CSS 134 Geography of Nigeria Course Guide PDF

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE COURSE CODE: CSS134: COURSE TITLE: GEOGRAPHY OF NIGERIA i CSS134: GEOGRAPHY OF NIGERIA Course Guide Programme: B.Sc Criminology and Security Studies Course: Geography of Nigeria Duration: First Semester Course Developer: Professor K.O. Ologe ii Contents Page 1.0 Introduction ……………………………………….. iii 2.0 What you will learn in this course ……………….. iii 3.0 Course Aim ……………………………………….. iii 4.0 Course Objectives………………………………….. iv 5.0 Working through this course ………………………. v 6.0 Course Materials…………………………………… v 7.0 Study Units…………………………………………. v 8.0 Assignment File ……………………………………. vii 9.0 Presentation Schedule …………………………….. vii 10.0 Assessment ………………………………………. vii 11.0 Tutor-marked Assignments (TMAs) ……………… vii 12.0 Final Examination and Grading …………………... viii 13.0 Course Marking Scheme ………………………. viii 14.0 Course Overview ……………………………….. viii 15.0 How to get the most from this course …………….. ix 16.0 Tutors and Tutorials ……………………………… xi 17.0 Summary………………………………………….. xii iii 1.0 Introduction CSS 108 Geography of Nigeria is a first semester, 100-level, three-credit course. It is a required course for students doing the B.Sc and the Diploma in Criminology and Security Studies. It may also be taken by anyone who does not intend to do these programmes but is interested in learning the geography of Nigeria for purposes of self-improvement. This course will give you an introduction to the nature of the physical environment of Nigeria and the resources which nature has endowed her with. It will also introduce you to the characteristics of Nigeria's population and settlements. Finally, it will introduce you to the economic activities or the ways in which people make a living. The course will relate all these various aspects of the geography of the country to the occurrence, causes, prevention and control of crime and threats to security. Do not worry if you have never studied geography before. You will discover that because much of the subject matter falls within our everyday experiences or are often in the news, it is very interesting. The course will consist of I 9 units. These will cover: Nigeria's location, neighbours and boundaries; its physical environment; human population; characteristics; settlement patterns and its main economic activities. This Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is all about, the course materials you will be using and how to work your way through the materials. It suggests some general guidelines on the length of time you are likely to spend on each of the units in order to complete it successfully. It also guides you on your Tutor-Marked Assignments it tells you about the Tutorial Classes which are linked to the course. 2.0 What you will learn in this course In this course you will learn how the geography of a place is important to an understanding of crime and security threats in that place. You will see how the physical environment, population and economic activities of Nigeria present conditions and opportunities for crime and threats to security. 3.0 Course Aim iv The aim of this course is to enable you to acquire knowledge of the geography of Nigeria, which can help you understand the occurrence, causes, prevention and control of crime and threats to security in the country. This will be achieved by:  Introducing you to the relationship between Criminology, Security Studies and Geography;  Describing Nigeria's location in relation to the sea and its neighbours;  Describing Nigeria's physical environment and resources;  Identifying, describing and explaining the main characteristics of Nigeria's human population and settlement;  Relating crime and security threats in Nigeria to its location, relations with its neighbours, its physical environment and natural resources, its population and settlement patterns and its economic activities. 4.0 Course Objectives In order to achieve the aims set out above, the course has specific objectives. If you can meet these objectives, then you have successfully completed the course. The objectives of the course are its learning outcomes. They are the things you should be able to do by the time you complete the course. By the time you complete this course, you should be able to:  Explain the relationship between Criminology, Security Studies and Geography;  Describe the location of Nigeria and state its size;  List Nigeria's neighbours and discuss its relationship with them;  Describe Nigeria's boundaries and discuss their implications for crime and security;  Describe Nigeria's relief drainage, climate and vegetation and discuss their economic importance;  Describe and explain the characteristics of Nigeria's human population and discuss their socio-economic implications;  Describe and discuss the country's urban and rural settlement patterns;  Discuss the importance of mining, animal husbandry, food crop agriculture, export crop agriculture, modern manufacturing, internal trade, transport and communications to the country's economy;  Discuss the Main characteristics of these economic activities;  Discuss the problems facing these economic activities: and  Suggest possible ways of tackling these problems. v These are the specific objectives of this course. In addition, each of the units making up the course has specific objectives by which you can measure your own progress. These are always set out at the beginning of the unit. You are expected to read them carefully before moving on to the rest of the unit. You are also expected to refer to them again after you have completed the unit. In this way you can be sure that you have done what is required of you by the unit. 5.0 Working through This Course In order to complete this course you are required to read all the study units as well as other materials, which may be recommended by the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). At the end of each unit, there is a list of further reading and other materials. While it is not absolutely necessary for you to read them in order to complete the course successfully, it will be to your advantage if you can. They are recommended for learners who wish to have a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Each unit contains a self-assessment exercise by which you can assess your own progress. At various points in the course you are required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. These are called Tutor- Marked Assignments (TMAs). At the end of the course there will be a final examination. You will be expected to spend between one week and three weeks on each of the units. However, you may find out that you have to spend more or less time on particular units because of their volume or level of difficulty or your own level of preparedness. So do not be discouraged if you have to spend more time on any particular unit. 6.0 Course Materials The major components of the course are: 1. The Course Guide. 2. The Study Units. 3. Further Reading and Other Materials. 4. Presentation Schedule. 7.0 Study Units The course is made up of 19 units as follows: 1. Unit 1: Criminology, Security Studies and Geography. 2. Unit 2: Location, Size, Neighbours and Boundaries of vi Nigeria. 3. Unit 3: Relief and Drainage of Nigeria. 4. Unit 4: Climate of Nigeria. 5. Unit 5: Vegetation. 6. Unit 6: Population, Size, Growth and Distribution. 7. Unit 7: Age-Sex Characteristics and Ethnic Composition. 8. Unit 8: Population Migration. 9. Unit 9: Rural Settlements. 10. Unit 10: Urban Settlements. 11. Unit 11: Mining. 12. Unit 12: Fishing. 