Nature of Crimes PDF

2 Nature of crimes This chapter focuses on the key question: How has the nature of criminal activity differed and changed over time? During the period c.1500 to the present day there has been continuity in the types of crime committed, the most common throughout this long period were minor cr...

2 Nature of crimes This chapter focuses on the key question: How has the nature of criminal activity differed and changed over time? During the period c.1500 to the present day there has been continuity in the types of crime committed, the most common throughout this long period were minor crimes such as petty theft together with less common but more violent crimes of robbery, assault and murder. However, it is also possible to identify the appearance of particular types of crime during specific time periods. During the sixteenth century, for example, changes in the official religion of the land resulted in an increase in crimes such as heresy and treason, while in the eighteenth century the introduction of high taxes on imported goods resulted in an increase in the crime of smuggling. Changing methods of transport during the twentieth century has resulted in the dramatic growth in motoring crimes, while the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries has witnessed the growth of more violent crime associated with terrorism and especially international terrorism. As you advance through this chapter you should consider what types of crime are common to all time periods and which types of crime have been associated with particular time periods and why this has been so. FOCUS TASK As you work through this chapter make a ‘Crimes common to this century’ card – you will need six cards to cover the centuries between 1500 and the present day. On each card, make bullet points to record: n common crimes during that century n the nature of the crimes being committed n which crimes are specific to that century. The first card has been started for you. The sixteenth century Common crimes – vagrancy, heresy, treason, petty crime, violent crime Vagrancy – range of crimes associated with vagabonds – vagrants were named according to the crimes they specialised in (You complete the rest of this card) Crime during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries While minor crimes such as petty theft and some violent crime remained common, this period witnessed the growth of specific crimes associated with vagrancy and heresy. Vagrancy in the sixteenth century Vagrancy became a significant problem during the sixteenth century, particularly during the reign of Elizabeth I. Vagrants were generally associated with an increase in crime and criminal activity. 143  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day Growth in the number of vagrants (a) (b) We have seen in Chapter 1 that the sixteenth and seventeenth century experienced rising levels of unemployment and economic hardship (see pages 131–2). This resulted in an increase in homeless beggars who toured the country in wandering bands or gathered in towns, causing problems for the authorities. Contemporaries referred to them as ‘sturdy beggars’ or vagabonds and sometimes as ‘rouges’, the latter being a person who survived through a life of crime. (d) In 1560, London’s Bridewell Prison dealt with 69 vagrants, by the 1570s this figure had increased to an average of 200 a year and (c) by 1600 it stood at over 550. Even a small town like Salisbury saw an increase from about 20 vagrants a year in mid-century to 96 vagrants in 1598. As there was little in the way of poor relief the vagrants were forced to beg for food and money. Many had little choice but to resort to crime to keep themselves alive. Types of vagrants The Tudor clergyman William Harrison estimated that during the (e) (f) mid-sixteenth century there were about 10,000 vagabonds touring the countryside, causing problems in towns and villages, especially when they resorted to crime (see Sources A and B). In 1566 Thomas Harman published a study of vagabond life, which he called A Caveat or Warning for Common Cursitors, vulgarly called vagabonds, in which he identified 23 different categories of vagabonds and described them according to the methods they used to seek out a living. The most common types were: (g) Clapper dudgeon (a) – tied arsenic on their skin to make it bleed, hoping to attract sympathy while begging. Hooker or angler (b) – carried a long wooden stick and knocked on the doors of houses seeking charity during the day to see what may be stolen. After dark they would return and use their hooked stick to reach in through windows to steal clothes and valuables, which they later tried to sell. Source A: The case of Griffith Jones of Flint, which Doxy (c) – a devious female beggar who would carry a large bag was recorded in the Caernarfon Court Records, 1624 on her back and at the same time she would be knitting to make it Griffith Jones of Flint, vagrant and beggar, is look like what she was knitting was going into her bag, but what she charged with the stealing of a cloak, belonging to was really doing was walking around and picking up anything that David Lewis. He is also suspected of stealing various would be worth money, putting it into her bag and running off with purses the same day which he strongly denied. it. One of her common tricks was to steel chickens by feeding them bread tied to a hook, carrying the birds away in the large sack on her back. Source B: An account of the crimes of two vagabonds recorded in the town records of Abraham man (d) – pretended to be mad, hoping that their Warwick during the reign of Elizabeth I threatening behaviour would result in charity donations through pity. Two vagabonds from the north confess to stealing Ruffler (e) – former soldiers who had become vagabonds and who ducks, geese and pigs on their travels, which they survived by robbing, using threats or by begging, as opportunity either ate there and then or sold to buy somewhere arose. to stay. Dummerers (f) – they pretended to be deaf and unable to speak in order to beg for charity from passers-by. THINK Counterfeit crank (g) – dressed in tatty clothes and pretended Use Sources A and B, as well as your own to suffer from ‘falling sickness’ (epilepsy), sucking soap to fake knowledge, to describe the types of crime foaming at the mouth. commonly associated with vagabonds. 144 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 144 18/12/17 8:22 PM  2 Nature of crimes Fear of vagabonds Ordinary people viewed such false beggars with suspicion as they were associated with the increase in crime. These vagabonds even had their own slang language called ‘canting’, which added to their sinister nature. One notorious counterfeit crank was Nicholas Blunt who often disguised himself as the vagabond Nicholas Jennings to avoid being recognised (see Source D). Source C: An extract from a letter sent from Edward Hext, a Somerset JP, to Lord Burghley, Queen Elizabeth’s Chief Minister, on 25 September 1596 I may justly say that the infinite numbers of idle, wandering people and robbers of the land are the chief cause of the problem because they labour not and yet they spend doubly much as the labourer does for they lie idly in the alehouses day and night eating and drinking excessively. The most dangerous are the wandering soldiers and other stout rogues. Of these wandering idle people there are three or four hundred in a shire and though they go two and three in a company yet all or the most part in a shire do meet either at a fair or market or in some alehouse once a week. THINK 1 How useful is Source C to a historian studying the problem of vagrancy during late Tudor times? 