Criminological Theory Final Exam PDF

FINAL EXAM Criminological Theory  MATERIALS All readings All PowerPoints & notes Videos: o 13th o Thelma and Louise o The Joker o Capturing the Friedman's UNIT 1  CHARACTERISTICS OF L ATE MODERNITY Late modernity describes a time of fa...

FINAL EXAM Criminological Theory  MATERIALS All readings All PowerPoints & notes Videos: o 13th o Thelma and Louise o The Joker o Capturing the Friedman's UNIT 1  CHARACTERISTICS OF L ATE MODERNITY Late modernity describes a time of fast paced change where the world feels Late modernity refers to a period of rapid social, economic, and more connected but also more technological changes, where the world feels more interconnected due to globalization, but also more uncertain and unpredictable. uncertain. Weakened Nation-State: the concept of strong national governance The transition to late modernity is becomes less central. Globalization and the increasing movement marked by the weakening of the nation of people, goods, and ideas across borders challenge the power of individual countries. state due to globalization and localizing Transition from Welfare State to Penal State: reflects a shift from forces. focusing on social welfare (providing for citizens' needs through In late modernity, criminology faces a state-supported programs) to a focus on penal policies (punishment and control). rapid transition from the welfare state A key feature of this new modernity is the globalization of narratives to a penal state: surveillance. Reemergence of retribution and tough o Advancement in communication technologies extedn on crime policies, privatization of surveillance far beyond the borders of nation states, creating a mass surveillance society. security, reduction of social o Describe the rise of the information society which is where investment, and increasing technology play central roles in social interactions punitiveness and mass incarceration. o Has far reaching implications for privacy and how society Leads to a focus on control and functions punishment over social welfare.  THE CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION IN CRIME CONTROL Globalization: the process of increasing "Shrinkage of Space": refers to the idea that interaction and integration between people, globalization makes the world feel smaller by companies, and governments around the increasing interactions between communities across the globe. world. o To gain a competitive edge, localities develop Globalization introduced new forms of crime unique strategies to attract investment, talent, or such as cybercrime, transnational crime and business. However, this can weaken the traditional power of nation states to enforce laws and manage terrorism, that challenge traditional criminal economic and social policies. justice systems. Hollowing Out of Nation-States: the combined Criminal justice responses must adapt to a impact of global competition and local world where crime transcends borders. strategies challenges the authority of nation states. Their ability to control economic, social, Criminal justice systems are designed to and political systems is diminished. handle crimes within a specific jurisdiction. o This "hollowing out" weakens the state's ability to They are challenged by crimes that are regulate crime or manage policies that affect its citizens. global.  THE WELFARE STATE The Welfare State is a form of economic Historical Emergence: management. It manages resources and o Chancellor Bismarck (Germany, 1980s) enacted provides basic economic security for its the first social insurance laws citizens. o In the early 1900s, liberal governments in Britain o A way in which the state ensures capitalism introduced workmen's compensation, old age survives pensions, labor exchanges, and a fledgling system o A way of organizing the relation between the social of National Insurance for sickness, invalidity, and unemployment. and the economic o President Roosevelt responses to the Great How it functions – how the welfare state is a Depression first with a massive public works way to support capitalism: program and then with the New Deal legislation o the welfare state refers to government programs that established the American welfare state. that provide social safety nets such as Welfare state government emerged as a unemployment benefits, healthcare, housing, and functional response to the problems of urban, pensions. industrial, market societies, and above all, the o The more workers you have, the more profit you new risks and insecurities generated by get. So, it helps capitalism by providing workers untrammeled market capitalism. with basic needs, which gives private companies more workers to make a profit for them. o The welfare state is essential to capitalism  THE WELFARE STATE Misconceptions: Three Conceptions: There is a tendency to reduce the welfare state's Welfare for the poor: non contributive, income expansive range of social provisions to a narrow notion of "welfare for the poor" support, social assistance. o Depicts welfare recipients as unproductive o The narrowest conception, used the most by scrounger (those who tries to get things without those who oppose the welfare state working for it) A source of social insurance, social rights, and o Gives the impression that the poor are receiving undeserving benefits services. Welfare states are not primarily about welfare and o Includes public educations which predates the are not primarily about welfare for the poor. welfare state, but it has become a fundamental o They are about social provision, social insurance, social right in the welfare state context. social rights, and the social regulation of economic Government policies: labor policies to shape action services to families and individuals. o The main category of people who benefit from the welfare state are the middle class and those who o Highlight government policies that shape are employed – not the poor. markets, promote growth, provide employment, and ensuring the welfare of firms and families.  T H E N E OL I B E RA L S TAT E The Neoliberal state is an ideology and Characteristics: policy that emphasizes the value of free Competition is the defining market competition. characteristic. Neoliberalism sees o The idea that the economy works best when competition as the most important part of businesses are free to do what they want with human relations, where everyone is in a little government control. race to succeed. Public services privatized: services like Citizens are seen as consumers rather healthcare, education, and transportation than members of a community. should be run by private companies instead Failure is based entirely on personal of being provided by the government. effort. Those who do not succeed are The main belief is that allowing people and often blamed for their situation. businesses to compete will make things o Individual Merit: some people are better at better and cheaper for everyone. some things than other people. You pick the person who is best to do the task at hand. Belief in sustained economic growth as the o For example: if you have two people means to achieve human progress applying for a job, one who really needs it to Emphasis on minimal state intervention in survive, but the other has better credentials, economic and social affairs. employers will choose the person with better credentials.  