13. Unit 13: Animal Husbandry 14. Unit 14: Food Crop Agriculture 15. Unit 15: Export Crop Agriculture 16. Unit 16: Irrigated Agriculture 17. Unit 17: Modern Manufacturing 18. Unit 18: Internal Trade 19. Unit 19: Rail and Road Transport Unit I sets the stage by explaining the relationship between Criminology, Security Studies and Geography. Unit 2 looks at Nigeria in relation to her neighbours. In Units 3, 4 and 5 we look at the physical environment and the natural resources of Nigeria. Units 6, 7 and 8 describe and discuss the characteristics of Nigeria's population. Units 9 and 10 look at settlement patterns while the rest of the course. Unit 11 to 19 focus on economic activities. Each study unit normally consists of between one and three weeks' work and includes:  Introduction  Objectives  Main text  Conclusion  Summary  Self-assessment Exercise (SAE)  Tutor-marked Assignment (TMA)  Further Reading and Other Materials. In general the exercises are based on the materials you have just covered. You may be required to apply the knowledge you have acquired as a way of helping you to assess your progress and reinforcing your understanding of the material. The Self-Assessment Exercises (SAE's) and the Self-Marked Assignments (SMAs) are very important because together, they will assist you to achieve the learning objectives of the individual units and of the course as a whole. Maps are very important in geography and you will be expected to use them in your vii SAE's 8.0 Assignment File There are eight TMAs in this course. These TMA's will cover:  Nigeria's neighbours;  The climate of Nigeria;  The population of Nigeria;  Urban settlements in Nigeria;  Irrigation agriculture and  Internal trade. 9.0 Presentation Schedule The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you the important dates for this year for the completion of Tutor-marked assignments and attending tutorials. Remember that you are required to submit all your assignments by the due date. You should guard against falling behind in your work. 10.0 Assessment There are three aspects to the assessment of this course:  First, there are self-assessment exercises;  Secondly, there are Tutor-marked Assignments (TMA's);  Thirdly, there is a final, written examination. You are expected to be sincere in attempting the exercises. In tackling the assignments, you are expected to apply information and knowledge gathered during the course. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the Preservation Schedule and the Assignment File. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 50% of your total course mark. At the end of the course you will need to sit for a final written examination of three hours duration. This examination will count for the remaining 50% of your total course mark. 11.0 Tutor-marked Assignments (TMAs) There are eight tutor-marked assignments in this course. You only need viii to submit seven of these eight assignments, in which case the highest five oldie eight marks will be used to assess you. Each assignment counts for 10% towards your total course mark. Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You will be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your study units. However, it is desirable in all degree level education to demonstrate that you have read and researched more widely than the required minimum. Using other references will give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When you have completed each assignment, send it, together with a TMA (tutor-marked assignment) form to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given in the Presentation Schedule and Assignment File. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due date unless there are exceptional circumstances. 12.0 Final Examination and Grading The final examination for ASS 108 will be of three hours duration and carry 50% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of questions which reflect the types of self-testing, practice exercises and tutor-marked assignments you have previously encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed. Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting the final examination to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to review your self-tests, tutor-marked assignments and comments on them before the examination. The final examination covers information from all parts of the course. 13.0 Course Marking Scheme The following table lays out how the actual course marking is broken down. Table 1: Course Marking Scheme Assessment Marks Assignments 1 - Eight assignments, best live marks of the eight 8 count for l0% each = 50% of course marks. Final 50% of overall course marks Examination Total 100% of course marks. ix 14.0 Course Overview Table 2 brings together the units, the number of weeks you should take to complete them and the tutor-marked assignments that follow them. Table 2: Course Overview Unit Title Weeks of Schedule o Study TMAs (end o respective unit) 1 Criminology, Security Studies and Geography 2 1 2 Location, Size, Neighbours and Boundaries of 3 2 Nigeria 3 Relief and Drainage 2 4 Climate 2 3 5 Vegetation 1 6 Population Size, Growth and Distribution 1 7 Age-Sex Characteristics and Ethnic 2 4 Composition 8 Population Migration 1 9 Rural Settlements 1 10 Urban Settlements 1 11 Mining 1 5 12 Fishing 1 13 Animal Husbandry 2 14 Food Crop Agriculture 2 6 15 Export Crop Agriculture 1 16 Irrigated Agriculture 1 7 17 Modern Manufacturing 1 18 Internal Trade 1 8 19 Rail and Road Transport 1 15.0 How to get the most from this course In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the great advantages of distance learning. It enables you to read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your other material. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is x integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. The objectives let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished the unit you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. Self-tests are interspersed throughout the units, and answers are given at the end of the units. Working through these tests will help you to achieve the objectives of the unit and prepare you for the tutor-marked assignments and the final examination. You should do each self-test as you come to it in the study unit. The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any trouble, contact your tutor by the fastest available means. Remember that your tutor's job is to help you. When you need help, don't hesitate to contact him. 1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly. 2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the 'course overview' for more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units. Important information, e.g. details of your tutorial, and the date of the first day of the semester is available. You need to gather together all this information in one place such as your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use you should decide on and write in your own dates for working on each unit. 3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The major reasons why learners fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late for help. 4. When you want to study any of the units, assemble your study materials, namely, the study unit itself, a notebook, a pen, diagrams and a good dictionary. 5. Turn to the study unit and read its introduction and objectives. 6. Browse through the rest of the material by reading the sub-titles. This will give you a sense of direction. 