OCR Anatomy Year 1 Notes PDF

ANATOMY  ISCM TERMINOLOGY Medical terms are built from word parts: Suffix Prefix Added at the end of a word Root...

ANATOMY  ISCM TERMINOLOGY Medical terms are built from word parts: Suffix Prefix Added at the end of a word Root Indicate procedure, condition, disorder, or disease Suffix Go to slideshow to memorise - Root Prefix Contains meaning of term Added to the beginning of a word to influence the meaning of it Usually indicates the body part involved Indicate location, time, or number It could indicate color Describe direction, quantity, size, and amount Breaking words down helps to find their meaning Go to slideshow to memorise Go to slideshows to memorise INTRO TO ANATOMY Position Terminology: Anterior: front Posterior: back Superior: top/above Ba Basic anatomical position Inferior: bottom/below sic Lateral: farther from the midline an Medial: closer to the midline at Cranial: towards the head om Caudal: towards the tail ica Superficial: closer to the surface l Deep: further from the surface po Ventral: belly surface siti Dorsal: back surface on Proximal: closer to you Distal: further from you Axial coronal Anatomical planes 4 main ones Sagittal: left and right side (median sagittal is right down the middle) Coronal: front and back Axial: top and bottom (so horizontally) Oblique: diagonally Abbreviations a.- artery n.- nerve v.- vein br.- branch m.- muscle aa.- arteries (double letters means plural) JOIN THE DARKSIDE  Anatomical movements Flexion: decreasing the angle of a joint Extension: increasing the angle of a joint Lateral flexion: bending away from midline Abduction: taking away from the body Adduction: bringing towards the body Medial rotation: rotating towards the body (long bones of the body) Lateral rotation: rotating away from the body (long bones of the body) Circumduction: limb moves in a circle (combo of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction) Opposition: when the tip of the thumb meets the tip of other fingers Elevation: moving up Depression: moving down Supination: palms of the hand are facing the way of the basic anatomical position Pronation: palms of the hand are facing the opposite way of the basic anatomical position ANATOMICAL BODY SYSTEMS Part I - Overview 11 systems total: Skeletal Muscular Cardiovascular (circulatory) Respiratory (pulmonary) Digestive (gastrointestinal) Urinary Reproductive (sexual) (different Trunk = thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities combined in males and females) Nervous Endocrine Lymphatic Integumentary/exocrine Cavities are compartments that hold structures (separated by other structures) Types: Cranial- extends to vertebral cavity and contains brain and spinal cord Thoracic- has the mediastinum (this contains the heart and other structures) and lungs (pleural cavity). It is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm Abdominopelvic- combination of abdominal cavity (this can be divided by the peritoneum which is the membrane that lies in the abdominal cavity) and pelvic cavity. Structures that are inside of the peritoneum are intraperitoneal JOIN THE DARKSIDE Structures that are outside of the peritoneum are retroperitoneal Part 2- MSK & Skin: Skeletal System Part 2 - MSK & Skin: Muscular System Skeleton- Axial (skull, vertebra, column, ribs, sternum) Muscle & Appendicular (upper and lower limbs) Skeletal: parallel bundles with long thin stripes (voluntary Supports structures control)(attached to skeleton or skin) Attachment points for muscles Cardiac: found only in walls of the heart and large Protects vital organs vessels close to heart (involuntary control) Involved in blood production Smooth: has no stripes, elongated, elastic (involuntary Cartilage (connective tissue) control)(found in walls of hollow organs) Rigid Classifications: Supports tissues Flat- parallel fibers Enables development and growth of bones Pennate- feather like (unipennate, bipennate, Provides smooth gliding surface for bones multipennate) Can turn into bone (ossify) Fusiform- spindle shaped Types: Convergent- converge from a broader area to one Hyaline (lines) tendon Elastic (movement) Quadrate- four equal sides Fibrocartilage (hard) Circular- surrounded by body opening Bones- are vascular (have blood supply) Multi-headed- more than one head of attachment Spongy: Inner bone Contains marrow Compact: Outer shell of bone (also know as cortical Classifications of bones: Long bones- often found in limbs Short bones- as wide as they are long, provide stability Flat bones- broad plates, used for muscle attachment Irregular bones- no specific form, unusual shapes Sesamoid bones- found in tendons (tissue that attaches muscle to bone), aid in movement Part 2- MSK & Skin: Integumentary Joints (when 2 or more bones come together) System Allow movement Skin Types: IS consists of skin, hair, nail, glands Synovial: separated by a cavity, also freely moveable (make up a Largest organ in the body large majority) Skin renews itself every month Solid: held together by connective tissue, also slightly moveable or Has. 2-3 layers (epidermis- top layer, dermis- second immovable layer, subcutaneous- deepest layer) Classifications: Functions: Plane/gliding joints: allows sliding and usually flat with limited Protection movement Heat regulation Pivot joints: allow movement in one axis (rotation) Sensation Hinge joints: allow movement on one axis (flexion and extension) Immunological functions Saddle joints: allow movement on 2 axes that are at a right angle Homeostasis (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction) Excretion Ball & socket joints: allow movement in multiple axes (flexion, Side note: with obesity only subcutaneous layer grows extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, rotation) not the organs Ellipsoid joints: allow movement in 1 axis with limited rotation in another JOIN THE DARKSIDE Part 2- CVR & Lymphatics: Cardiovascular System Location: Thorax Supplies blood to all tissues Located between rib 2 and 5th intercostal space Located in the middle of the thoracic cavity in the middle mediastinum Heart 4 chambered structure divided in half by a septum Right side takes in deoxygenated blood from body to the lungs to get oxygenated (pulmonary circuit) Left side takes in oxygenated blood (from pulmonary circuit) and sends it to the body (systemic circuit) Valves control the flow of blood between each heart chamber Chambers: right atrium (superior chamber), right ventricle, left atrium (superior chamber), left ventricle Atria collect blood - contract and pass blood to ventricles- ventricles contract and send blood to lungs or the body- blood passes through semilunar valves along the way When ventricles contract, atria fill (vice versa) Pericardium Heart and roots of vessels are in the middle mediastinum which is in a sac called the pericardium Fibrous- keeps heart contained (outer layer) Serous- parietal, pericardial (between the layers), visceral (in contact with organs) Pericardial cavity has fluid so that the heart can move without friction Circulatory System: Structure 3 layers (intima, media, adventitia) They have different thickness It goes from oxygenated blood to deoxygenated Capillaries are where gas exchange occurs Great vessel: blood vessels that originate or from or flow to the heart Examples: Superior vena cava: drains deoxygenated blood from upper part of body Aortic arch: takes blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body Pulmonary trunk: takes deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs to be oxygenated Pulmonary veins: take the oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart Inferior vena cava: drains deoxygenated blood from lower part of body Coronary Circulation Blood supply to the heart Involves 2 coronary arteries (left and right) that arise from ascending aorta Blood travels through the left ventricle by aortic semilunar valve to the ascending aorta. Semilunar valves close and heart relaxes. Pa Ascending aorta rt circle the heart pumps blood to right and left coronary arteries. These arteries 2- in the coronary sulcus (groove that divides the atria and ventricles) and circle C the heart is around the interventricular sulci ( divides the ventricles). After supplied with the blood, the deoxygenated blood drains throughV the cardiac veins and into the coronary sinus (big vein) which heads toRthe right atrium & Conduction Ly Electrical impulses sent to sinoatrial node in right atrium—> SA node sends mp impulses to internodal tracts, Bachmann’s bundle, and AV node—> passes ha signals to bundle of His—> splits into right and left—> signal reaches Purkinje fibers—> cardiac muscle contracts JOIN THE DARKSIDE tic Part 3 - CVR & Lymphatics: Respiratory System Part 3 - CVR & Lymphatics: Respiratory System Thorax (3 parts): Right pleural cavity (lungs) Left pleural cavity (lungs) Mediastinum Pleura (thin layer of tissue) Surrounds the lungs (they are all different) Lower Respiratory Tract Trachea is a flexible hollow tube Has c- shaped rings on it (the back part is open) Lungs Right lung has 3 parts ( superior, middle, inferior) Shorter and wider than left lung Left lung has 2 parts (superior and inferior) Distinct cardiac notch The hilum is the root of the lung and is found behind It is the fissure where things enter an organ Can help with support Diaphragm (helps with breathing) Part 3 - CVR & Lymphatics: Lymphatic System Series of organs, vessels, and nodes that collect and filter excess tissue fluid (lymph) Function: Drain excess fluid Produce and transport immune cells Fight against pathogens Transport lipids from GI tract to blood Structures: spleen, thymus, bone marrow, tonsils, lymph nodes The spleen acts as a large lymph node (filters blood, recycles, space for blood, etc.) (40 cm ) Drainage Thoracic duct- collects lymph from left head, neck, thorax, upper limb and lower half of body Right lymphatic duct- collects lymph from right head, neck, thorax, and upper limb (1 cm) JOIN THE DARKSIDE Part 4- GI: Gastrointestinal System Composed of GI tract, alimentary canal, accessory organs Functions include: ingestion, digestion, absorption, defecation Upper GI tract: mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine ( duodenum ) Lower GI tract: small intestine (jejunum, ileum), large intestine, rectum, anal canal Part 5- GU: Urinary System Upper urinary tract: kidneys and ureters Lower urinary tract: bladder and urethra Function: produce and remove waste products as urine, regulates body water content Urine is produced in the kidneys Urethra transports urine outside Kidneys Functional units are nephrons Nephrons lie in renal cortex (surrounds kidney and extends