Cornell Notes - Psych 2 PDF

Pseudo Science and Science Practitioner Model Define scientist ○ Framework that bridges gap between scientific research and practitioner? practical application (clinical) in psychology ○ Utilizes evidence based practice (EBP)...

Pseudo Science and Science Practitioner Model Define scientist ○ Framework that bridges gap between scientific research and practitioner? practical application (clinical) in psychology ○ Utilizes evidence based practice (EBP) ○ Available research and knowledge of clinical expertise considering What research attributes, cultures and preferences constitutes best ○ Best evidence for a claim involves evaluating research on; evidence for a methodology (studies - randomized controlled trials, large sample claim? sizes, replicability (findings that have been replicated often) relevance (addresses the claim) recency (recent research new Know signs of methodologies) peer review (reputable, undergone expert psuedoscience to scrutiny). determine if its ○ Science uses real evidence tests ideas reviews results real or psuedo ○ Pseudo - fake lacks proper evidence + testing cant handle criticism ○ AdHoc Immunising hypothesis - help theories stay the same even when evidence doesn’t support them - makes it seem scientific when they aren’t. ○ Explanations come after data is collected (protective explanations to safeguard a theory. ○ Exaggerated claims ○ Real science suggests things but doesn’t claim to prove anything definitively. ○ Anecdote vs Evidence ○ Anecdote - reliance on personal stories (pseudo) ○ Evidence - peer reviewed evidence → empirical data. Summary: a framework linking scientific research and clinical application in psychology through evidence-based practice (EBP). It emphasizes evaluating research based on methodology, recency, replicability, relevance, and peer review. Real science relies on solid evidence and testing, while pseudoscience lacks proper support and often defends theories with ad hoc explanations. It distinguishes between anecdotal evidence, which is based on personal stories, and empirical data, which is supported by peer-reviewed research Developmental Psychology Nature and ○ Theories - provide framework for organised thinking,a lens that purpose of guides collection of new facts which can also limit which facts we theories notice ○ Nature → study of human behaviour as a function of physical Impact of early maturation and cognitive development. experience in the ○ Sensitive period (teratogens) embryology - any agent that can womb on cause birth defects and disrupt development (e.g. radiation development “ chemicals nicotine alcohol drugs ) sensitive periods” ○ Period of greatest susceptibility →embryonic period (upto8 weeks) ○ Timing of exposure is important in terms of impact Describe ○ Eg. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder - facial abnormalities, normative developmental deficit development of ○ Milestones like crawling and walking are sequential but vary in children age; early reflexes aid motor skills. - Physical ○ Adolescence is marked by sexual maturation and significant and motor physical changes. - Cognitive ○ Cognition → Understanding oneself and others' perspectives developm develops as children grow. ent - Social ○ Rouge experiment →around 18 months of age they can cognition recognise the reflection in the mirror as themself and realize there is a red mark on their forehead. Parent child ○ Safe haven → The caregiver acts as a refuge for the child relationship and during distress or illness, requiring consistent availability to how parenting ensure the child's sense of safety. may influence ○ Secure base → The caregiver provides a stable foundation, development allowing the child to explore and develop independence. - Attachme nt theory 1. **Lorenz’s Work**: Introduced imprinting in birds, showing a - Key biological basis for attachment. Studies and Theories 2. **Bowlby’s Theory**: Describes attachment as an innate system for - Baumrind child safety through caregiver proximity. s Parenting 3. **Evolutionary Basis**: Attachment behaviors evolved to enhance typologies survival by keeping children near protective caregivers. Changes that 4. **Ainsworth’s Observations**: Identified variations in attachment occur during the styles based on caregiving patterns and highlighted the functions of adolescent safe haven and secure base. period Explain the 5. **Strange Situation Procedure**: A laboratory assessment categorizing attachment styles (secure, avoidant, anxious-ambivalent, trajectory of disorganized) based on children's reactions during separations and development reunions. during adulthood, Attachment Styles reflecting on changing - **Secure Attachment [B]**: Flexibly engages with the caregiver for comfort while exploring independently. conceptualisatio ns of "Old Age" - **Insecure Avoidant Attachment [A]**: Prioritizes exploration over and the