2 Why did people living during the second half of the sixteenth century grow to fear vagabonds? Source D: Nicholas Blunt or Jennings, disguised as a gentleman. He was interviewed by Thomas Harman for his book on vagabonds 145 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 145 09/12/17 1:13 PM  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day Heresy in the sixteenth century her advisers were constantly vigilant against religious extremism. During her reign it was the turn of Catholics to We have seen in Chapter 1 that during the sixteenth century be watched and the first Catholic to be executed in Wales religion changed in accordance with the change of monarch was Richard Gwyn, a schoolteacher from Llanidloes, who (see pages 133–4). Freedom of religion did not exist at this was executed at Wrexham in 1584 for spreading Catholic time, especially during the middle decades of the sixteenth ideas. This was followed by the execution of Denbighshire- century. Individuals had to accept and follow the religion born Catholic priest William Davies of Beaumaris in 1593. chosen by the ruler – the Protestant faith under Edward He was accused of helping to publish Catholic literature and the Catholic faith under Mary. Failure to accept the using a secret printing press hidden in a cave at Rhiwledyn official religion was regarded as treason, with individuals on the Little Orme, Llandudno. Extreme Protestants, being accused of heresy and put on trial. During their trials known at Puritans, were also closely watched and in 1593 heretics were given the opportunity to recant. If they did the Welshman John Penry was found guilty of spreading this they would receive a prison sentence, but if they refused Puritan ideas and was executed in London. then they would be found guilty of heresy and sentenced to death. It was a crime that reached its height during the mid- sixteenth century (see Table 2.1). It was believed that heretics had rebelled against God, so their bodies had to be destroyed by burning. An alternative belief held by some was that burning the body would free the soul and allow it to ascend to heaven. Monarch Reign Heretics executed Henry VII 1485–1509 24 Henry VIII 1509–1547 81 Edward VI 1547–1553   2 Mary I 1553–1558 280 Elizabeth I 1558–1603        4 Table 2.1: The number of people executed for heresy in Wales and England during the reign of the Tudor monarchs During the short reign of ‘Bloody Mary’, 280 ordinary men and women were put to death because they refused to renounce their Protestant faith. Of these, the two best known Source E: The burning of the Protestant bishops Latimer were the bishops Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley, who and Ridley in 1555 were burned as Protestant heretics in 1555 (see Source E). In Wales three Protestants were put to death during Mary’s THINK reign for refusing to convert to the Catholic faith: 1 Study Table 2.1. What does it tell us about the crime of n Robert Ferrar, Bishop of St. David’s who was burned at heresy during the sixteenth century? Carmarthen in 1555 2 What does Source E tell you about the crime of heresy n Rawlins White, a fisherman, who was burned at Cardiff during the sixteenth century? in 1555 3 ‘In Wales, as in England, the crime of heresy was most n William Nichol, a labourer, who was burned at common during the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth’. What Haverfordwest in 1558. evidence can you find to support this statement? Even though Queen Elizabeth I attempted to steer a ‘middle course’ (adopting both Protestant and Catholic practices) 146 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 146 09/12/17 1:13 PM  2 Nature of crimes Crime during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Minor crime remained the most common of all crimes eighteenth century many people did not regard smuggling during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but this as a ‘real’ crime. They disliked the harsh import and period also witnessed the appearance of specific crimes export duties and regarded smuggling as a lawful way associated with smuggling and highway robbery. of making a living and an acceptable means of avoiding unfair taxation. This period is often referred to as the The growth of smuggling during the ‘Golden Age’ of smuggling and a number of reasons have eighteenth century been put forward to explain why there was a dramatic increase in this specific crime. Smuggling is the crime of secretly importing or exporting goods in order to avoid paying custom duties. In the The cost of war To pay the expense of fighting costly foreign wars against France, the government had to increase taxes, especially customs and excise duties. Social crime Excise duty Like poaching, many people did not see This was a tax on domestic consumption, smuggling as a ‘real’ crime. which traditionally covered chocolate, tea, beer, cider and spirits, but after 1688 it was progressively widened to include such essentials as salt, leather and soap. Employment Smuggling provided the chance to earn good money, especially for a lowly paid farm labourer who could earn six times Customs duties his daily wage in just one night. This was a tax on imported or exported goods which kept on rising. By the middle Reasons for of the century the tax on tea was 70 per the increase cent of its initial cost. Investors and venturers in smuggling There were plenty of ‘investors’ or ‘venturers’ (see page 148) willing to put up the money to finance the smuggling Black market of expensive items that carried a high The double burden of customs and excise tax, such as brandy, tea and silk, or the duties was widely resented. People were export of taxed items such as wool. They would make a good profit on their more than willing to avoid the payment of investment. these duties if given the opportunity. Insufficient policing Demand for smuggled goods There were insufficient customs officers to patrol the There was a ready market for smuggled goods as, thousands of miles of Britain’s coastline. This made it having avoided paying the high customs duties, they relatively easy to smuggle goods into the country. would be far cheaper than goods that had been imported legally. Figure 2.1: The main reasons for the increase in smuggling Source F: Comments made on smuggling made by John THINK Taylor, the keeper of Newgate prison, in 1747 Study Figure 2.1. What do you think were the FOUR most The common people of England in general fancy there is important reasons for the increase in smuggling during the nothing in the crime of smuggling … the poor feel they have eighteenth century? In each case give reasons for your a right to shun [avoid] paying any duty on their goods. choice. 