T H E N E OL I B E RA L S TAT E Historical Emergence Social Consequences: In the 1970s, there were numerous challenges Immense inequality at a global and local level with the welfare state. Huge gap between the rich and the poor Many nations faced economic stagnation The intense pressure can cause mental health (stagnating economic growth, high issues unemployment, and rising inflation) Social instability Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman were two key figures in the development of Implementing "law and order" – Zero tolerance neoliberalism. policies on crime and deviancy o Argued that government intervention in o Most relevant to criminology economy led to a loss of individual freedoms o Increase in law and order policies with a focus and the rise of totalitarianism. on punishing crime and deviant behavior rather By the late 1970s and early 1980s, neoliberal than addressing the root causes. ideas began to influence government policies, o Stricter Criminal Justice System particularly in response to economic crises. o Harsher Penalties o Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan were the key political leaders associated with the rise of o Penal Populism neoliberalism.  WELFARE AND NEOLIBERAL STATES AS HISTORICAL CONTEXTS FOR THE EMERGENCE OF THE PENAL STATE - The emergence of the penal state: the Neoliberalism – reduction of the nation-state: reemergence of retribution and tough on crime from Welfare State to Penal State policies, privatization of security, reduction of As neoliberal policies dismantled the welfare social investment, and increasing punitiveness state and created greater economic inequality, and mass incarceration. the penal state emerged as a tool for controlling marginalized populations, - In late modernity, criminology faces a rapid particularly through mass incarceration and transition from the welfare state narratives to a increased policing. penal state. de Penal state reflects a shift towards managing - Due to this shift, the roles of criminology and the consequences of capitalism and criminologists face several challenges: neoliberalism through punishment rather than support. o Gap between criminology and criminal policy o The boom of academic spaces for studying criminology and the reduction of experts' impact Simply: the shift from a welfare state to a penal state means moving from helping people with o Naturalization of crime in tension with the social issues to focusing on punishing them. This increment of penal populism (crime out of happens as neoliberalism reduces government control and political competition to propose the support for things like healthcare and education, toughest measurements) and instead increases punishment.  G A R L A N D S C U LT U R E OF C O N T R O L 1. The decline of the rehabilitative state 1. The reinvention of the prison o Reduced emphasis on rehabilitation as a goal of institutions. More o A shift away from the use of alternatives to custody. The belief that money in harsher sentences. expansion of prisons is a necessary part of the criminal justice system and will help it be more efficient. 2. The re-emergence of punitive sanctions 2. The transformation of criminological thought o Longer, harsher sentences. Return to punishment as a primary response to crime. o Moved away from theories that viewed crime as a result of social injustice and equality, towards theories that focused on controlling 3. Changes in the emotional tone of crime policy crime by increasing punitive measures o Politicians talk about crime policy in a much more open tone. They 3. The expanding infrastructure of crime prevention and fight with each other about who can punish criminals the worst. Grows community safety the fear of crime. o The growth of various crime prevention and community safety 4. The return of the victim measures that go beyond the traditional CJS. o Use victims to ensure they can increase the punishment to suit the 4. Civil society and the commercialization of crime control victims. Uses victims to justify harsher punishments. o Increased emphasis on preventative actions to control crime and the 5. Above all, the public must be protected growing role of the private security industry. Citizens encouraged to o take preventative actions. Using prisons to stop offending from occurring. Crime and threats are managed by incapacitating offenders rather than rehabilitating them. 5. New management styles and working practices Priority is public safety. o Profit oriented approach to managing the CJS. ALEC, corporate 6. Politicization and the new populism members get to propose laws to politicians. o Crime became a battleground for political contest. 6. A perceptual sense of crisis o Policy measures were created and spoke about in a way that valued o Describes the perception that the CJS is in a constant state of political advantage and public opinion, rather than experts. inadequacy or crisis. Could lead to loss of confidence in systems.  GARLANDS CULTURE OF CONTROL Garland's culture of control describes the shift toward a more punitive, politically driven approach to crime, with a focus on punishment and public safety, and the privatization and commercialization of crime control. Garland charts the changes in crime and criminal justice, showing how they have been shaped by two underlying social forces: late modernity & neoconservative politics. It highlights significant shifts in how society responds to crime and the criminal justice system. Influences how crime is addressed and the role of the state in managing social issues. This shift impacts the fairness and effectiveness of justice systems, increases reliance on prisons, and encourages harsher policies, which can perpetuate inequality and neglect root causes of crime. UNIT 2  THE TENSION BETWEEN CONFLICT THEORIES VS CONSENSUS THEORIES Consensus Theories (Durkheim) Conflict Theories (Karl Marx) o Crime is a social construct that reflects what society o The causes of crime are connected with the deems unacceptable power differential and conflict between groups  A person who goes against the majority o Emphasize social division, inequality, and agreement in values, norms, and behaviors is considered deviant. power struggles. o Focus on cooperation, shared values, and social o Conflict theorists argue that social order is cohesion. maintained by the dominance of one group o Consensus theorists belive social order emerges over others from shared values and cooperation. o The belief that people are naturally in conflict o Acts are not inherently criminal on their own. and competition with each other for limited Instead, they become criminal because society resources. agrees that these acts violate shared values. In o Criminal behavior is caused by social other words, crime is a social construct that reflects what society deems unacceptable. inequality and limited resources on earth, o Durkheim belives that society is held together by resulting in a constant struggle between the rich and the poor. this collective understanding of what is right and wrong (The Common Consciousness). o Society functions through competition o Society develops through cooperation  L A B E L I N G T H E O RY Labeling theory is a "hinge" theory between Labeling theory indicates that assigning of consensus and conflict theories labels to individuals or certain groups can It is a theory that helps us understand both have an effect on their behavior. elements of consensus and conflict theories Labeling theory suggests that being What we name deviancy or crime results labeled as a criminal can lead to a from a social reaction to behaviors perceived fundamental change in an individual's as threats identity and potentially push them Societies assigning of labels to individuals or towards further criminal behavior. certain groups can have an effect on their behavior. What is then perceived by society as a threat? o When Marxist perspectives enter, any behavior that defies the preservation of certain order (capitalism), is perceived as a threat by society.  