closeness, avoiding the caregiver. implications of "Ageism" - **Insecure Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment [C]**: Preoccupied with the caregiver, struggling to explore due to ongoing anxiety. ### Importance of Secure Attachment Research shows secure attachment is vital for resilience and healthy development, with securely attached children demonstrating: - Better peer relationships - Strong leadership skills - Improved emotion regulation - Positive interactions with teachers Long-term studies link secure attachment to positive social and emotional outcomes in adulthood. ### Disorganized Attachment Disorganized attachment develops when caregivers become sources of fear due to trauma or neglect, leading to significant developmental issues. ### Key Insights on Attachment 1. **Attachment as a Relationship**: It reflects the caregiving relationship rather than the child’s inherent traits and may vary by caregiver. 2. **Dynamic Nature**: Early attachment can change with shifts in caregiving environments, affecting lifelong outcomes. 3. **Assessment Challenges**: Traditional methods become less effective with older children; alternative techniques like storytelling or drawing are useful for understanding attachment. ### Factors Influencing Attachment 1. **Nature and Nurture**: Parenting influences attachment quality, while infants also shape their relationships through their behavior. 2. **Bidirectional Influence**: Development is reciprocal; children affect their caregivers, requiring tailored responses to different temperaments to promote secure attachments. - Authoritative Parenting (High Warmth, High Control) Characteristics:** Warmth, reasoned discipline, and sensitivity to children's needs. - Focus:** Balance of rules and emotional support. **2. Authoritarian Parenting (Low Warmth, High Control)** - **Characteristics:** Strict control with little warmth and no explanations for rules. - **Focus:** High demands with low responsiveness, potentially harming emotional development. **3. Permissive Parenting (High Warmth, Low Control)** - **Characteristics:** Affectionate relationship with few rules. - **Focus:** High emotional support but lacks necessary boundaries. **4. Uninvolved Parenting (Low Warmth, Low Control)** - **Characteristics:** Emotionally detached and neglectful. - **Focus:** Lacks both emotional connection and guidance, adversely affecting development. Biological Changes: Significant hormonal shifts and puberty. Psychological Changes: Formation of identity and cognitive development. Social Changes: Peer influence and romantic relationships. Erikson’s Theory: Identity crisis as a prerequisite for adulthood. Adult development focuses on significant life transitions rather than chronological age, including milestones like leaving home, marriage, parenthood, empty nest, midlife assessment, retirement, loss of a partner, and dying. Non-events and unexpected opportunities also influence development. The impact of transitions often relates to their alignment with societal expectations, captured by Bernice Neugarten's "Social Clock," which refers to norms governing age-appropriate behavior. Transitions can be classified as: - **Normative Events**: Typical milestones (e.g., marriage). - **Off-time Events**: Non-typical transitions at unexpected times. - **Non-normative Events**: Rare and unforeseen occurrences. Cultural differences affect normative timing, and off-time events can be particularly stressful due to lack of preparation. Perceptions of aging are changing, with increased life expectancy leading to challenges in aged care, especially with a projected rise in the elderly population by 2032. Ageism, involving stereotyping and discrimination against older adults, persists at both individual and institutional levels, necessitating increased respect and improved aged care services to address these issues. **Key Concepts from the Gender Development Lecture** 1. **Sex vs. Gender**: - Sex is biological; gender is psychological and exists on a spectrum. 2. **Gender Differences and Similarities**: - Gender identity is influenced by both biological and environmental factors. 3. **Persistence of Gender Stereotypes**: - Stereotypes persist due to different treatment by parents, peers, and media. 4. **Developmental Trajectory**: - Children form gender identity by age two, becoming more aware of stereotypes as they grow. 5. **Causes of Gender Differences**: - Gender adherence intensifies in childhood and is reinforced by schools and societal norms. 6. **Theories of Gender-Role Development**: - Theories include Biological, Psychoanalytic, Cognitive Developmental, Gender Schema, and Social Cognitive theories, emphasizing various influences on gender identity. 