147 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 147 18/12/17 6:18 PM  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day The organisation of smuggling By the middle of the century smuggling was big business. Large gangs like the Hawkhurst and Hadleigh gangs, who operated along the south coast of England, dealt with several cargo loads of smuggled goods every week. Each gang employed between 50 and 100 individuals, the bulk of the work being undertaken by farm labourers looking for a quicker way to make money. Smuggling had evolved into an organised operation, involving operators at every level: The venturer Heading a smuggling operation was an investor or venturer – an unseen wealthy individual or group of individuals, who would put up the initial money to finance the whole operation. They would receive payment for their investment when the goods had been sold after being successfully landed ashore. The spotsman Responsibility for bringing the ship full of smuggled goods to the right section of the coast lay with the spotsman. He Source H: A smuggler’s spout lantern had intimate knowledge of the cliffs, coves and beaches along his patch of coast. The lander On shore the lander would be responsible for arranging for a number of tub-boats to row out to pick up the cargo from the ship several miles off shore, usually at night. Contact was often made using a special ‘spout lantern’ (see Source H), which could shine a light to signal a ship at sea but which could not be seen from the shore. The lander organised ponies, horses and carts and the manual labour needed to carry the goods once they were landed on the shore. Tubmen and batsmen The men who did the heavy manual lifting and carrying were the tubmen or tub-carriers. These men were protected by batsmen – hired thugs who were equipped with strong Source I: A group of smugglers landing their cargo at a bay oak clubs or handguns, which they were quite prepared to use against any customs officials who attempted to break THINK up the operation. Describe how smuggling gangs were organised. Source G: An account of the activities of smugglers made in a ‘Report to the Excise Commissioners’ in 1734 The smugglers pass and re-pass, to and from the seaside, 40 and 50 in a gang, in the daytime, loaded with tea and brandy. Above 200 mounted smugglers were seen one night upon the sea-beach there [Lydd, in Kent], waiting from the loading of six boats. They went in a body from the beach about four miles into the country and then separated into small parties. 148 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 148 16/12/17 11:55 AM  2 Nature of crimes Smuggling along the Welsh coast With its extensive coasts Wales was particularly prone to smuggling activity: N Colwyn Bay Rhyl ANGLESEY Holyhead Bangor Denbigh FLINTSHIRE Caernarfon CAERNARFONSHIRE DENBIGHSHIRE Irish Sea Wrexham Blaenau FLINTSHIRE Ffestiniog Salt smuggling was common Pwllheli Bala along the coast between Fishguard Harlech MERIONETHSHIRE and New Quay. In 1704 smugglers clashed with customs officers from Aberdovey. The eight officers met with strong opposition from 150–200 Barmouth Dolgellau local men who were unloading salt Welshpool from three boats on the beach. MONTGOMERYSHIRE The officers fired into the crowd, severely injuring one of them. Aberdyfi Machynlleth E N G L A N D Newtown Cardigan Bay Aberystwyth Llanidloes Morfa Bychan sands, between Criccieth and W A L E S Knighton Porthmadog, was a CARDIGANSHIRE RADNORSHIRE favourite haunt for smugglers who would Aberaeron Llandrindod Wells unload their goods at New Quay low tide and store them Cardigan Builth in caves at the northern Llanwrytd Wells end of the beach. Llandysul Hay- Llandovery on-Wye Fishguard Brecon CARMARTHENSHIRE PEMBROKESHIRE BRECKNOCKSHIRE Carmarthen Ammanford Haverfordwest MONMOUTHSHIRE Llanelli Chepstow Pembroke Swansea Brandy Cove GLAMORGANSHIRE Newport The Pembrokeshire coast which is full of isolated caves and beaches proved ideal for Cardiff smuggling activity. The survival of place names such as ‘Brandy Brook’, ‘Ogof Tobacco’ and Barry Island ‘Ogof Whisky’ (ogof means cave) are suggestive Bristol Channel of previous connections with smugglers. Barry Island was a notorious centre for smuggling. In 1782, excise men Brandy Cove on the Gower was the favourite reported that a ship armed with 24 guns and a crew of 40 was lying haunt of William Arthur and his gang until the off the island, openly running contraband goods. In 1798, the early 1800s. A lane on the cliff above is still Collector of Customs led a party of excise men onto the island. They known as Smuggler’s Lane. seized 300 casks of brandy and three chests of tea. 149 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 149 09/12/17 1:13 PM  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day There were many notable Welsh smugglers, including: transactions, and when faced with large gangs protected by batsmen the preventative officers were almost powerless. William Owen Even if smugglers were apprehended it often proved difficult He wrote his autobiography while in Carmarthen Goal, to secure a conviction. Faced with threats against their life awaiting trial for the murder of an accomplice during a from powerful gangs, magistrates were often too afraid to botched robbery. He operated a smuggling gang along convict smugglers. Informers also ran the risk of attack or the Welsh coast during the 1720s and 1730s, running even death. Coastal communities were often tight-lipped, contraband brandy and salt from his base on the Isle of with many in the locality heavily involved in the smuggling Man, landing it at various places along Cardigan Bay and business. the Llŷn Peninsula. He was executed in 1747. Siôn Cwilt Source J: A report made by the Duke of Richmond in 1749 A smuggler who operated in the mid-eighteenth century, so about the difficulty of catching smugglers called because of the colourful patches on his coat. He lived The smugglers reigned a long time uncontrolled … If any in a tŷ unnos (a house built in one night) near Synod Inn, of them happened to be taken, and the proof ever so clear Ceredigion, a district known to this day as Banc Siôn Cwilt. against him, no magistrate in the county durst commit him to gaol. If he did he was sure to have his house or his barns set It is said that he stored his smuggled goods in sea caves. on fire, if he was so lucky to escape with his life. The Lucas family Living at Stout Hall on Gower, members of this family Source K: Information given by Abraham Walter, a tea were engaged in smuggling activities for over 200 years. dealer who had been a smuggler, to a Commission of Their reign ended with the death of John Lucas in 1703. His Enquiry into smuggling set up by the government in 1748 home, Salt House, possessed cellars that were large enough It is extremely dangerous for the Custom House Officers to drive a horse and cart into them. A secret path led from to attempt to seize goods in the coast counties because the cellars to a cave at Culver Hole, where the smuggled smugglers are very numerous there and can assemble a goods were landed. great number whenever they need. Nine persons in ten in the area would give them assistance and do lend the smugglers their horses and teams to convey their goods. THINK To what extent was smuggling a problem in Wales? The decline of smuggling activity A Committee of Enquiry held by the government in the Attempts to reduce smuggling early 1780s concluded that the high rate of smuggling was The government passed several laws designed to limit the due to the levying of high duties. In 1784, the duty on tea extent of smuggling: was cut from 119 per