MARX: KEY CONCEPTS Marxist criminology or critical criminology includes: Surplus value: the cost difference between the value of a commodity/object at sale (profit) and the value of manufacturing Radical criminology it (labor). Left Realism o The difference between the cost of making the object and the profit of selling it. Feminist Criminology Mode of production: Capitalism Marxism is a critique of capitalism Superstructure: societies relationship and ideas that are not All these theories are connected under the directly related to production notion to address issues of social harm and o Material structure determines the superstructure. social justice Material/economic structure: the mode of production which Conflict theories study the processes under which includes the means of production and the relations of certain people are identified as criminals production. People enter these to produce the necessities and amenities of life. o The social and economic conditions that produce crime o Means of production: land, machines, factories, tools o The differing status of the working class and o Relations of production: social relationship that arise in the process bourgeoisie when it comes to crime. of production, particularly between classes. Bases for Marxist Critique: - There is a superstructure (state, law, religion) that is based on the material structure and determines who we are and how we are located in social hierarchies. - The state is the result of the interest of the more powerful rather than the product of free will of citizens  G RA M S C I : H E G E M O N Y & I D E O LO GY Hegemony: the process by which a dominant Gramsci sought to explain how ruling class or group maintains its power and control not just through economic and political means, but by classes maintain their position of shaping and dominating cultural and ideological dominance without relying on force. norms. o Power relations Question of class struggle is not only Ideology: the naturalization of capitalism. A about economy. system of beliefs, values, and ideas that shape the Why do the workers keep working to favor way individuals understand the world and their place in it. the capitalists? o Belief systems o Through the process of ideological Ideology is not just about ideas, but It's about how hegemony, the capitalist system is those ideas are lived, practiced, and naturalized, making it appear as the only or institutionalized, shaping both individuals and best way to organize society. society as a whole. o Workers are influenced by the dominant Hegemony is a form of social control where a ideology and continue to work in ways that dominant group uses its power to shape societies favor the bourgeoisie because they see this culture and values, while ideology explains how beliefs shape actions and societal structures. system as legitimate and inevitable.  TENSION BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND AGENCY The tension manifests in debates about Structure: the idea that human behavior is whether criminal behavior is caused by influenced by things such as laws, policies, social structures (like poverty, social categories, and cultural norms. unemployment, or inequality) or whether Structural explanations argue that broader it is a result of individual choices and social structures like poverty and actions. inequality are primarily responsible for Left Realism for instance, might try to shaping individual character. strike a balance by recognizing that Agency: the idea that human behavior is structural inequalities influence crime but moved by real choices, and that that individuals still have some level of individuals have the capacity for reflective agency in their choices. freedom. Agency explanations argue that individuals have the ability to act independently and make their own free choices.  MARXIST INFLUENCE IN RADICAL CRIMINOLOGY American Radicalism William Bonger: Commits suicide when he found himself at risk of being Authors: Turk, Chambliss, and Quinney. caught and killed by the Nazi's American radicalism: political ideology aimed at One of the first criminologists using Marxist theory increasing political and economic equality He establishes relationships between capitalism and egotism by highlighting economic inequalities, the Central element was – Group conflict is the core of emphasis on financial success and the individual pursuit of criminalization. Some groups are dominant, and some are pleasure. subjected to different/competing social positions. Egotism does not necessarily lead to crime but the individualistic environment in capitalism increases the o Dominant groups, often those who control political and possibility of crime conduct. economic power, use the law and CJS to maintain their position Capitalism promotes a sense of egoism (selfishness) over a sense of altruism (selflessness). o The working class, racial minorities, and other marginalized populations, are often subjected to laws and practices that Egoism: promote a strong focus on self-interest at the criminal their behavior. This criminalization process is driven by expense of communnities and societal wellbeing. the power dynamics between dominant and subordinate groups, rather than harmfulness of certain behaviors. Radical Criminology: a theory that examines the Chambliss argued that the gap between bourgeoisie and political and economic structures of society to explain crime and criminal justice. proletariat widens contemporary capitalism. In consequence, punitive measures have to increase to maintain order. o The law does not operate in the best interests of society. Rather it represents group's interests.  CRITIQUES OF RADICAL CRIMINOLOGY Teleology: Idealism: o Radical criminology often assumes crime o The romanticiszation of crime serves a functional purpose in sustaining o Radical criminology has been accused of class domination, particularly under romanticizing crime, sometimes framing capitalism criminal behavior as a form of resistance o This perspective suggests that crime exists against capitalist oppression. primarily to sustain the capitalist system, o This perspective can ignore the real harm implying that there is an inherent, caused by certain crimes, especially those predetermined function behind crime. committed against marginalized groups. Determinism o While crime may, in some cases, reflect o It suggests that crime results primarily from resistancr to social inequality, idealizing the structural effects of capitalism, implying criminal acts as inherently subversive or that individual choices and agency are revolutionary can overlook the complexity of irrelevant. crime and its impacts on society. o The focus on class struggle as the sole or primary determinant of criminal behavior These critiques underscore the limitations leaves little room for other social, cultural, or psychological influences. of radical criminology's exclusive focus on o Critics argue that such a view is overly capitalism, suggesting that it may neglect broader social dynamics and fail to simplistic and lacks sufficient empirical  THE EMERGENCE OF LEFT REALISM Context: Left realism argues that inequality is the Arguments for explaining main cause of crime, and we need more community crime and social control: interventions to reduce crime. Social reaction to crime is just as Basic principles: important as the crime itself. o Crime is a symbol of the antisocial nature of capitalism Elements of crime: o The relationship between the police and the public o Victim determines the efficacy of policing o Offender o The relationship between the state and the offender is a o Formal control major factor of recidivism o Relative depravation leads to discontent – discontent plus o Informal control lack of political solutions leads to crime Crime rates are the result of the  Relative Deprivation: the feeling that you deserve social relationship betweenthose something that other people who are equal to you four elements and any analysis have. that misses one of them is o Local crime surveys provide the best measure of crime in incomplete. any one area o Anti-crime strategies should be short-term and should avoid crime-control solutions, such as more police.  