7. Next, read through the unit fairly quickly and see how much of it you can take in. No are ready to study the material. 8. Read through the material again, but slowly this time. Underline xi key words, phrases and sentences, which seem to be important. Find out the meaning of words that are new to you from our dictionary. 9. Now take each section of the text and study it Jot down points in your notebook. Learn to sketch the maps and diagrams, which are always important as a way of presenting large amounts of information economically. 10. When you have come to the end, check what you have learnt against the objectives of the unit in order to ensure that you have achieved them. 12. Do the self-assessment exercise so that you can evaluate your own progress yourself. 12. When you have finished the study unit, close it and see Lim\ much of what you have learnt you can recapitulate. 13. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the course and will therefore help you to pass the examination. Submit all Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMA's) not later than the due date. 14. When you are confident that you have achieved the objectives of a unit, you can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you can keep yourself on schedule. 15. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for it to be returned before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay close attention to the comments which your tutor has made, both on the tutor-marked assignment form and on the assignment itself. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems. 16. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the objectives listed at the beginning of each unit as well as the course objectives listed in this Course Guide. 16.0 Tutors and Tutorials There are 20 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be not of the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number, if any, of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your tutor-marked assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must xii mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor at least two working days before the due date. They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible thereafter. Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, mails, e-mail or discussion board if you need help. The following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your tutor if:  You do not understand any part of the study unit:  You have difficulty with any self-assessment exercise  You have a question or problem with an assignment or with our tutor's comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment. You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance you have to have thee-to-face contact with your tutor and to ask questions and seek clarification on any aspect of the course. In order to obtain maximum benefits from course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussions actively. 17.0 Summary ASS 108 intends to introduce the geography of Nigeria to you. Upon completing this course you will be equipped with basic knowledge, which will enable you to answer such questions as:  How does knowledge of the geography of an area help us to understand the occurrence of crime and security threats in that area?  What are the implications of Nigeria's relationship with her neighbours for crime and security?  What security problems do Nigeria's boundaries pose'?  Of what economic significance are Nigeria's relief and drainage?  Why is drought a major security threat in Nigeria?  Of w hat economic importance is Nigeria's vegetation cover?  Why is the size and rate of growth of Nigeria's population a threat to the country's security?  Why is the age-sex characteristic of Nigeria's population a threat to the country's security?  Why are people moving from parts of Nigeria to other parts and what are the security implications of these movements?  Why are Nigerian towns growing so rapidly and what are the implications for crime and security?  What are the security implications of Nigeria's over-dependence xiii on petroleum exports?  What role does fishing play in Nigeria's food security?  What role does animal husbandry play in Nigeria's food security and what are the threats to this role?  Flow best may the problems facing food crop agriculture be tackled?  Why has export crop production declined in recent years and what can be done to revive it?  What is the future of irrigated agriculture in Nigeria?  Why are most of Nigeria's manufacturing industries located in urban centres?  What is the pattern of inter-regional trade in foodstuff in Nigeria?  Why has rail transportation declined in Nigeria? List of Figures Figure 2.1 A The Location of Nigeria on the African Continent B Nigeria: North-South and East West Dimensions 2.2 Nigeria and Neighbours 3.1 Nigeria: Height Above Sea Level 3.2 Relief Regions of Nigeria 3.3 Nigeria: Drainage Pattern 4.1 West Africa Showing Pressure and Winds in January and July 4.2 Mean Annual Rainfall in Nigeria 4.3 Nigeria: Wet Season Rainfall 4.4 Nigeria: Dry Season Rainfall 4.5 The Three Agricultural Zones of Nigeria 4.6 Nigeria: Areas Most Affected by Periodic Drought 5.1 Vegetation Belts of Nigeria. 6.1 Population Distribution in Nigeria 7.1 Age-Sex Distribution of the Population of Nigeria 7.2 Age-Sex Distribution of Mexico's Population 7.3 Age-Sex Distribution of Sweden's Population 7.4 Nigeria Showing Ethnicity 8.1 Pre-colonial Migration in Nigeria 8.2 Pattern of Rural-rural Migration in Nigeria During the Colonial Period 9.1 Types of Rural Settlements in Nigeria 11.1 Nigeria Showing Known Occurrences of Mineral Deposits 13.1 General Pattern of Movement of Nomadic Cattle Movements 13.2 Nigeria: Livestock Zones 14.1 Agricultural Zones of Nigeria 15.2 Export Crop Producing Areas of Nigeria 17.1 Nigeria Showing the Location of Manufacturing Industries as of 1982 18.1 Foodstuff Trade Regions of Nigeria xiv 19.1 Landmarks in the Historical Development of the Nigerian Railways 19.2 Post-1975 Trunk "A- Road System in Nigeria List of Tables Table 2.1 Origins of Maitatsine Refugees in Nigeria 10.1 Levels of Urbanisation in Nigeria 17.1 Pre-Industrial Establishments in Nigeria by Type 17.2 Structure of Manufacturing Industry in Nigeria by Type and Age 18.1 Inter-regional flow of Foodstuff in Nigeria xv Contents Introduction List of Figures and Tables……………………………………..… xiii Unit 1: Criminology, Security Studies and Geography…… 1 Unit 2: Location, Size, Neighbours and Boundaries of Nigeria. 7 Unit 3: Relief and Drainage………………………………. 18 Unit 4: Climate……………………………………………. 28 Unit 5: Vegetation……………………………………… 42 Unit 6: Population: Size, Growth and Distribution…… 48 Unit 7: Population: Age-Sex Distribution and Ethnic Composition……………………………………… 58 Unit 8: Population Migration…………………………… 70 Unit 9: Rural Settlements…………………….….……… 77 Unit 10: Urban Settlements………………………………. 84 Unit 11: Mining…………………………………………… 94 Unit 12: Fishing………………………………..…………. 102 Unit 13: Animal Husbandry………………………………. 109 Unit 14: Food Crop Agriculture……………………..……. 119 Unit 15: Export Crop Agriculture………………………… 131 Unit 16: Irrigated Agriculture……………………………… 140 Unit 17: Modern Manufacturing………………………….. 146 Unit 18: Internal Trade……………………………………. 157 Unit 19: Rail and Road Transport………………………… 167 xvi Unit 1: Criminology, Security Studies and Geography 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.1 What is Criminology? 3.2 What do we mean by Security Studies? 3.3 What is Geography? 