7. **Contemporary Views**: - Research shows that gender can be fluid and that transgender children can clearly understand their gender identity. --- **Key Concepts from the Moral Development Lecture**  1. **Major Approaches**: - Freud focuses on unconscious motivations; Piaget and Kohlberg examine cognitive stages of moral reasoning; Bandura highlights the role of social context. 2. **Prosocial Behavior and Empathy**: - These concepts foster kindness and ethical decision-making. 3. **Interrelationship of Moral Components**: - Moral reasoning, emotions, and behavior influence each other, especially during adolescence. 4. **Moral Disengagement**: - Involves justifying wrong actions to maintain a positive self-image, using techniques like minimizing harm or shifting blame. developmental psychology explores how behavior evolves through maturation. Key concepts include: 1. **Sensitive Periods:** Critical times when harmful exposures can lead to developmental issues. 2. **Developmental Milestones:** Varying ages for physical and cognitive achievements, with significant changes during adolescence. 3. **Attachment Theory:** Emphasizes caregiver relationships, with styles (secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized) affecting development. 4. **Parenting Styles:** Different approaches (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved) influence child outcomes. 5. **Adulthood Transitions:** Focus on significant life changes shaped by cultural norms, beyond chronological age. 6. **Gender Development:** Distinction between biological sex and psychological gender identity formation. 7.**Moral Development:** Examines the link between moral reasoning and behavior. These concepts highlight the interplay of biological, social, and emotional factors throughout life. Health Psychology - Studies how psychological factors affect physical health Focuses on the connection between mental states and health outcomes. - **Key Concepts of Health and Well-Being**: - Encompasses physical, mental, and social well-being. - Well-being includes emotional and psychological dimensions. - **Psychological Aspects**: - **Illness Development**: Psychological factors can lead to illness. - **Staying Healthy**: Encourages healthy behaviors and stress management. - **Impact of Illness**: Affects mental health, causing anxiety or depression. - **Management**: Psychological support aids coping and recovery. - **Treatment**: Incorporates approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy. - **Historical Evolution**: - **Hippocrates**: Humoral theory of health. - **Plato**: Body-mind dualism. - **Galen**: Localization of illness. - **Middle Ages**: Health viewed through a spiritual lens. - **Renaissance**: Body as a machine, mind-body communication. Comparing the Biomedical Model and the Biopsychosocial Model **Biomedical Model:** - Focuses on physical and biological causes of disease. - Views health as the absence of illness. - Often ignores psychological and social factors. **Biopsychosocial Model:** - Considers biological, psychological, and social factors in health. - Recognizes that health issues arise from a mix of these influences. - Promotes a holistic approach to treatment, addressing both physical and emotional well-being. ### Applying the Biopsychosocial Model For chronic pain, this model guides treatment by examining: - **Biological factors:** Injuries, genetics. - **Psychological factors:** Stress and anxiety. - **Social factors:** Support systems and lifestyle choices. --- ### Understanding Stress, Appraisal, and Coping **Stress:** - A personal experience based on situation interpretation. - Can come from external events and leads to physical and mental reactions. **Appraisal:** - Evaluating a situation to assess its relevance and impact. **Coping:** - Strategies used to manage stress, either by solving the problem or managing emotions. ### Individual Differences Responses to stress vary based on personality, past experiences, and social support. --- ### How Stress Affects Health **Physiological Effects:** - Increases blood pressure and heart rate. - Impacts immune function. **Behavioral Effects:** - Leads to poor sleep and unhealthy eating habits. Chronic stress can lead to health issues like heart disease. --- ### Placebo and Nocebo Effects **Placebo Effect:** - Improvement from a non-active treatment based on belief. **Nocebo Effect:** - Negative outcomes from negative expectations. These effects highlight the connection between mental factors and physical health. --- ### Theories of Health Behavior Change: Transtheoretical Model (TTM) **Stages of the TTM:** 1. **Precontemplation:** No intention to change. 2. **Contemplation:** Considering change. 3. **Preparation:** Planning to change. 4. **Action:** Actively changing behavior. 5. **Maintenance:** Sustaining new behaviors. ### Using TTM for Change Applying TTM to quitting smoking helps tailor support at each stage. --- ### Behavioral Pathogens and Immunogens - **Pathogens:** Harmful behaviors affecting health. - **Immunogens:** Positive behaviors that promote health. **Examples:** 1. **Poor Eating:** Linked to obesity; influenced by environment and social factors. 