THE EMERGENCE OF LEFT REALISM - What to do about law and order: Methods - 1. Crime is a real problem: working class o Develop an empirically based picture of crime is a problem for the working class local crime and its impact - 2. Look at the reality behind o Focus on causal expectations of crime appearances: attention to the causes of o Exploring the relationship between crime and the need to understand its offenders, victims, formal and informal impact controls - 3. Take crime control seriously: De- o Attempting to develop realistic policies to marginalization, pre-emptive deterrence, reduce the frequency and the impact of and the minimal use of prison victimization. - Elements of democratic policing: o Human rights o Accountability o Rule of law o Procedural fairness o Legitimacy  F EM I N I S T CR I M I NO LOGY - The Problems: Feminist criminology emerged in the 20th century as a o Traditional criminology is not gender response to the limitations of traditional criminology. neutral but focuses on male The "emancipation thesis" suggests that as women perspectives on crime become more liberated and equal to men, their  Neutrality hides the perspectives criminal behavior will start to mirror that of men. of women. There is an ignorance of However, this thesis doesn't fully account for the knowledge. impact of social constructions like gender roles, o Traditional criminology does not occupy patriarchy.. on female offenders and victimization. Feminist criminology instead focuses on how o Exception: hegemonic masculinity and toxic gender norms  One exception to this male focus is contribute to crime, both by men and women. found in early biological positivism Another key contribution in the development of (Lombroso). feminist criminology centers on the way in which victims and perpetrators tend to bleed together or - Reasons for its emergence: overlap. A significant contribution of feminist criminology is o Emergence in the late the 1960s the examination of how victims and perpetrators o Grew out of the women's movement in often overlap, particularly among female response to the male dominance of offenders. mainstream criminology – A reaction to Empirical studies show that many female criminals the general disregard and discrimination have histories of abuse before they engage in of women in the traditional study of criminal activities crime.  F EM I N I S T CR I M I NO LOGY - The evolution of the theories Kathleen Daly – Important Theorist o First three feminists to challenge mainstream - Four major areas of interest with contemporary criminology's patriarchal assumptions – Bertrand, feminist scholarship Heidensohn, and Klein. They laid the groundwork for other feminist critiques of criminology The nature of gender in relationship to o Adler and Simon proposed the liberation/emancipation crime – factors that explain the male to thesis, suggesting that as women gained social female differences inequality, their criminal behavior also increases. Pathways that lead to crime – pathways - Carol Smart: that lead men + boys and women + girls to o Carol smart has argued for the deconstruction of crime criminology, challenging the need for a separate Gender differences in social organization feminist criminology and questioning whether such an of offences – how different illegal acts are approach reinforces divisions. defined and ranked in seriousness in relation Who are the female offenders? to gender Carol Smart argued that women offenders are Broader life effects – how criminality treated as "doubly deviant". They were perceived impacts the means by which men and women not only as breaking the laws but also secure basic needs such as food and shelter. transgressing their gender roles. - Different perspectives: Types of crimes: crimes against property, drugs, and prostitution. Daly and Chesney says women should be center of study and not merely add ons  F EM I N I S T CR I M I NO LOGY The concept of gender The concept of gender and the implications of doing - gender for criminology There is a gender influence in the CJS and in our laws – The CJS is gender shaped - Doing gender refers to the social processes where o Ex: Infanticide: the concept of gender individuals conform to societal expectations and norms associated with their perceived gender influence in the criminal justice system is identity. evident in cases like infanticide, where legal - Feminists began to question the assumptions that definitions, punishments, and societal male norms serve as the standard against which perceptions are often shaped by gender. female behavior is measured. They shifted focus o Infanticide laws, which pertain to mothers to understanding the nature of women's and killing their newborns, reflect how gendered men's participation in crime and how gender assumptions about women's mental health influences. and biology influence the CJS. - How do men and women "Do Gender?" o The role in crime causation of social and cultural norms - The CJS is male dominated and women's that dictate what it means to be a man or a woman perspectives are not considered o Women are more likely to participate in street level o This male bias means that laws, law crime, sex work enforcement practices, and even o Men are more likely to participate in crimes like robbery rehabilitation programs may be structured or rape. around male experiences. For example:  Female offenders may be judged more harshly for deviating from traditional gender roles  Women's pathways to crime, often UNIT 3  CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY Widely believed that the field of Classical theory was based on 3 criminology began with the classical assumptions: school of criminology 1. All of us have free will to make a choice The classical school views human behavior between getting want legally or illegally as rational and assumes that people have 2. The fear of punishment can deter a the ability to choose right from wrong. person from committing a criminal act Believed that the major element 3. The community or society can control governing a person's choice of action was criminal and non criminal behavior by basic human desire to obtain pleasure and making the pain of punishment and avoid pain penalties more severe than the pleasure Developed by Beccaria and Bentham in from criminal activities response to the cruel European justice system in the 18th century.  