3.4 The Relationship between Criminology, Security Studies and Geography 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Self-assessment Exercise 7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment 8.0 Further Reading and Other Materials 1.0 Introduction In order to know why we are studying this course on the geography of Nigeria, it is necessary for us to know:  What criminology is:  What we mean by Security Studies  What geography is; as well as  The link between these three subject areas. These are the things which we shall be examining in this unit.1 The objectives of the unit are stated below: 2.0 Objectives By the time you complete this unit, you should be able to:  define what we mean by crime and criminology;  give examples of the kinds of things which form the subject matter of criminology;  define what we mean by security and security studies;  give examples of the subject matter of securities studies;  define geography;  give examples of the subject matter of securities studies;  explain the relationship between criminology, security studies and geography. 3.1 What is Criminology? Criminology may he defined as the studs of crime, its causes, how it is explained in a scientific way and how people react to it. But what is crime? The Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines crime as "an offence for which one may be punished by law”. 1 What are the different types of crimes? Why do people commit crimes? What kinds of people commit crimes'? Why is crime more common in some places than others'? What kinds of conditions encourage criminal activity'? How do people react to crime? What measures should be put in place to reduce crime or prevent it'? These are the kinds of questions that criminology asks and tries to answer. Whenever a crime is committed, it is committed in a particular place on the earth's surface. This may be a village, a neighbourhood within a town, on a stretch of road or at an oil installation. Thus the question, which we asked earlier, ‘why is crime more common in some places than in others?' is of particular interest. Please keep it in mind as you go through the rest of this unit and the course itself. 3.2 What do we mean by Security Studies? The Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines security as.freedom or protection from danger or worry,, thus, anything which threatens the peace, law and order of a country, is threatening its security. Anything that threatens the life or well-being of an individual is threatening his security. Under such threats, neither the country nor the individual can function normally. Security studies are concerned with those conditions, people or events, which are a threat to the wellbeing of:  a country;  an area;  people; or  properties. For example. pirates arc people who attack and rob ships at sea and their activities is called piracy which is a crime. Such people operate in the coastal waters of Nigeria. They can and do attack ships bringing imports to Nigeria or taking exports out of Nigeria. They are therefore a threat to legitimate shipping and overseas trade. Since the Nigerian economy depends to a large extent on external trade, piracy is a threat to the economy of the country. It is therefore a matter of great concern to experts in security studies. That was why the Nigerian Institute of International Affairs published a special edition of its journal Nigerian Forum in March/April 1983 on Smuggling and Coastal Piracy in Nigeria. Security studies are concerned with such questions as what constitutes a security threat? What are the factors which favour the emergence or development of security threats? Why are some places more prone to 2 security threats than others? What could be done to prevent security threats or control them? The concept of security covers a very wide field. Thus we can talk of national security, food security, security of lives, security of properties, economic security, etc. Each of these different types of security is concerned with security in a particular area of the earth's surface. National Security is the security of a country which occupies an area of the earth's surface, food security is concerned with the adequacy of food supplies for a country, a state, a city, etc., each of which covers a particular part of the earth's surface, and so on. Again, the question, which we asked earlier, 'why are some places more prone to security threats than others?' is of particular interest. Please keep it in mind as you proceed from here. 3.3 What is Geography? Let us turn once again to the Advanced Learner's Dictionary for a definition of geography. It defines geography as "the scientific study of the earth's surface, physical features, divisions, climate, products, population, etc." This scientific study involves classifying these different aspects of the earth's surface, analysing them, describing them and explaining them all with a view to seeing how mankind can live a richer, better and safer life. Geography asks and tries to answer questions such as, in what ways does the surface of the earth differ from place to place? What objects of economic value occur naturally in different places? Why are there more people in some places than others? Why do people live in towns in some places and in villages in others? How do people earn their livelihood in different places? How does the environment pose a threat to human lives and property in different places? (Count the number of times the words "place" and "places" are used in these questions. You will soon see why this is important). 3.4 The Relationship between Criminology, Security Studies and Geography The introduction to this unit is rather long. It is long because we want you to understand how criminology, security studies and geography are related. In order to show how they are related, it was necessary to define them for you and show you the kinds of questions which they ask and try to answer. (Do you still remember those two questions which we asked you to keep at the back of your mind?) What we have been doing is like building a foundation. Now let us build on our foundation by explaining how these three subject areas relate to one another. Of course criminology and security studies are closely related because a security threat may be a crime or result in a crime, Thus being in possession of firearms without a licence is both a threat to security and a crime in Nigeria. 3 Let us now see how criminology and security studies are related to geography. Criminology and security studies may be carried out at various levels, e.g.  