inwards) Renal medullas (triangular shaped tissues) collect urine and transfer it to minor and major calyces The urine heads into the renal pelvis and then to the ureter Kidneys are found at the posterior of the abdomen protected by ribs The bladder is in the pelvis (for males its anterior to the rectum, for females its anterior to the vagina and uterus) Urethra Female urethra is shorter than males It has 2 muscles: internal sphincter ( keeps bladder and urethra free of urine, involuntary) and external sphincter ( controls the release of urine, voluntary) Part 5- GU: Reproductive System Go to slideshow for terms Pelvic Floor Composed of muscles and fascia Supports pelvic and abdominal contents Allows passage due to its opening Perineum Located inferior to the pelvic floor It is the tissue between the vagina and anus (between the thighs) JOIN THE DARKSIDE Part 6- Neuroendocrine: Nervous System Part 6- Neuroendocrine: Endocrine System Divided into: Endocrine glands are glands that secrete hormones into CNS- has brain and spinal cord (control centre) blood PNS- everything else (sends info to CNS through Exocrine glands secrete substances to the outside organs) Endocrine system ( mainly hormones) produce and secrete PNS divides into somatic nervous system and hormones autonomic nervous system List of endocrine glands: The Brain Hypothalamus 1. Forebrain: Pituitary gland Cerebrum (main bulk of brain)- makes executive Pineal gland decisions, memory, and movement Thyroid gland Diencephalon- thalamus (relay and processing centre), Parathyroid gland hypothalamus (controls emotions and produces Adrenal gland hormones) Thymus 2. Midbrain: relay centre, motor movement, eye Placenta movements The gonads 3. Hindbrain: Pancreas Cerebellum- posture and balance Pons and medulla oblongata- relay centre for spinal cord and cerebrum and cerebellum. Control centre for how organs function Brain has several layers Terms: Nucleus- collection of neuron cell bodies in CNS Ganglia- collection of nerve cells in the PNS Tract- bundle of nerve fibres connecting nuclei of the cerebral cortex Nerve- bundle of nerve fibres in the PNS There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves ANS operates without conscious control (responsible for involuntary activity ANS can be divided into parasympathetic nervous system (at rest moments it is activated) and sympathetic nervous system (activated during “high stress” JOIN THE DARKSIDE  Histology & Epithelium General Terms Histo- Cells Microanatomy- Requires magnification Gross anatomy- Involves large parts of the body Histology looks at microanatomy and tissues Histology is important because it helps us understand the development and structure of parts of the body Biopsies Are tissue samples removed The aim of biopsies is to take a small number of cells for testing to make a diagnosis Examples of what biopsies can diagnose: Cancer, ulcers, hepatitis, kidney disease, endometriosis Steps to prepare for light microscopy: 1. Remove tissue 2. Put in an embalming fluid (formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, Bouin’s fluid, picric acid 3. Dehydrated (remove water in tissue) 4. Embed in wax A microtome is a machine that micro cuts the tissue Tissue Sectioning Tissues are cut into 5 slices with slice 1 & 5 missing the nucleus Nucleus is smaller in 2 & 4 Types of sectioning 1. Cross sectioning: cut perpendicular (axonal) 2. Longitudinal sectioning: cur along longest direction (sagittal) 3. Oblique sectioning: cut at an angle between the other 2 sectionings Staining Most cells are colourless so they need to be dyed in order to be studied Cell parts with a negative net charge (anionic) stain better with basic dyes (considered basophilic). Example is tissue components. Cell parts with many ionized amino groups (mitochondria) stain better with acidic dyes (considered acidophilic or eosinophilic) Examples of dyes: Haematoxylin (basic dye) and eosin (acidic dye) H & E staining is both combined (pink colour) Fluorescent staining involves antibodies Light Microscopy H&E 400 x magnification Electron Microscopy Passing electrons through a beam to produce an image Usually stained with silver 2000 x magnification Types of Cells 1. Neutrophil 2. Macrophage (engulf/digest debris) 3. Neuron (lots of branches called dendrites) 4. Red blood cell JOIN THE DARKSIDE Building Blocks of the Body Connective Supports other tissues 1. Cartilage 2. Bone (osteocytes) 3. Blood (RBC) Muscle 1. Smooth (found in organs) 2. Skeletal (biceps, arms) 3. Cardiac (heart) Nervous Oligodendrocytes Astrocytes Schwann cells Epithelial Shape Layers Specialisation Types of Cartilage Hyaline (smooth)- joints Can’t be replaced or regenerated Fibrous can try to replace it but can cause long term damage Fibrous- tough Elastic- found in ears, nose Connective tissue can be blood and bones Muscle Smooth muscle can be found in intestine Skeletal muscle has sarcomeres (block of muscle) Cardiac muscle are striated, have fibers, less organised Has dark lines called intercalated disks that provide synchronous contraction Classifications of Epithelia Can be classified by: Shape Flat= squamous Cube= cuboidal Columns= columnar (tall and rectangular) Layers 1 layer= simple Multiple layers= stratified Specialisations Keratnised: durable (skin) Cilia: sweeps mucous out (respiratory system) JOIN THE DARKSIDE