C O N T E M P O R A RY C L A S S I C I S M - Classical theory basic explanation: All people have free will to live Rationality: the ability to and are ultimately responsible for their actions. calculate. Having reason or understanding. The root of rational choice in classic criminology come from the theories o Rationality refers to the role of of Beccaria and Bentham (18th Century) reasoning in human behavior and Human beings are rational beings able to calculate the pain and pleasure views crime as the outcome of an derived from their actions and they have free will to act accordingly individual thinking through the Punishments were brutal, then certainty and proportioinality proposed possible rewards and downsides of that punishment be used as a tool for deterrence. a criminal act The level of punishment must be based on the damage caused o Crime is a result of calculated Impact: decision making o Foundational to modern European and American criminal justice system's o Call for punishment and less cruelty Certainty and Proportionality: o The birth of prison as a modern form of punishment aims to prevent crime by Limits: communicating consequences of breaking the law. o Not all offenders act rationally or out of free will, therefore how do we treat o Punishment turns into a tool to be used for the variety of circumstances deterrence of crime. The level of o If we are all equally rational, why does the CJS tend to be populated by poor punishment must be based on the damage and other vulnerable groups caused.  C O N T E M P O R A RY C L A S S I C I S M - Classical and positivist approaches to crime, - Main arguments: punishment and the criminal is focused on the o Believe there are factors beyond the individuals individual control that make some people more prone o Classical focuses on the offence as its object of study towards crime o Positivism considers external factors and demands the o These factors might be biological, psychological, intervention of experts ouside of the CJS to treat the environmental, and often inherited. offender. - Positivism o Aim to reduce or eliminate crime through a scientific approach o Positivism was put forward by Auguste Comte. - The utilitarian principle: o o Using punishments as a way to benefit society. He proposed the use of quantitative investigation for the improvement of society. o Punishment should be used to improve society o He advocated that human behavior and society and deter others from crime. should be studied using methods similar to those o Based on utilitarianism which states that the used in the physical sciences best action is the one that maximizes happiness o He encouraged social scientists to use the or utility. perspective of positivism which emphasizes techniques of observation, the comparative method, and experimentation.  T H E M A I N T H E O R I E S O F C O N T E M P O RA RY C L A S S I C I S M A N D THEIR MAIN ARGUMENTS Rational Choice Theory: assumes that offenders Deterrence Theory: Core principle of choose whether or not to commit crime after classical school and rational choice theories. carefully calculating the possible rewards and risks. An individual commits crime after deciding that the Suggests that people will avoid crime if they rewards outweigh the risks. The roots of rational believe the consequences will be swift, choice theory lie in the classical school certain, and severe. Crime can be controlled Routine Activity Theory: assumes that crime is through punishment. likely to take place when there are three factors present 1) motivated offenders 2) attractive target, and 3) absense of guardianship. Crime will only be committed when a motivated offender believes that they found something worth stealing or someone to victimize who lacks a capable guardian. Situational Crime Prevention: physically removing opportunities to commit crime from the spaces of everyday life UNIT 4  E A R LY S O C I O L O G I C A L P O S I T I V I S T S Sociological theories have a multifaceted Adolphe Quetelet approach to explaining the causes of crime. o Instigated the use of data and statistics in performing o They look at social structure and its implications criminological research on crime o In addition to finding a strong influence of age and sex o Others concentrate on the breakdown of the on crime, he also found that season, climate, population social structure in certain neighborhoods and the composition, and poverty were related to criminality. resulting social disorganization that occurs from o Also suggested that greater inequality pr gaps between this process. wealth and poverty in the same place tends to excite o Others emphasize how individuals learn criminal temptations behavior through interacting with significant Gabriel Tarde others. o Mostly centered on the social origins of crime The foundations of sociological criminology o Two outstanding works: Comparative Criminology & can be traced to the works of: Penal Philosophy o Adolphe Quetelet o Highlighted the significant influence of the laws of o Augustine Comte imitation in molding criminal behavior. o Gabriel Tarde  Men imitate one another if they are in close proximity o Augustine Comte is known for proposing the o Concluded there was no support for Lombroso's theory of use of quantitative or scientific investigation the born criminal. for the improvement of society (Positivism) o Their fate was decided by society and their social companions.  SOCIO -STRUCTURAL THEORIES Social structure is the framework of social Durkheim – The Anomie Theory institutions- the family, education, Durkheim coined the term 'Anomie' which religious, economic, and political means lacking of rules or normlessness. institutions that operate to structure the o To Durkheim, anomie involves the breach of patterns of relationships members of clearly defined rules. society have with one another. o Lack of socialization and a conscience leads Socio-structural theorists give to conflict between the individual and the society. explanations of criminal conduct that emphasize the differences among varying Durkheim asserted that crime is normal groups in societies. because it is virtually impossible to imagine a society in which it is totally Society prepares the crime and individuals absent are only the instruments that give it life. He thought crime to have two functions o It defines the moral boundaries of societies o The identification of rule breakers creates a bond among the other members of society  SOCIO -STRUCTURAL THEORIES Social structure is the framework of social Emile Durkheim – The Anomie Theory institutions- the family, education, Robert Merton – Anomie/Strain Theory religious, economic, and political institutions that operate to structure the Robert Agnew – General Strain Theory patterns of relationships members of Chicago School – Social Disorganization society have with one another. Theory Socio-structural theorists give Deviant Subculture Theories explanations of criminal conduct that o Albert Cohen emphasize the differences among varying groups in societies. o Walter Miller Society prepares the crime and individuals are only the instruments that give it life.  