At the local level, as in a village or town (such as Lagos) or a neighbourhood within a town (such as Mushin);  At a regional level, as in one of the States of the Federation or in the oil-producing areas of the Niger Delta;  At the national level in which case one is concerned with the whole of the territorial area of a country; and  At the international level in which case one is concerned with trans-national crimes and security threats such as, smuggling, the influx of illegal immigrants, international terrorism and money laundering. At each and every one of these levels the person studying crime and security will be concerned with people, conditions and events taking place in a particular place or in particular places on the earth's surface. (Do the words "place" and "places" remind you of the questions we asked you to keep in mind? If they do, you may clap for yourself! If they do not, then you may need to pay more attention). Every place or area on the earth's surface has characteristics which distinguish it from every other place or area. For example, Ikoyi has characteristics which distinguish it from Mushin in Lagos; a village on the Port Harcourt - Aba expressway has characteristics which make it different from a village located ten kilometres away from that road. Kwara State is very different from Kano State. Nigeria differs in many ways from Uganda or Mexico. Many of these differences are important to criminology and security studies because they make particular places or areas more conducive to certain criminal activities and more subject to security threats and crime opportunity reduction strategies than others, Let us go back for a moment to the above examples. Armed robbery, burglary and theft are more common in Mushin than in Ikoyi. The village on the Port-Harcourt Expressway is more likely to be attacked by armed robbers than the one located in the bush. Kano State is more under threat from famine caused by drought than Kwara State. Nigeria suffers from the menace of pirates directly because it is a coastal state while Uganda suffers from it only indirectly because it is a landlocked state. Every place on the earth's surface has characteristics which may or may not provide opportunities and favourable settings for criminal activities and security threats. Some of these characteristics are natural while others are man-made. Natural characteristics include relief, drainage and climate. The swampy nature of Nigeria's coastal belt with its navigable creeks and lagoons makes the area highly suitable for smuggling. The hilly nature of much of Nigeria-Cameroon boundary makes it difficult to 4 police effectively. The climate of the extreme northern state of Nigeria is characterised by periodic drought. Hence farmers in these states are periodically subject to famine caused by drought. The open nature of the landscape in these areas makes them unsuitable for daylight armed robbery operations. Man-made characteristics of places on the earth's surface include National, State and Local Government boundaries, the distribution of human population, settlements, roads and railways and economic activities. Let us give a few examples of crimes and security threats caused or facilitated by this man-made characteristics of places. Boundaries are very useful because they define what belongs to whom and are barriers put in place to keep out trespassers. However, they are notorious for causing disputes and conflicts even in places where people may have lived amicably as neighbours for a longtime. A very good example is the creation of States and Local Governments which have sparked off conflicts in different parts of Nigeria. Economic activities nearly always carry a risk factor, namely, the threat or the possibility of crime or of a breach of security. For example, the exploitation of crude oil in the Niger Delta has brought in its wake a restiveness and agitation especially amongst the youth who feel that the industry has destroyed their land without providing adequate compensation in terms of development. From time to time these agitations have degenerated into criminal acts such as pipeline vandalization and the kidnapping of expatriate oil workers. Since the scientific study of different aspects of the earth's surface is the subject matter of geography, the study of the natural and man-made characteristics of various parts of the earth's surface as they relate to crime and security falls within the field of geography. Thus one good way to start studying crime in and security threats of an area of the earth's surface is to study its geography. This is the reason this course is the Criminology and Security Studies Programme of the National Open University. The course will provide a great deal of background information and idea which are necessary for you to have if you are to understand crime and security threats in Nigeria in particular and in other parts of the world in general. 4.0 Conclusion We conclude this unit by saying that the geography of an area provides us with a great deal of useful background information for the scientific study of crime and security in that area. 5 5.0 Summary Criminology is the study of crime, its causes, how it is explained in a scientific way, how we can prevent or control it and how people react to it. Security studies means studies of conditions, people or events which are a threat to the well being of a country of an area or people or properties. Geography is the scientific study of the earth's surface, physical features, division, climate, products, population, etc. Criminology and Security Studies are concerned with various places on the surface of the earth and the characteristics of these places are very important. Therefore the geography of an area provides us with much valuable background information for the scientific study of crime and threats to security in that area. 6.0 Self Assessment Exercise In what ways may the knowledge of the geography of an area help us in understanding crime and security in that area? 7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment Discuss the relationship between criminology, security studies and geography. 8.0 Further Reading and Other Materials Nil 6 Unit 2: Location, Size, Neighbours and Boundaries of Nigeria 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.1 Location 3.2 Size 3.3 Neighbours and Land Boundaries 3.4 Coastal Boundaries and Territorial Waters 3.5 Internal Boundaries 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment 7.0 Further Reading and Other Resources 1.0 Introduction You have just read through the Course Guide and from it you should have gained an understanding of what this unit is all about. You have also seen how it fits into the course; Geography of Nigeria. The first time you meet a man with whom you are going to live or work for a period of time you would probably like to have some basic information about him including his name and where he comes from. (Of course, you would not need to ask him how tall he is or how fat he is!). In the same way, we are starting this course by giving you basic information about Nigeria — where it is to be found on the globe, how large it is in area, who its neighbours are and what its boundaries are like. All of these are vital information for any study of crime and security in the country. Thus  The country's location determines its climate on which many economic activities depend;  Its size tells us how large an area it has to police and defend;  Her neighbours are very important because they may or may not be friendly; and Her boundaries are important because they need to have border posts and patrols for security reasons. These are some of the reasons why you are starting the unit by looking at these basic information about the country. Let us now look at what you should learn in this unit, as listed in the unit objectives below: 2.0 Objectives By the end of this unit, you should be able to:  State the location of Nigeria;  Give the area of the country; 7  Explain the importance of her size;  List her immediate and other West African neighbours;  Show how these countries are important to an understanding of crime and security in Nigeria;  Describe Nigeria's relationship with her immediate neighbours;  Explain the implications of these relationships for crime and security;  Discuss the importance of Nigeria's other West African countries to the crime and security situation in Nigeria;  Describe Nigeria's external boundaries;  Discuss the nature of these boundaries in relation to crime and security; and  Discuss the effects of Nigeria's changing internal boundaries on security. 