2. **Alcohol Use:** High risks include liver disease; moderation is key. **Immunogen Example:** - **Healthy Diet:** Linked to better mental and physical health. --- ### Social Determinants of Health **Definition:** Non-medical factors (economic, social, educational) that influence health outcomes. **Challenges in Changing Health Behaviors:** - Multiple influences and mixed health messages make decision-making difficult. Understanding these complexities helps design better health interventions. Clinical Neuropsychology Clinical neuropsychology studies how the brain affects thoughts and behaviors. It combines neurology, which looks at the nervous system, with psychology, which focuses on the mind. Clinical neuropsychologists evaluate individuals by considering their medical history, education, and job background. They conduct interviews, observe behaviors, and use tests to identify any brain issues and their effects. The assessments, known as neuropsychological assessments, focus on understanding cognitive and behavioral functions. Neuropsychologists assist individuals with conditions like: - **Acquired brain injuries** (e.g., strokes) - **Neurological conditions** (e.g., multiple sclerosis) - **Neurodegenerative conditions** (e.g., Alzheimer’s) - **Neurodevelopmental conditions** (e.g., ADHD) - **Neuropsychiatric disorders** (e.g., schizophrenia) These assessments help with: - **Diagnosis** of neurological issues - **Documentation** for legal purposes - **Rehabilitation planning** and service access - **Future planning** for individuals and caregivers - **Decision-making capacity** evaluations Information technology is vital for accessing assessment resources. Interpreting neuropsychological data involves comparing individual results to normative data, which sets a standard. Significant deviations may indicate cognitive problems. A solid neuropsychological assessment combines test results, behavioral observations, history, interview information, and personality factors. This helps create effective treatment plans to improve the individual’s quality of life. Organisational Psychology Impetus for Organisational Psychology as a Discipline arose from the need to understand and improve workplace dynamics,productivity and employee wellbeing. - **Industrial Revolution**: Addressed changing work environments. - **Scientific Management**: Enhanced efficiency via systematic study. - **World War I**: Required effective personnel selection. - **Complex Organisations**: Needed systematic human resource management. - **Human Factors**: Highlighted psychological influences on performance. ### Role of Theory in Early Organisational Psychology - **Understanding Behaviour**: Offered insights into workplace dynamics. - **Testable Hypotheses**: Facilitated empirical research. - **Guidance for Interventions**: Informed practical solutions. - **Assessment Tools**: Developed measures for employee evaluation. - **Predicting Outcomes**: Established prediction capabilities for motivation and performance. ### Taylorism and Scientific Management - Introduced systematic methods to optimize productivity. - Employed **Time and Motion Studies** to analyze tasks. ### Role of Organisational Psychology during World War I - Focused on **personnel selection** for military roles. - Developed **aptitude assessment** methods. - Addressed psychological factors affecting soldier performance. ### Aims, Objectives, and Outcomes of the Hawthorne Studies - **Key Findings**: - The **Hawthorne Effect**: Performance improved with researcher attention. - Emphasized psychological and social work factors. - **Implications**: Highlighted the importance of engagement and motivation. ### Role of Organisational Psychology during World War II - Used psychomotor testing for selecting military personnel. - Validated selection methods for basic training. ### Trait vs. State Approaches to Leadership - **Trait Approach**: Effective leaders possess stable traits. - **State Approach**: Leadership effectiveness varies by situation. ### Goal of Human Factors in Enabling Performance - Aims to optimize human-system interactions for safety and efficiency. - Promotes user-centered design to minimize errors. ### Top Motivators for Workers since World War II - **Ability**: Essential for motivation. - **Work Environment**: Supportive structures enhance performance. - **Work Design**: Engaging jobs sustain motivation. ### Goal-Setting Theory in Psychological Practice - Emphasizes specific, challenging goals to boost performance. - Highlights the need for regular feedback. ### Person-Organisation Fit - Aligns individual and organisational values. - Enhances job satisfaction and reduces turnover. ### Development of Personality Measurement in the Workplace - Evolved to understand individual differences and job fit. ### Contributions