D U R K H E I M : K E Y T E R M S A N D S H O RT D E F I N I T I O N S Anomie: lack of the norms. Positivism: focuses on the individual, studies the causes of crime (biological and psychological) o Occurs when individuals feel disconnected or alienated from societal norms, resulting in Functionalism: focuses on the processes of social integration, studies feelings of aimlessness, disorientation, and even the social function of crime / social control of deviance moral confusion. Lack of regulation Functions of crime (crime is functional) Crime - Introduces new ideas into society and by doing so prevents stagnation and o Is an offense to social conventions promotes change. o Depends on social reaction to a violation of the - Stimulates collective action against deviance. By punishing some Collective Conscience behaviors, it reinforces social and moral rules o Crimes are NOT necessarily harmful to society - Reaffirms the difference between right and wrong o Provokes shocking reactions (rage, anger) in the - Operates as a social glue, as an adhesive to create social integration healthy consciousness Potential consequences of social change: the new forms of moral o A certain amount of crime is NORMAL in any regulation fail to replace effectively and rapidly the old ones causing a society state of normlessness or lack of regulation (ANOMIE) Crime is a NORMAL element in any healthy Importance of his theory: and functioning society - Teaches the importance of thinking about the CJS in the wider context of Collective conscience: refers to a shared set social order of beliefs, values, and attitudes that bind a Core critiques: society or group together. Common moral - Blind to the power hierarchies in systems of punishment. Not all types of crime produce code, common assumptions about the world integrative reactions.  D U R K H E I M : K E Y T E R M S A N D S H O RT D E F I N I T I O N S Two ideal types of social formations/social solidarity: Suicide o Mechanical Object of the study was 1) to show how  More primitive  individual acts are indicators of sociological Common values, identical lives, conformity situations 2) suicide was considered crime in  Social norms enforced by retributive sanctions to ensure uniformity mosr of Europe and also still is a deviant act o Organic Findings  More complex / operates as a live organism - Suicide rates are higher in protestant than in  Law's function is to regulate interactions between parts and catholic countries members Social Solidarity – Two aspects: - Single people are more prone than married ones o Integration - Higher in the military than in the civil life § Into social groups - Drop in times of war § Produces social cohesion by sharing beliefs and practices § - Higher in periods of economic crisis. Forces of attraction bring people together o Regulation Anomic Suicide: tend to happen in rapid  By social norms changes from simple to more complex social  Limits human behavior and desires arrangements.  SO C IO LO GIC AL PO SITIVISM What are the criminological theories Sociological positivists reject the covered under sociological individualistitc explanations of criminal positivism? behavior and recognize that crime is a Social disorganization theory socially constructed entity They assume that a criminal's behavior is Strain theory determined by his or her social Culture and subculture theories environment, which includes family, Labeling theory friends and neighborhood. Routine activities theory Social bond theory Differential association theory Anomie  SO C IO LO GIC AL PO SITIVISM What is the meaning of sociological Why is this category shaped by positivism Durkheims idea of the scientific study of social phenomenon? Sociological positivism emphasizes the The study of crime from a sociological scientific study of social phenomena to understand and explain crime. perspective tells us about the social order in which we live (crime has no essence, It views crime as a result of social and varies with time and place) environmental factors rather than purely It is for sociological positivism, a individual choices or biological traits. knowledge about patterns, trends and Applies empirical methods, like data policies on crime. collection and observation, to study the The crimes and punishments that we social causes of crime and deviance legislate on and respond to are indicators of the nature of our society (our reactions to crime) Too little crime is as problematic as too much crime  ANOMIE AND STRAIN Robert Merton combined Durkheim's concepts Merton proposed 5 ways in which people and propositions with an emphasis on American adapt to societies goals and means: culture. (Anomie/Strain Theory) o Conformity: embrace conventional social o He was highly influenced by what he saw in the US during the Great Depression. He saw the goals breakdown of economic structure and it drove o Innovation: individual accepts the goal but people to kill themselves or others, as well as the rejects or is incapable of attaining them rise in property crimes. through legitimate means The central feature of Merton's theory is the o Ritualism: abandon goals they once believed American dream as the predominant cultural to be within reach and resign themselves to goal their present lifestyles He argued that the problem is not created by o Retreatism: people who give up both the sudden social change (Durkheim), but by a goals and the means social structure that holds out the same goals o Rebellion: Both cultural goals and legitimate to all its members without giving them equal means are rejected. They come up with their means to achieve them. own goals and own means. Relative deprivation: the feeling of being deprived or lacking in comparison to others. Ex: differential access to legitimate opportunities (education, job offers).  ANOMIE AND STRAIN Later strain theories: under what conditions - Robert Agnew (General Strain Theory) will persons experience strains and tensions that lead to delinquent and deviant o Reorganized the theory from social analysis solutions? of strain to psychological/individual situations Albert Cohen and outcomes of strain o Introduces the notion of culture and subcultures o His central question is why some individuals to explain youth delinquency that experienced strains do not turn to o Relative deprivation model is insufficient to criminal activity? explain juvenile motivations for crime. o For him, strain occurs at a personal level, not o The usual solution for those under strain is to a social structured level. form attachments with others in similar o Major strains situations.  When individuals are treated in a negative Cloward and Ohlin way by others o Influenced by Merton and Cohen, but also  When they lose something they value Edward Sutherland's notion of differential association.  When they are unable to achieve their o Agreed with Cohen's analysis but added that not goals everybody has the same access to illegitimate means  T H E C H I C AG O S C H O O L O F D I S O R G A NI Z AT I O N The concept of social disorganization (aka Shaw and McKay Ecological School Theory) originated from the o Used Park and Burgess' model to investigate the Chicago school of sociology of the 1920s and relationships between crime rates and the various 1930s. zones of Chicago Chicago desperately needed answers for their o Findings in parts of the city with high degree of growing problem of delinquency and crime. crime: The theory suggests that social forces operating in o High percentage of immigrants, many families in urban areas create criminal interactions and some poverty, low home ownership, decreased birth neighborhoods become natural areas for crime. rates, increased rates of child mortality, tuberculosis, insanity and adult criminality. o Shaw and McKay made an impact on juvenile Park and Burgess advanced the study of social delinquency. disorganization by introducing ecological analysis o Cultural transmission: values that are learned from into the study of human society. generation to generation. Especially young boys o They explained crime and delinquency within the learn from older ones in certain areas. context of the changing urban environment and o Noted that young people growing up in socially ecological changes or development of the city. disorganized slum areas that condone criminal o According to P & B, the poverty ridden areas behavior could easily learn these values in their suffered from high crime rates. daily interactions with older adolescents. o Low rents in poverty areas attracted groups with o Young people born and brought up on the socially different racial and ethnic backgrounds. disorganized zone of transition are particularly vulnerable to the temptations of crime.  