3.1 Location Nigeria is located in West Africa, roughly between Latitude 4°N and 14°N and Longitudes 4°E and I5°E. The country's most southerly point is near Brass in the Niger Delta, which is roughly north of the Equator. The country's northern boundary is approximately at 14°N. Her westerly boundary runs roughly along Longitudes 3°E. Her easterly boundary runs from a point to the south west of the estuary of the Cross River to northwards almost to Longitude 15°E, South of Lake Chad. Figure 2.1 shows the location of Nigeria. The country is located almost in the centre of the great curve made in the west by the continent of Africa. This means that it is roughly equidistant from the extreme corners of Africa. The flight time to any place in Africa is relatively short. It is only a few hours to Dakar, less than four hours to Tripoli or Algiers, about three hours to Cairo and to Addis Ababa. 3.2 Size Nigeria has a total land area of 923,768 square kilometres. This is four times the area of Ghana and about thirteen times the area of Sierra Leone. It is four times the area of the United Kingdom Nigeria covers about one seventh of the productive area of West Africa. The location and size of the country are very important for a number of reasons:  Because of its location close to the equator and the Atlantic Ocean, Nigeria enjoys a hot tropical climate. Rainfall decreases from over 4000mm in the Niger Delta to less than 250mm in the extreme northeast. There is sufficient rainfall for some form of rain-fed agriculture in the country.  Because of its location and large size, Nigeria has the greatest 8 diversity of climate, vegetation and soils as well as human population in West Africa. Thus, unlike some of its neighbours such as Niger Republic, Nigeria has a very wide range of national resources.  The country's large size means that it must have a large police force to protect its entire territory from lawlessness. 3.3 Neighbours and Land Boundaries It is important to know Nigeria's neighbours for a number of reasons:  The country's relationships with her neighbours have implications for its own security;  Security threats in neighbouring countries affect Nigeria;  There are many Nigerians living in these countries and the way they live and are treated have implications for security in Nigeria.  There are many criminal cross-border activities taking place between Nigeria and her neighbours.  All of Nigeria's neighbours are former French colonies and have an approach to public law and international transactions and relations which is different from that of Nigeria;  From time to time there have been ugly border incidents between Nigeria and her neighbours. For these reasons it is necessary for you to know whom Nigeria's neighbours are and what her boundaries with them are like. These are the peoples; Republic of Benin to the west, the Republic of Niger to the north, the Republic of Chad to the north east and the Republic of Cameroon to the east. Figure 2.2 shows Nigeria and its West African neighbours. 9 The Republic of Benin: This is a small country which extends, as a narrow territory, all the way from the Atlantic in the south to the River Niger in the north. The boundary between Nigeria and this country has 10 split several ethnic groups including the Yoruba, the Baribo and the Hausa. This partition has always created social, economic, political and diplomatic problems for both countries. Thus:  People on either side of the border continue to interact as if the border did not exist making life very difficult for law enforcement agencies such as the police to operate effectively.  Because much of the Nigerian side of the border is out of the mainstream of the country's political, economic and social life, the people there avail themselves of services (e.g. health services), which are better on the Benin side. This has created security problems. For example, in a recent report in one of Nigeria's dailies, there was a story of Beninois gendarmes (i.e. policemen) invading a number of border villages in Sokoto State and wanting to enforce that country's tax laws there. (The argument of the gendarmes was likely to be, "If these people use our social services, they should pay our taxes." Can you fault this argument?).  It is very easy for fugitive offenders (Nigerian and Beninois) to slip over the border and so escape from law enforcement agencies.  There is a thriving smuggling business along the border in which second hand cars and clothes and other goods are brought into Nigeria. The point must be made, however, that the Government of Nigeria has almost always enjoyed excellent relations with the Government of Benin. The Republic of Niger: Niger is a very large country (area: 1,267,000 square kilometres). It is mostly desert. The wettest areas are along the Nigerian border but even then severe periodic drought is a fact of life. Niger has a few minerals and also has livestock. But all the same, it is a very poor country. The boundary between Nigeria and Niger splits the Hausa, the Fulani and other ethnic groups. The Governments of the two countries maintain excellent relations. But there are aspects of the geography of Niger and of the boundary between the two countries which are of security importance.  The boundary is very long and the weather along it is nearly always hostile. It is therefore difficult to police effectively.  The boundary area is mostly very open savannah where it is possible to stand and see the land for kilometres around. This means that, for a criminal on the run, there is literally nowhere to hide from law enforcement officers in pursuit of him.  The most important aspect of the geography of Niger as far as crime and security in Nigeria are concerned, is the occurrence 11 from time to time of drought in the Sahel belt. Drought forces farmers and pastoralists from Niger to follow the footsteps of their Nigerian counterparts in this belt to move in large numbers into Nigerian towns. In these towns, they swell the ranks of the unemployed and constitute a serious security risk. Between 1980 and 1985, these ecological refugees participated in the serious Maitatsine urban revolts in Kano (1980), Maiduguri (1982), Kaduna (1982), Jimeta-Yola (1984) and Gombe (1985) in which thousands of people were killed. Table 2.1 shows the origins of Maitatsine Refugees who participated in these revolts. As you can see, a substantial number of them came from Niger Republic. Fig. 22: Nigeria and Its Neighbours. (From Barbour, K. Michael et al. opp.cit) Table 2.1: Origins of the Maitatsine Refugees who participated in the Urban Revolts in Northern Nigeria Between 1980 and 1985. State/Country Number Borno/Yobe States 516 Kano/Jigawa States 324 Bauchi/Gombe States 280 Sokoto/Kebbi States 163 Niger 36 Plateau/Nasarawa States 6 Oyo/Osun States 1 Anambra/Enugu States 1 Niger Republic 281 12 Chad Republic 85 Cameroon 34 Mali 13 Upper Volta 8 Sudan 1 Total 1,749 Source: Sabo Bako (1990). The Republic of Chad: Like Niger, Chad is a very large country. It has an area, which is about one and one third that of Nigeria. Its boundary with Nigeria is only 98 km, long but it lies entirely on Lake Chad. Chad, which is a relatively poor country, has been politically unstable since 1975 creating great problems both diplomatically and economically. It is also subject to periodic drought. Nigeria's crime and security problems, which are associated with Chad, include the following:  the civil war in Chad led to an influx of Chadian refugees into Nigeria which had to accommodate and feed them.  there is conflict from time to time between Nigerian and Chadian fishermen over fishing rights on the Lake Chad and Chadian gendarmes are sometimes involved.  