cent to 12.5 per cent, thus making tea n Hovering Act 1718 – this made it illegal for vessels an unprofitable cargo for smugglers. Duties on other items smaller than 50 tons to wait within six miles of the were reduced in the early nineteenth century signalling the shore; transportation to the colonies was introduced as end of smuggling on this scale. a penalty for smuggling. The impact of the Napoleonic War (1804–15) added to this n Act of Indemnity 1736 – this introduced the death decline. Fear of a French invasion prompted the building penalty for injuring preventative officers in the course of of Martello (watch) towers along the coast of south-east their duty, heavy fines for bribery and a free pardon to a England and these served as ideal lookout posts for the smuggler who revealed the names of fellow smugglers. forces of law and order. The Royal Navy patrolled the Those responsible for apprehending smugglers were the English Channel and blockaded French ports, all of which preventative officers who were officially known as the served to restrict trade with France. A further hindrance for Revenue Men of the Customs and Excise Service. Their task smugglers was the establishment of the Coast Guard service was to patrol the coastline of Wales and England, which in the 1820s. was divided into 33 areas, each with its own collector, customer and controller. Each port was staffed by an THINK additional five officials. Teams of riding officers were 1 Study Sources J and K. Explain why the authorities found based every few miles to patrol the coastal paths, with a it difficult to capture and convict smugglers. supervisor for every six men. However, with smuggling 2 Explain why smuggling declined during the late being so widespread, it was a difficult task to stop all eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. 150 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 150 09/12/17 1:13 PM  2 Nature of crimes The growth of highway robbery Highway robbery had been present in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but it became much more common The eighteenth century saw the growth of a more mobile in the eighteenth century. Many roads secured reputations society. The development of industry, the sharp rise in for being particularly unsafe due to an increased risk of population and the growth of towns, caused people to being attacked by armed robbers. For several reasons this move around the country more frequently. However, better period became the age of the highwayman. transport links and an increased volume of traffic also brought with it more opportunities for crime (see Source L). Unpoliced roads Lack of law enforcement meant there was no organised police force to pursue the robber. Availability of firearms By the eighteenth century handguns Turnpike roads were easier to obtain and use. The spread of turnpike (improved) roads allowed more people to travel by coach, providing greater opportunities for robbery. Opportunities for robbery Outside the towns unpoliced roads offered opportunities for highway Demobbed soldiers robbers to hide and strike. Demobbed soldiers from the Reasons for the many wars of the eighteenth increase in century sometimes became Coaching inns highway robbery highway robbers. They had been Improved roads encouraged more trained in the use of firearms. people to travel by stagecoach and this resulted in the building of coaching inns. Some coaching inns Increased wealth became the haunts of highway People were becoming wealthier robbers, who kept close watch on and carried more money and the guests as possible targets jewellery with them. This provided when they next took to the road. greater reward for the robber. Increased travel Limited banking There was a general increase in travel due to a Banking was limited which meant that people substantial growth in the population and the had to carry cash with them. start of the industrial revolution. Figure 2.2: Factors that contributed to the growth of highway robbery THINK Source L: Rev. John Evans describing improvements in road transport in The Beauties of Compare and contrast England and Wales (1812) Source L and Figure 2.2. The country [Wales] may now be traversed in almost every direction, and few towns are What factors are common devoid of the accommodating vehicle, a post-chaise. Many of the roads of the interior to help explain why are narrow, and abound with frequent and long ascents and descents; but they are no highway robbery became longer what formerly they were … Numerous roads have been widened, shortened, and more widespread during otherwise ameliorated [improved] by the addition of drains, arches, bridges, etc. to the great the eighteenth century? accommodation of travellers, and general benefit of the inhabitants. 151 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 151 18/12/17 6:19 PM  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day Highway robbers Finchley Common on the Great North Road was another area prone to attacks. Highway robbery caused great alarm, as it involved stealing using violence or the threat of violence, and sometimes Source M: An account of a highway robbery contained in resulted in murder. There were two types of highway robber The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 12 September 1781. – the footpad and the highwayman. Evidence of John Mawson: ‘As I was coming home, in company with Mr. Andrews, within two fields of the new road Footpads that is by the gate-house of Lord Baltimore, we were met by They attacked their victims on foot and, because they two men; they attacked us both: the man who attacked me did not have a horse, they tended to specialise in robbing I have never seen since. He clapped a bayonet to my breast, pedestrian travellers who could not escape as easily as and said, with an oath, Your money, or your life! He had on mounted travellers. They lacked the glamorous image of a soldier’s waistcoat and breeches. I put the bayonet aside, the highwayman and were considered to be more lowly and gave him my silver, about three or four shillings. criminals. Their attacks on the unsuspecting traveller could often be quite brutal. Source N: A contemporary account of an armed attack on Lord Eglington on Hounslow Heath, London, by the Highwaymen highwayman, James MacLaine in June 1750 These were mounted robbers who, because they rode a On the 26 June, as his Lordship was going over Hounslow horse, were able to attack stage coaches and travellers on Heath early, MacLaine and his companion, knowing they horseback. Such travellers tended to be richer and, as the should have a good booty, resolved to rob him. But as he raid often resulted in bigger takings, highwaymen were was armed with a blunderbuss some contrivance was considered to be socially superior to the lowly footpads. necessary. They therefore agreed that one should go Many such robberies involved the use of firearms. Some before the post-chaise and the other behind it; he before robbed alone, but most operated in pairs or in small the chaise stopped the Postilion, and screened himself in groups. Private coaches and public stagecoaches were the such a manner that his Lordship would not discharge his most common targets, as well as postboys carrying the blunderbuss at him without killing his own servant; at the same time MacLaine, who was behind, swore if his Lordship mail. did not throw the blunderbuss out of the chaise, he would The most frequent instances of highway robbery took place blow his brains through his face. His Lordship, finding on the roads leading in and out of London. The isolated himself thus beset, was forced to comply and was robbed spot of Hounslow Heath, which was crossed by the roads of his portmanteau and 50 guineas. His Lordship had two from London to Bath and Exeter, was a favourite haunt. servants half a mile behind. THINK 1 How useful is Source M to an historian studying highway robbery in the eighteenth century? 