T H E C H I C AG O S C H O O L O F D I S O R G A NI Z AT I O N Differential Association: Edward The Gang: Trasher (1927) Sutherland o How different forms of organization o Transmission of behavior in the streets produce different cultural influences o Males and from generation to generation and mechanisms to understand criminal behavior as learned behavior o Trasher thinks that the exposure of an individual to more ideas o Criminal conduct is learned in similar that promote law-breaking than to those conducts that obstacle processes to other types of learning transgression of the law, crime is a more likely outcome. o It is learned interaction with others and Differential Reinforcement (Akers et Al) communicated between groups and generations. o Use learning theories to explore how criminal learning occurs o Criminal behavior is learned, in o Based his theory on Sutherland's interaction with others and in a communication process. o Right and wrong are not natural but contextual differences Symbolic interactionsim: George Sutherland's Legacy: the notion that criminal behavior is Herbert Mead normal learned behavior. A bridge between early work of o People act toward things based on the the Chicago school and cultures and subcultures theories. meaning those things have for them; Critiques of CSC and these meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through o Is social disorganization different from crime and deviancy? interpretation. o Are the lower classes really more prone to delinquent values?  C U LT U R E S A N D S U B C U LT U R E S Culture: the overarching system of Albert Cohen's Delinquent Subcultures: values, norms, customs, and practices o Youths from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may develop shared by the majority of society. subcultures that reject societal norms and seek status Subculture: a smaller group within the through deviance dominant culture that develops its own o Most criminal behavior in lower-class areas is not a rational distinct norms, values, and practices, method of aquiring assets but is rather a way to seek which may conflict or deviate from immediate gratification of their desires without regard for mainstream cultural standards. any long-term consequences Subcultures emerge when a significant o They experience a status of frustration and spawn number of people feel alienated from the oppositional culture with behavioral norms that are contrary larger culture and forge a lifestyle that is to those of the middle class. distinguishable from mainstream culture. Walter Miller Some subcultures emerge as forms of o Whereas Cohen attributed delinquency to involvement in a resistance to dominant cultural values, and delinquent gang subculture after failiure in school, Miller their deviance may not always align with attributed it to lower-class subculture itself. criminal behavior o People living in deteriorated neighborhoods react to social Cultural deviance theorists argue that our isolation and economic deprivation. Because their lifestyle is society is made up of various groups and frustrating, they form an independent subculture with its subgroups, each with its own standards of own set of rules and values. right or wrong o Six Focal Concerns: Trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, autonomy.  S O C I A L P R O C E S S T H E O R I E S Social Learning Theorists believe that Differential Reinforcement: Akers & Burguess crime is a product of learning the norms, Theory arose after a critique of Sutherland's theory. values, and behavior associated with criminal activity. Akers and Burguess adopted the principles of operant Differential Association: Sutherland conditioning and behavior modification (Skinner), and the principle of modelling (Bandura), to explain criminal Crime behavior is learned through behavior association with others, especially o Builds on Sutherland's theory while integrating concepts interactions with intimate social groups. It from behavioral psychology and social learning is not inherited or biologically determined. Explains how behaviors are reinforced and sustained over From association and interactions with time others, people learn motives, attitutudes and values that help them shape their Initial delinquent activities are the result of differential behavior association and imitation and reinforced positively (to o If someone associates primarily with continue) or negatively (to cease) individuals who rationalize theft as a DRT explains criminal behavior through a combination of: necessary act, they are more likely to adopt similar attitudes and engage in such behavior o Reinforcements and punishment (operant conditioning) Criminal behavior is learned, it is learned o Learning through observation (imitation and modelling) through interaction with others and not by o Social interactions and feedback from peers and significant simply living in a criminal environment. others  S O C I A L C O N T R O L T H E O R I E S Key question in Social Control Theory: Why do most of us not commit crime more Assessing Control Theories: often? o Influential on policy making and early o They do not inquire for the causes of crime. They intervention policies, aimed to stimulate pro- are concerned with conformity rather than social conduct deviance o Emphasis on control via family and education o They emphasize the presence of internal or o Self-controls must be established early in life external controls in explaining conformity o They emphasize the lack of internal or external Problems and Controversies: controls in explaining deviancy o They do not pay attention to factors such as Conformity: social control theorists think social inequality that we conform to societal norms and rules o They take as a given the motivation for not because they are moral or good, but offending, therefore run short explaining because of controls that restrain their natural conformity and deviancy tendencies toward deviant or rule-breaking behavior. These controls could be: o Internal controls: self-imposed, personal morals, strong conscience o External controls: pressures from outside the individual, social relationships, laws, fear of punishment.  