it seems as if armed bandits cross over into Nigeria to take advantage of the better economic conditions and inadequate security protection in north east Nigeria. They raid villages and rob road travellers deep into the country..  drought in Chad invariably cause an influx of Chadian refugees into Nigerian towns such as Maiduguri, Kano, Bauchi, Jos, Ilorin, Ibadan, Lagos, etc. Table 2.1 shows that many Chadian refugees took part in the Maitatsine urban revolts of 1980 to 1985. The Republic of Cameroon: Cameroon is Nigeria's eastern neighbour, It is a large country with diverse resources and peoples. It has a long boundary with Nigeria, which runs through hills and mountains from the shores of Lake Chad. It runs through the Mandara Mountains which reach 1525m above sea level. It crosses the Benue Valley and passes through Bamenda - Cameroon Highlands where the Shebshi Mountains exceed 1830m above sea level. It crosses the valley of the Cross River at Manife and crosses the Oban Hills before dropping to the sea south east of the Cross River estuary. Along the boundary, the vegetation changes from Sahel Savannah in the north through Montane Grasslands in the higher areas to Tropical Rain Forest, Fresh Water Swamps and finally Mangrove Swamps in the coastal area. The boundary cuts across numerous ethnic groups. The relationship between the Nigerian Government and the Government of Cameroon has not been very cordial especially since about 1975. Nigeria has a number of security problems which are associated with Cameroon: 13  the boundary between the two countries runs through difficult terrain including mountains and thick vegetation. It is therefore difficult to patrol effectively.  Cameroon gendarmes are in the habit of invading Nigerian territory in various places and subjecting innocent Nigerians to unlawful treatment.  Cameroon has laid claim to parts of Nigerian territory. From time to time, Cameroonian security men have invaded these areas in an attempt to enforce their claim. Right now (March 2002), the International Court of Justice at the Hague is hearing a case in which Cameroon is claiming that the Bakasi Peninsula in Cross River State is part of its territory  Cameroonian security men also attack Nigerians fishing in Nigeria's territorial waters. Border Posts and Patrols: A country establishes border posts at major points of entry and exit and organises patrols of its borders for various reasons, including:  Monitoring and controlling movements of people into and out of the country;  Combating smuggling and illegal trafficking in goods across the border: and  Defending the country against external aggression. In total, Nigeria has about 2,790 kilometres of land boundaries to monitor and defend. Not only is this long but the boundaries pass through difficult terrain in many places. The Nigerian Customs Service has the responsibility of combating smuggling and illegal trafficking in goods across Nigeria's borders. It has been able to operate effectively only at the International Airports (notably Lagos, Kano and Abuja), the major sea ports (especially Lagos and Port Harcourt) and a number of border towns and villages (notably Idiroko and Semme) on the boundary with Benin Republic and Illela in Sokoto State. As of 1981, there were only 47 customs posts along Nigeria's borders and sea coast. This is hopelessly inadequate for the country's borders. No wonder smuggling, which is a threat to many of the country's manufacturing industries, is a major activity along the country's borders. The responsibility of defending Nigeria's land borders is the responsibility of the Nigerian Army. Unfortunately, most of the army garrisons are located far away from the borders. It would therefore be true to say that Nigeria's land borders are undefended and are therefore open to entry by potential aggressors. 14 Nigeria's other West and Central African Neighbours: You need to know Nigeria's other West and Central African neighbours. This is because although Nigeria does not share boundaries with them, it is generally known that their welfare is Nigeria's welfare and any major threats to their security is a threat to the security of Nigeria. These countries include, Equatorial Guinea and the Central African Republic in the east and Togo, Ghana, Upper Volta, Mali, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, the Gambia, Senegal and Mauritania in the west. They are important to the security of Nigeria for several reasons:  Because Nigeria's economy is basically stronger than theirs, their citizens seek better pastures in Nigeria when there is a depression. Thus, many Ghanaians flocked to Nigeria in the 1970s when the Ghanaian economy was in bad shape. Although most of such economic refugees engage in legitimate economic activities, many of them engage in criminal activities of one type or another. In any case, they take up jobs which could have been done by Nigerians and so worsen the country's unemployment problem. They also put pressure on social services in Nigerian towns.  Again, Nigeria is often the destination of refugees fleeing from these countries as a result of civil war, e.g. Chad in the 1970s and 80s. Liberia and Sierra Leone in the 1990s.  Drought victims from some of these countries also take refuge in Nigerian towns.  Finally, there is a substantial population of Nigerians in each of these countries. Therefore it is in Nigeria's interest that there is peace in them so that these people may not have numbers to swell the population of our towns. 3.4 Coastal Boundary and Territorial Waters Nigeria has a coastline of about 860 kilometres. This is quite a long boundary to protect and defend. Moreover, inter-connected lagoons and creeks makes the task of protecting and defending it all the more difficult. As a matter of fact, smuggling is rife, especially in the Niger Delta area and east of it. Smugglers are difficult to catch since there are so many alternative routes for their boats. The area of the Atlantic Ocean over which Nigeria has jurisdiction, according to the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, extends 320 kilometres out from the country's coastline. Within this area, Nigeria has sovereign rights over the mineral resources of the sea- bed as well as the fisheries. It also has the right to build artificial islands and structures and to control pollution. 15 Nigeria has the very heavy responsibility of protecting and defending this huge area of water against illegal intrusion of any sort. This responsibility has been assigned to the Nigerian Navy. But the navy is small and inadequately equipped. Therefore, it cannot be expected to discharge the responsibility effectively. As a result, piracy and illegal fishing by foreign ships occur, posing a threat to the country's economy. 3.5 Internal Boundaries Before May 1967 Nigeria consisted of four regions. In May 1967, the country was split into twelve States. In 1976 it was further broken down into nineteen States and a new Federal Capital Territory was carved out. Since then, more States have been added and today there are thirty-six plus the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). The Local Government Areas have similarly continued to be sub-divided so that today, there are seven hundred and seventy four. These State and Local Government creations have very serious security implications. Thus every time they were created, it meant that new artificial boundaries were drawn across areas that used to belong together in one entity. In many places when such a boundary is created on paper by the government:  Problems arose regarding how to demarcate the boundary on the ground;  People resent the fact that their village or area had been put on the "wrong" side of a boundary;  People resent the fact that the new boundary has apparently cut off land, which had been traditionally theirs. Many of the civil disturbances which have occurred in rural areas in different parts of Nigeria in recent times are due, at least in part, to the rapidly increasing number and length of our internal boundaries. 