2 Use Sources N and O, and your own knowledge, to describe the crime of highway Source O: A contemporary illustration showing the highwayman James MacLaine robbery. stopping the coach of Lord Eglington on Hounslow Heath, June 1750 152 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 152 09/12/17 1:13 PM  2 Nature of crimes Case study: Richard ‘Dick’ Turpin (1706–39) Dick Turpin is probably the best remembered highwayman of the eighteenth century, whose daring deeds were celebrated in the romantic novels of the nineteenth century. Historians have now shown that many of the glamorous stories attached to Turpin are more myth than historical fact. In reality his career was violent and brutal. Turpin was born in Essex in 1706 and trained as a butcher. In his teens he took to cattle- stealing before joining a gang of violent house-breakers. During a raid on a house in Loughton, Essex, in 1735, Turpin was said to have threatened to put the widow on the fire if she did not disclose where her money was hidden. When some of his gang were arrested and hanged, Turpin turned to highway robbery and joined up with Tom King, carrying out attacks on travellers on the Cambridge Road. Their crimes resulted in a reward of £100 for their capture, forcing the pair to live in a cave in Epping Forest. In May 1737, Turpin and King were cornered during an attack. Turpin escaped but King was killed by a shot fired from Turpin’s gun. Turpin fled to Yorkshire where, using a false name, he set up a business buying and selling horses. In February 1739, he was arrested on suspicion of horse-stealing, found guilty and hanged at York on 7 April 1739. He was thirty-three years old. Contrary to popular belief Turpin never owned a horse called Black Bess, neither did he ride from London to York in the near impossible time of 16 hours, a journey that took a stagecoach three days. In fact, this ride was actually undertaken by John Nevison who in the 1680s attacked a sailor at Gadshill in Kent at 4.00 a.m. and tried to establish an alibi by reaching York at 7.45 p.m. In a novel called Rockwood written in 1834, the ride to York was attributed to Turpin not Nevison. Reasons for the decline in highway robbery By the early nineteenth century, attacks on the highway were becoming less common and the last recorded robbery by a highwayman occurred in 1831. Several factors contributed to the decline in highway robbery: n London was growing rapidly and some of the most dangerous open spaces near the city, such as Finchley Common and Hounslow Heath, were being covered with buildings. This made it more difficult to ambush coaches. n A greater use of banknotes, which were more traceable than gold and silver coins, made it more difficult for robbers. n London was becoming better policed. The Fielding brothers (see page 171) had set up a horse patrol to stop highwaymen and in 1805 a new patrol of 54 men was set up to guard the roads leaving the capital. n The spread of turnpike roads with their manned tollgates, made it more difficult for a highwayman to escape notice while making his getaway. n Justices of the peace refused to licence taverns that were popular with highwaymen. THINK ‘By 1831 instances of ACTIVITY highway robbery had declined sharply.’ Why Write an obituary notice for the highwayman Dick Turpin, as it might have appeared in a was this? London newspaper in 1739. 153 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 153 09/12/17 1:13 PM  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day Crimes connected with urbanisation in the nineteenth century As urban settlements grew rapidly in both size and population, this afforded greater opportunities for crime to emerge and develop. The criminal class Nineteenth-century writers such as Henry Mayhew identified a ‘criminal class’ who lived in criminal areas of large cities known as rookeries. In London the most notorious rookery was that of St Giles at the eastern end of Oxford Street, where criminals haunted the narrow alleyways and over-crowded tenement blocks. Mayhew even classified criminals according to their crimes and identified over 100 different types, including: n buzzers – stole handkerchiefs from gentlemen’s pockets n thimble-screwers – stole pocket-watches from their chains n prop-nailers – stole pins and brooches from ladies n till-friskers – emptied tills of their cash while the shopkeeper was distracted n drag-sneaks – stole goods or luggage from carts and coaches n snoozers – waited in railway hotels to steal passengers’ luggage and property. While crimes such as highway robbery declined, new crimes such as railway crime emerged to take their place. Over 90 per cent of crime was against property, the most common being small-scale theft. Pickpocketing became common, particularly among juveniles. In 1876, Dr Barnardo Source Q: The Artful Dodger picking pockets in an estimated that 30,000 children were sleeping rough, many etching by George Cruikshank from a first edition of Oliver of whom had to resort to crime to survive. Twist by Charles Dickens, 1837–38 Source P: A contemporary, John Binny, described how children were trained in the craft of pickpocketing during THINK the mid-nineteenth century Use Source P and your own knowledge to describe the A coat is suspended on the wall with a bell attached to it, nature of crime in the expanding urban settlements of and the boy attempts to take the handkerchief from the nineteenth-century Britain. pocket without the bell ringing. Until he is able to do this with proficiency he is not considered well trained. Another way in which they are trained is this: The trainer – if a man – walks up and down the room with a handkerchief in the tail of his coat, and the ragged boys amuse themselves abstracting it until they learn to do it in an adroit manner. 