S O C I A L C O N T R O L T H E O R I E S Drift theory (Matza and Sykes): - Social bond theories (Hirschi): o People "drift" between deviant and conventional o Perhaps the most influential social control theory behaviors o Individuals offend at times in their lives when social o He stresses the importance of social influences rather than the simplistic idea that we are all subject to animalistic impulses. controls are weakened. o Techniques of neutralization justify the deviance and o Deviance occurs when the individual's bond to society is weak or paves the way for further deviance broken o Subterranean values exist side by side with o What differentiates offenders from non-offenders are the factors conventional values in the larger culture. Ex: watching that restrain people from acting on their impulses. These factors pornography are the social controls or social bonds. o They critique strain theory for over-prediction of  Families, schools, communities. These bonds end up delinquency controlling our behavior when we are tempted to engage in o Deviance / Crime are present at all levels of society. deviant acts. o Techniques of neutralization: o Four elements of social bonds:  Denial of responsibility (I didn't mean it)  Attachment: most important element of the social bond.  Denial of injury (I didn't really harm him) Emotional bond between the individual and key societal  insitutions like family and school. Denial of victim (he deserved it)   Commitment: the degree of one's investment (time, energy, Condemnation of condemners (they always pick on us) money, emotion) in pursuing a specific activity  Appeal to higher loyalties (you have to help your  Involvement: time spent on conventional activities mates)  Belief: the extent to which an individual believes they should obey the rules of society.  S O C I A L C O N T R O L T H E O R I E S Gottfredson and Hirschi's Low Self-Control Theory: - Reckless's Containment Theory: Moved away from explaining crime and delinquency in o Why in the presence of pressures and terms of social control, towards explaining it in terms of opportunities toward deviance, does the primary self-control. individual's response remain conformity? Accepts the classical idea that crimes are the result of - Tittle's Control-balance Theory: unrestrained natural human impulses to enhance pleasure o The central premise of the theory is that the and avoid pain amount of control to which people are They argued that crimes are spontaneous acts requiring subject relative to the amount of control little skill and earn the criminal minimal short-term they can exercise, affects their general satisfaction probability of committing some deviant act People with low self-control possess the following traits that put them at risk for offending: o They are present oriented rather than the future, and crime affords them immediate rather than delayed gratification o They are risk-taking and physical as opposed to cautioous and cognitive, and crime provides them with excitement and risk o They lack patience, persistence, and diligence. o They are self-centered and insensitive  L A B E L LING T H E O RY A N D M O RA L PA NIC S Labelling Theory (1960s) Key Terms o Talks about the behavioral effects/impact of o Stigma (Goffman): social disapproval associated naming a person or a group with a label or with being labeled deviant. He identified three types imposing an identity on a person or group of stigma: o Labeling theory focuses on the way deviant  Physical Stigma: disabilities or deformities activity might be the result of using labels  Character Stigma: flaws in personality or and, above all, on social reactions to this process behavior o Deviancy resides not in the act but in the  Tribal Stigma: discrimination based on race, reaction to it ethnicity, religion o Becker, Lemert o Self-image: how you perceive yourself. Labeling Theory/Interactionism o Self-fulfilling Prophecy (Merton): a situation where a false belief leads people to behave in ways Crime is the result of a particular social reaction that make the false belief come true to a deviation from the norm. People react to things based on the meaning they assigned to o Deviancy amplification: how societal reactions to those things. Those things got meaning through deviance can increase crime and deviance levels. social interaction Critique: Concerned with the aftermath of the deviant act o Not all labeling results in deviancy rather than what happens before the act o Unable to explain the cause of primary deviancy  L A B E L LING T H E O RY A N D M O RA L PA NIC S Primary and Secondary Deviance Howard Becker: Marijuana users o Primary deviance: initial act of deviance o Argued that people do not automatically become deviant but are labeled through societal reactions. Marijuana users o Secondary deviance: when someone were seen as outsiders, individuals who have been labeled continues to act in a deviant way due to deviant. societal labels. Moral entrepreneurs: individuals or groups who o Not letting go of the label, you identify with the label, negative recognition. campaign to create or enforce rules that define certain behaviors as deviant. Self-fulfilling prophecy: when someone internalizes a deviant label and begins to Folk Devils and Moral Panics (Stanley Cohen): behave in ways that align with that label. o Folk Devils: groups or individuals who are portrayed as Moral Panic: societal overreaction to a deviant and blamed for social problems or crimes in the media or folklore. perceived threat, often fueled by media o Moral Panics: occurs when media, moral entrepreneurs, sensationalization. and society overreact to a perceived social threat. Master-status: process to which your Braithwaite and shaming: identity becomes the label. A label overshadows all other aspects of an o Disintegrative shaming: stigmatize and exclude individual's identity. individuals, pushing them further into deviance. Stigma (Goffman): Negative association o Reintegrative shaming: condemns the act, not the attached to being labeled deviant. person, and focuses on reintegrating the individual back into society. Seen as constructive in reducing recidivism.  L A B E L LING T H E O RY A N D M O RA L PA NIC S Moral Panic: a widespread fear that a group of people - Deviancy amplification (Cohen) or cultural behavior is a threat to society's values and interests o An initial act that gains attention (social reaction) o A feeling of anxiety and fear that many people feel when they and is defined as deviant (signification) and perceive some threats to their conventional way of life and receives a punitive response. security. Ex: War on drugs o Isolates the deviant, the group starts perceiving Stanley Cohen themselves as deviant and gathers with similar others. This amplifies the fear/anxiety and the o Cohen introduces arguments that involve labelling theory sanctions in a repetitive cycle. (social reaction) and, sociological concerns related to youth and class. - Goode and Ben-Yuehuda (1994): Three o Suggests that the media plays a key role in creating moral theories of moral panics, its origins, and the panics by sensationalizing or overreacting to behaviors that actors behind them. challenge social norms o The Grassroots model: the panic originates in o Mods and Rockers (1960s) the general public. In this model, the grassroots o Fold Devils/Moral Panics (1980s) provides fuel or raw material for moral panics o The elite-engineered model: originates in The role of media in the creation of Moral Panics powerful social groups, so the public become o Exaggeration and distortion: exaggeration over the seriousness concerned and react to a specific issue (the war on of events drugs, refugees. o Prediction: media coverage presumed and predict that one even o Interest-group theory: moral panics result from might be followed by other possible worse ones the activities of moral entrepreneurs (abortion, o Symbolization: cultural signifiers / symbols (clothes, hairstyles, pornography, sex predators on the internet). The bikes) are negatively portrayed. morals produce content and timing.