of Indian agriculture and it is attributed to rainfed agriculture and prevailing socio-economic situations of farming community.” Comment. Approach: The answer should highlight the reason for origin and development of various cropping patterns in India. Besides, a brief mention of the various factors which guide these patterns should be made. Answer should be supported by examples of some of these patterns. Answer: Multiplicity of cropping systems has been one of the main features of Indian agriculture. This may be attributed to following two major factors: Rainfed agriculture still accounts for over 92.8 million hectare or 65 per cent of cropped area. A large diversity of cropping systems exists under rainfed and dryland areas with an overriding practice of intercropping, due to greater risks involved in cultivating larger area under a particular crop. Due to prevailing socio-economic situations such as dependency of large population on agriculture, small land-holding size, very high population pressure on land resource etc., improving household food security has been an issue of supreme importance to many million farmers of India, who constitute 56.15 million marginal (