154 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 154 09/12/17 1:13 PM  2 Nature of crimes Industrial and agrarian disorder during the Industrial Revolution The early years of the Industrial Revolution brought hardship for ordinary people. Many craftspeople lost their jobs due to the arrival of new machines. Farm labourers found themselves replaced by new technology, such as threshing machines. Wages were low especially in farming and the high price of food, particularly after a bad harvest, resulted in misery and hardship for many. Ordinary people could do little, and some turned to violence as a last resort. Between 1790 and 1840 there was a real threat of revolution and the government responded by issuing harsh punishment for any unrest. In 1799 and 1800 it passed the Combination Acts, which made it illegal for workers to combine together in order to improve their situation. This period witnessed the appearance of a number of popular protests. Industrial disorder The Luddites The introduction of new machines, called stocking frames, spelt disaster for the traditional handloom weavers. Machine produced cloth, although of inferior quality, was much cheaper than hand woven cloth. The price of a roll of hand woven cloth in 1797 was 27 shillings but by 1827 a roll of machine produced cloth cost just 3 shillings. As a last resort, workers who had lost their jobs ganged together and broke into the new factories at night to smash the hated stocking-frames. To begin with they sent letters asking mill owners to destroy the machines and they signed these letters ‘Nedd Lud’. For this reason the machine breakers became known as ‘Luddites’. The attacks began in Nottingham in 1812 and soon spread to Lancashire and Yorkshire. In April 1812, 150 armed Luddites attacked Rawfolds Mill near Huddersfield and in Yorkshire mill owner William Horsfall was murdered. The government responded by sending 12,000 troops into the troubled areas and passed a law making frame-breaking punishable by death. In 1813, 17 Luddites were executed, including three for the murder of Horsfall and five for the attack on Rawfolds Mill. Many were fined while others were transported. Such harsh punishments caused Luddism to fade away, but the new machines remained. Source S: An account of a Luddite attack which appeared in the Manchester Gazette newspaper on 2 May 1812 On Monday afternoon a large body, not less than 2,000, commenced an attack, on the discharge of a pistol, which appeared to have been the signal; vollies of stones were thrown, and the windows smashed to atoms; the internal part of the building being guarded, a musket was Source R: Luddites destroying a textile machine discharged in the hope of intimidating and dispersing the assailants. In a very short time the effects were too shockingly seen in the death of three, and it is said, about ten wounded. 155 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 155 09/12/17 1:13 PM  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day Chartist protests in Wales, 1839 Chartism was a movement for democratic rights which had been started in London in 1838 with the publication of the ‘People’s Charter’. This demanded the reform of parliament and the granting of the vote to all men over the age of 21. Chartism appealed mainly to working- class people and the first Working Men’s Association (which is what Chartists called their local groups) in Wales was set up in Carmarthen in 1837. During 1839 chartist protests occurred in several areas across mid and south Wales: The Llanidloes disturbances, April 1839 During 1838 Henry Hetherington, the leader of the Birmingham chartists, toured the area of mid-Wales, encouraging the setting up of Working Men’s Associations in towns like Llanidloes and Welshpool. On 3 April 1839 a chartist uprising took place in Llanidloes when an attack was made on the Trewythen Arms hotel which housed some police constables who had been sent down from London to keep the peace. On 3 May, troops arrived in the town to restore order and over the next few weeks 32 alleged chartists were arrested. They were all put on trial, found guilty and sentenced to either imprisonment or transportation. The Newport Rising, November 1839 The most serious outbreak of chartist violence occurred in Newport in south-east Wales. Local chartists led by John Frost, Zephaniah Williams and William Jones, planned to lead a march of 20,000 men from Blackwood, Ebbw Vale and Pontypool, down through the valleys to Newport. In the event only 5,000 actually went on the march. On the morning of 3 November they gathered outside the Westgate Hotel in Newport. The authorities had placed 30 soldiers inside the hotel. As the crowd gathered shots were fired and the result was the death of eight chartists and many wounded. Frost and the other leaders were eventually rounded up, put on trial and found guilty of treason. They were sentenced to death but this was later changed to transportation. Scotch Cattle, 1830s The Scotch Cattle protests took place in the industrial districts of south Wales, especially near the heads of the valleys. Members of the movement were mostly young Welsh-speaking colliers who often disguised themselves by blacking their faces and wearing animal skins. Their leader was called the Tarw Scotch (Scotch Bull). They were angry at the truck system, the high rents and the continual wage reductions. They called for strikes and sent warning notes to blacklegs who ignored their calls to stop work. They attacked the property of the industrialists and intimidated any potential informers. Events reached a climax in 1835 when a young miner called John Morgan was found guilty of killing a woman during a raid on a house at Bedwellty. He was hanged at Monmouth. Events died down after this Source T: An artist’s impression showing the attack on the Chartists incident. outside the Westgate Hotel in Newport, November 1839 Source U: An account of violence associated with the Scotch cattle movement, which appeared in The Monmouth Merlin newspaper on 12 May 1832 We have to record further acts of outrage and violence by the ‘Scotch Cattle’ … On Wednesday last, at midnight, about 200 men from Pontypool district … began injuring houses by hurling immense stones at them … It seems the men are determined to be paid weekly for their labour in the current coin of the realm, and will not be compelled, as heretofore, to deal in the shops of their employers. 156 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 156 09/12/17 1:13 PM  2 Nature of crimes Agrarian disorder ‘Captain Swing’. Between January 1830 and September 1832 there were 316 reported cases of arson and 390 The Swing riots, 1830–32 attacks on threshing machines. The authorities cracked down hard and issued harsh punishments to those Between 1830 and 1832 gangs of protestors attacked caught. Several hundred were sent to prison, 481 were the property of rich farmers, setting fire to hayricks and transported and 19 were hanged. smashing up farm machinery, in riots that spread across southern and eastern England. The protestors were mostly Source W: An account of an attack on the farm of Mr agricultural labourers who were angry about poverty and Ellerby in 1831, taken from the memories of Caleb the increasing use of machines. Wages were much lower Rawcombe, a Wiltshire shepherd for farm labourers than industrial workers and the work Mr Ellerby had been the first to introduce the new methods. was seasonal. During the winter months they were kept He did not believe the labourers would rise against him employed by threshing, but the introduction of threshing for he knew he was regarded as a just and kind man... One machines robbed them of this work. day, the villagers got together and came to Mr Ellerby’s The harvests of 1828 and 1829 were bad and this led barns, where they set to work to destroy his new threshing to increased food prices. In frustration the protestors machine. When he was told, he rushed out and went in hot haste to the scene. As he drew near, some person in the turned to violence. Threshing machines and the hated crowd threw a hammer at him, which struck him on the workhouse were obvious targets. Many attacks were head and brought him senseless to the ground. preceded by a threatening letter signed by the fictional Source V: A contemporary