to the Measurement of Ability (g) - Assessing general intelligence is crucial for job performance. ### Transformational Leadership Theory and Outcomes - Focuses on inspiring followers, enhancing performance and satisfaction. ### Job Analysis Process - Identifies job tasks and requirements through: - **Job Descriptions**: Duties and responsibilities. - **Job Specifications**: Required qualifications and skills. ### Contemporary Approach to Personality in the Workplace - Focuses on the **Big Five** traits for assessing workplace compatibility. ### Understanding Occupational Health Psychology - Explores psychological factors impacting worker health, such as stress. ### Occupational Hazards and Diseases - **Physical Hazards**: Environmental risks like noise. - **Pathogenic Diseases**: Illnesses from workplace exposures. - **Psychological Diseases**: Stress and anxiety linked to work conditions. ### Hazardous Industries in Australia - Industries like transport and warehousing have high accident rates. ### Consequences of Occupational Accidents - Immediate, short-term, and long-term effects on productivity. ### Challenges in Managing Occupational Safety in Developing Nations - Informal employment and limited health registries hinder safety management. ### Human Error Types and Management Strategies - Understands perception, decision, and action errors to develop targeted training. ### Contemporary Occupational Safety Management - Joint responsibility between individuals and managers under robust legislation. ### Resilience Capacities - Reflects adaptability to stress and challenges, influenced by coping resources. Perception Perception is how we interpret what we sense in the physical world. It is about understanding the difference between the objective reality around us and our subjective experience of it. We use our sensory organs to gather information from the environment, and our brain analyzes this data. ### Senses The main senses include: - **Sight** (vision) - **Hearing** (audition) - **Smell** (olfaction) - **Taste** (gustation) - **Touch** (tactile) - **Body position** (proprioception) - **Balance** (equilibrioception) Understanding how these senses work and how they convert external information into our perceptions is essential. ### Transduction Transduction is the process where sensory organs turn environmental signals into neural signals that the brain can understand. This involves changing specific experiences into broader ideas or concepts. ### Anatomy and Physiology of Sensory Systems 1. **Somatosensation**: This system detects body temperature, pain, and touch through receptors in the skin and joints that send signals to the brain. 2. **Equilibrioception**: Located in the inner ear, this helps us maintain balance and understand head movements. 3. **Proprioception**: This sense helps us know where our body parts are based on feedback from muscles and tendons. 4. **Taste and Smell**: Taste is detected by receptors in taste buds, while smell is picked up by receptors in the nose. Both senses send information directly to the brain and can evoke strong emotions and memories. 5. **Hearing**: Sound waves travel through the air and are converted by the auditory system into signals that the brain interprets as sounds. Pitch is determined by frequency, while loudness is determined by amplitude. 6. **Vision**: The eye works like a camera, focusing light to create images. The retina has cones that detect different colors. ### Visual Illusions Visual illusions trick our perception and show how our brain interprets visual information. They help us understand phenomena like depth, shading, and light cues. ### Basics of Sound Two key properties of sound are pitch and amplitude. Pitch depends on the frequency of the sound wave, while amplitude relates to how loud the sound is. Locating sounds, or sound localization, uses differences in how each ear hears sounds to help us identify where they come from. ### Hearing Loss Hearing loss can occur for two main reasons: - **Conductive deafness**: This happens when something blocks sound from reaching the inner ear. - **Sensorineural deafness**: This occurs from damage to the hearing system, often due to loud noise or neurological issues. ### Receptive Fields Visual receptive fields are areas in our vision that activate specific brain neurons. These fields help determine how we respond to light and patterns. ### Properties of Light and Color Perception Understanding light properties, like wavelength and frequency, is vital for knowing how we perceive colors. Our eyes have two types of photoreceptors: rods for low light and cones for color, which helps us see a range of colors. ### Motion and Depth Perception - **Motion perception**: This is about detecting movement in our visual field. - **Depth perception**: This involves using both eyes to see slightly different views, which helps us understand depth. Cognition