engraving showing Swing rioters in Kent setting fire to hayricks 157 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 157 09/12/17 1:13 PM  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day The Rebecca riots, 1839–43 result of its findings toll charges were standardised. By the mid-1840s south-west Wales was peaceful again. Between 1839 and 1843 gangs of poor farmers, disguised in women’s clothing and led by ‘Rebecca’, attacked tollgates on roads across south west Wales. It is possible that the name Source X: The activities of Rebecca reported in the was taken from a passage in the Bible referring to a Rebecca newspaper The Carmarthen Journal on 16 December 1842 and her children, and instructing them to ‘possess the gate The leaders of the mob were disfigured by painting their of those that hate them’. faces in various colours, wearing horsehair beards and women’s clothes … All the doors of all the houses in the The farmers were angry at the high rents, the payment of neighbourhood were locked and the inhabitants locked the tithe to the Church of England (even though many of within, not daring to exhibit a light in their windows … them were non-conformist chapel goers) and changes to the mob stopped all drovers coming in the direction of the operation of the Poor Law after 1834, which saw the Carmarthen and levied a contribution from them, stating building of new workhouses. The spark that finally ignited they had destroyed all the tollgates. their anger was the building of more tollgates on roads around Carmarthen and the charging of tolls for carrying lime, which was used to fertilise their land. When the Whitland Turnpike Trust put up a new gate at Efailwen it was attacked three times between May and July 1839. After the third attack the magistrates ordered that the gate was not to be rebuilt. The harvests of 1839–41 were bad and in 1842 trouble reignited, spreading into neighbouring areas. By May 1843, 20 tollgates had been destroyed and the rioters then turned their attention to other targets. In June 1843, the Carmarthen workhouse was attacked. In September 1843, Sarah Davies, a 75-year-old tollgate keeper, was killed in an attack. Troops and special constables were sent into the area and rewards were offered for information as to the identity of the Rebecca rioters. Eventually the ringleaders were caught and for their attacks on Sarah Davies. David Davies (Dai’r Cantwr) received 20 years’ imprisonment while John Jones Source Y: A cartoon that appeared in Punch magazine in (Shoni Sgubor Fawr) was transported for life. In 1844, the 1843 showing Rebecca rioters attacking a list of grievances government set up a Royal Commission of Enquiry and as a listed on the tollgate THINK 1 Use Sources R to Y to complete the following table to record the causes, events and outcomes of the popular protests of the early nineteenth century. Source Name of protest Type of protest: Main causes of Summary of the Result of the movement industrial or agricultural? the protest main events protests Source R Source S Source T Source U Source V Source W Source X Source Y 2 Study the table you have completed in Question 1 above. Which of the protests were the most serious threat to law and order? Give reasons to support your answer. 158 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 158 09/12/17 1:13 PM  2 Nature of crimes The growth of crime in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries The twentieth century was a time of tremendous change particularly in terms of advances in technology and transport, advances which have continued into the twenty-first century. It has resulted in the appearance of new types of crime such as motoring offences, cybercrime and terrorism. Development of transport crime Motor cars first made their appearance on British roads in 1894. The Locomotive Acts (or Red Flag Acts) introduced during the late nineteenth century set speed limits and safety procedures for self-propelled vehicles. A law of 1865 set a maximum speed of 4 mph in the country and 2 mph in towns and each vehicle had to have a person carrying a red flag or lantern walking sixty yards in front of it. A further Act in 1896 increased the speed limit to 14 mph and removed the need for a person to walk in front of the vehicle. One of the first recorded fatalities in Wales caused by a car accident occurred in Llanishen, Cardiff, in 1903, when a 75-year-old woman was knocked down and killed by a car travelling at between 5 and 8 mph driven by a learner driver. At first only the wealthy upper classes could afford to buy cars. However, as motor manufacturers such as William Morris and Herbert Austin introduced mass-production techniques during the 1920s, the cost of cars fell. By the 1930s there were many thousands of cars on the roads. Between 1924 and 1936 car prices fell by over 50 per cent, making them affordable to the middle classes. As more and more cars appeared on the roads, so specific laws had to be introduced to regulate motorised transport. In 1933 and 1934 there were over 7,000 fatal accidents a year, so the Ministry of Transport took action and introduced a range of safety measures, such as speed limits, tests for new drivers and Belisha Beacons at pedestrian crossings. The safety campaign reduced the number of deaths to around 6,500 per year. Source Z: Under the rules of the Red Flag Act of 1865 a person had to walk in front of a motor car warning pedestrians of an approaching vehicle 159 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 159 09/12/17 1:13 PM  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day Creation of new motoring crimes As car ownership increased there has been more opportunity for people to commit motoring crimes. During the first half of the twentieth century it brought the police up against the middle classes, who made up most of the car owners. Before this, four-fifths of all crime had involved working-class offenders. 1908 Road signs introduced 1924 White lines on roads introduced 1925 It became an offence to be drunk in charge of motorised vehicle 1926 Traffic lights introduced 1930 Compulsory motor insurance brought in 1934 Speed limit of 30 mph was set for roads in built-up areas 1935 Compulsory driving test introduced for new drivers 1956 Yellow lines introduced to restrict parking 1960 Traffic wardens allowed to issue fines for illegal parking 1967 Introduction of breathalysers to test for alcohol level in motorists’ breath 1977 Speed limit of 70 mph on dual-carriageways and 60 mph on single carriageways 1983 Compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers to wear a seatbelt 1991 Compulsory for back-seat passengers to wear a seatbelt 1991 New law of ‘Causing death by driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs’ 2003 Illegal to use a hand-held mobile phone or similar device while driving Table 2.2: Examples of road traffic legislation Motor offences range from drunk driving to minor traffic offences and Alcohol: Driving with excess alcohol in the blood they involve a huge amount of police Refusing roadside breath test and court time (see Figure 2.3). Refusing to supply specimens for analysis Once a person is responsible for a vehicle they have to fulfil several legal requirements before they take In-car safety legislation: Road traffic offences: to the road: Dangerous and careless Not wearing a seatbelt driving n The vehicle needs to be taxed, (law since 1983) Parking violations Using a hand-held insured and, if it is more than mobile phone while Road rage Motoring Speeding three years old, possess a valid driving (law since 2003) offences Car theft MOT certificate. n The driver must have passed their driving test and hold a driving licence. n Once on the road the driver must drive according to the laws of the road, following the Highway Code and obeying signs and Documents: Accidents: speed limits. No vehicle insurance Failing to stop after an accident No vehicle tax Failing to report an accident n They must not drive while under No MOT the influence of drugs or alcohol. No driving licence Failure to comply with any of the above makes the driver liable for Figure 2.3: The most common types of motoring offences today prosecution. 160 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 160 18/12/17 6:19 PM  2 Nature of crimes Types of motoring crimes between 17 and 29. Deaths from drink driving rose during the early years of the twenty-first century but then fell Theft of vehicles significantly from 2004 onwards. In 2004, the maximum Car theft has traditionally been one of the biggest categories sentence for causing death by drink driving was raised to of crime. Poor locks and a lack of any security fittings made 14 years. cars easy targets for thieves, either to gain access to the car to steal possessions or to ‘hotwire’ the car and drive it away. A new trend in motoring offences has been the increased In 1996, over half a million cars were stolen in the UK, but instances of drivers being caught while under the influence since the 1990s car manufacturers have made significant of drugs. In 2011, almost a quarter (22 per cent) of those improvements in security measures such as fitting better killed in road traffic accidents in the UK had illegal drugs locks, car alarms, immobilisers and tracking devices. This in their bloodstream, the most common being cannabis. has made it harder for thieves and as a result the number of Drug driving is most common among 20- to 24-year-olds. cars stolen has fallen each year. Speeding offences However, as car security has improved thieves have adapted Motorists can be prosecuted for a range of traffic offences. and one consequence has been an increase in house The most common motoring offence is that of speeding. burglary solely to get car keys. Cars can be towed or put on Since 1934 a speed limit of 30 mph has been in force in built- trailers and engine controls can be bypassed using a laptop up areas and since then a range of other speeding restrictions to re-programme car processes. High-value cars are often have been introduced to suit different driving environments. stolen to order and within a few hours of the theft they can The punishment for speeding is normally a fine and penalty be in a container; within 24 to 72 hours they will be on a points put on the licence. When 12 points have been awarded ship to destinations such as Europe and the Middle East. the driver will be banned from driving for six months. The 1990s saw the introduction of permanent speed cameras An extreme form of car theft is car-jacking. Car-jackers have as well as mobile speed detection systems. New technology been known to ‘accidently’ bump into another car forcing means that speed cameras can record offences without a the driver to get out, upon which a thief jumps into the car police officer having to be present (see Source AA). and drives it off. Increasingly thieves are avoiding breaking into locked vehicles in favour of getting their hands on the ignition key. In some extreme cases drivers have been threatened at gunpoint to hand over the keys. Theft from vehicles During the late 1980s and early 1990s a new type of car crime emerged – the theft of mobile phones from vehicles. Thieves would often press buttons at pelican crossings to stop the traffic and steal phones from drivers waiting at the lights. Over 145,000 phones were stolen in 1993. In many modern vehicles all doors are now automatically locked Source AA: Since the late 1990s permanent speed cameras once the engine is started and the car moves off. as well as mobile speed camera vans have been introduced Joyriding across the UK Driving a car without the consent of the owner is known as joyriding and it is a crime commonly associated with ACTIVITY young males. Around 10,000 cases are reported each year Copy and complete the chart below, using your knowledge and while the age of joyriders is usually between 17 and to fill in each section. 25 years, children of a much younger age have been caught driving motor vehicles. In May 2012, a schoolboy of 11 Type of Description When this Examples became Britain’s youngest joyrider. car crime of the crime crime became from this common section Alcohol and drug-related driving offences Prosecutions for drink driving offences have increased Theft of vehicles since the breathalyser, which tests blood and alcohol levels, was introduced in 1967. On average 3,000 people are Theft from killed or seriously injured each year in the UK as a result vehicles of drink driving collisions. Nearly one in six of all deaths Car-jacking on the roads involve drivers who are over the legal alcohol Joyriding limit. This crime is particularly common among men aged 161 403192_02_WJEC_GCSE_History_HM_143-165.indd 161 09/12/17 1:13 PM  WJEC GCSE History: Changes in crime and punishment, c.1500 to the present day The development of technology and computer crime Using the internet, criminals can access computers remotely to commit crimes without having to enter the victim’s home or office. Some computer crimes are new; others are just new versions of old crimes. For example, using the computer to obtain passwords to illegally transfer money out of a person’s bank account is fraud, a very old crime. A growing computer crime is that of identity theft and fraud. Phishing scams are used to trick people into revealing important information, such as passwords or credit card details. Both firms and individuals are increasingly getting targeted by online fraud attacks, and during 2015 recorded phishing attacks increased by 21 per cent upon the previous year, costing cybercrime victims in the UK over £174 million. Computer viruses (malicious software) Deliberately introducing a computer virus to damage or destroy information held on other computers or to crash the system. Harassment Phishing scams Using the internet to direct obscenities/ Using spoof emails to trick people into derogatory comments against specific people revealing important information such due to gender, race, religion, nationality or as passwords or bank details. sexual orientation. Copyright infringement Hacking Illegally downloading music, Gaining unauthorised access to films and other forms of the private records of individuals, criminal piracy. organisations or governments. Examples of cybercrimes Spam Cyberterrorism Using the computer network Sending bulk email for to attack a government for commercial purposes. political objectives. Fraud and identify theft Sexual crimes Stealing a person’s identity and Computers are used by paedophiles pretending to be them. Stealing to share illegal images. Child grooming money from bank accounts via the through the use of chatrooms. internet. Stealing credit card numbers.