4.0 Conclusion From what we have learnt in this unit we can conclude that it is necessary for us to know the location and size of Nigeria as well as its neighbours and the nature of its external and internal boundaries in order to understand the problems of crime and security in Nigeria and how these problems may be tackled. 5.0 Summary Because of its location and size, Nigeria is well endowed by nature and is very diverse in character. Nigeria's official relationships with Benin and Niger have been cordial. But her relationships with Chad and Cameroon have not. These poor relationships, the nature of Nigeria's land borders and the fact that these borders are poorly policed have 16 created a favourable environment for cross-border criminal activities and threats to Nigeria's security. The relatively poor economies of Benin and Niger and of Nigeria's other West and Central African neighbours are also of concern for security reasons. Nigeria has a long coastal boundary and a large expanse of territorial waters. Yet its navy is small and inadequately equipped. Therefore Nigeria is open to criminal activities and threats to its security in these areas. The creation of States and Local Government Areas has multiplied the number and length of Nigeria's internal boundaries. This has led to boundary disputes and civil disturbances in various places and at various times. 6.0 Self-assessment Exercise Discuss the various ways in which Nigeria's shared boundary with the Republic of Chad poses crime and security problems for the country. 7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment How does Nigeria's relationship with her neighbours affect crime and security in the country? 8.0 Further Reading and other Materials 1. Barbour, K. Michael, Julius S. Oguntoyinbo, J.O.C. Onyemelukwe and James C. Nwafor Nigeria in Maps. Hodder and Stoughton, 1982. 17 Unit 3: Relief Drainage 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.1 Relief Height above sea level Relief Regions 3.2 Drainage Lake Chad The River Systems Uses of Nigeria's Rivers Problems of Nigeria's Rivers The Coastal Creeks and Lagoons in the Niger Delta 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Self-assessment Exercise 7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment 8.0 Further Reading and Other Materials 1.0 Introduction When we talk about the relief of an area we are talking about two things. First, we are talking about how high the area is above sea level. For example, the Niger Delta is only slightly above sea level. It is so low that at high tide, extensive areas are flooded by sea water. By contrast, Jos is located at a height of about 1300 metres above sea level. It is in an upland area. The second thing we are talking about when we talk about the relief of an area is how uneven or rough the land is in that area. For example, Maiduguri is located on land which is very flat. So we say that Maiduguri is located on a flat plain. By contrast, Okene in Kogi State is located in an area where the land rises to a considerable height and falls again to a great depth over short distances. Therefore many of the houses are situated on steep slopes. We say that Okene is located in a hilly area. The drainage of an area consists of the water bodies as well as the flow of water in that area. Drainage refers to water bodies such as lakes and rivers. It is concerned with the number, volume and flow characteristics of these water bodies. In this unit we shall be looking at the relief and drainage of Nigeria. These are important features of the country's geography for a number of reasons, including the following: 18  Relief and drainage affect economic activities, especially agriculture;  Relief and drainage affect ease of concealment on the one hand and of movement on the other. They may therefore facilitate or deter criminal activities on the one hand and render security patrols easy or difficult on the other;  It is relief and drainage which determine the potentials for the development of hydroelectric power on which much of the country's electric power supply depends. These are some of the reasons why we are studying the country's relief and drainage. The specific learning outcomes of this unit are set out below: 2.0 Objectives By the end of this unit you should be able to:  Describe in a general way how high different parts of the country are above sea level;  List the main relief regions of the country;  Draw a sketch map showing Lake Chad and the country's main rivers;  Describe, with the aid of this sketch map, the drainage pattern of the country;  Discuss the economic importance of the country's drainage;  Show the relationship between smuggling activities and drainage along the coast; and  Discuss the effect of relief on security patrols along the country's land boundaries. 3.1 Relief Height above Sea Level Figure 3.1 is a map of Nigeria showing height above sea level. The Rivers Niger and Benue divide the country into three large blocks. One block lies between the Middle Niger, the Lower Niger and Atlantic Ocean. Let us call this the Western Relief Block. The second block lies between the Benue, the Lower Niger and the Atlantic Ocean. We shall call this the Eastern Relief Block. The third block may be called the Northern Relief Block. The Northern Relief Block: This is the largest of the three relief blocks. From the River Niger and Benue where the elevation is less than 150m Above Sea Level (ASL), the land rises gently at first and then by a series of steps up to the High Plains of Hausaland on which Kaduna, Kano, 19 Gusau, Katsina, Dutse and Bauchi are located. Apart from the Jos Plateau, the High Plains of Hausaland range in elevation from about 300mm to over 600min ASL rising to about 1200m at the foot of the Jos Plateau. The Jos Plateau rises abruptly above these plains and has a general elevation of over 1200m Above Sea Level. From the Zaria area and the Jos Plateau the land falls away to the Sokoto valley in the north west and Lake Chad in the north east, both at a general elevation of less than 300m ASL. 20 a) Upland Areas b) Lowlands i) High Plains of Hausaland i) Sokoto Plains ii) Jos Plateau ii) Chad Plains iii) Biu Plateau iii) Niger-Benue Trough iv) Western Uplands iv) Coastal Plains of South-Western Nigeria v) Mandara Mountains v) Coastal Plains of South-Eastern Nigeria vi) Eastern Highlands vi) Lowlands and Scarpland of South- Eastern Nigeria vii) Oban Hills vii) Niger Delta Fig. 3.2 : Relief Regions of Nigeria The Western Relief Block: This rises gradually from the Atlantic Ocean to form a belt of high plains and hills which are generally over 300m ASL reaching as high as over 1000m in the Idanre Hills. This belt of plains and hills is often called the Western Uplands. From the highest part of these uplands, the land falls down to the Middle Niger valley which is less than 150m ASL, The Eastern Relief Block: This is made up of three upland areas separated by extensive, low-lying plains. The first of the upland area is the Udi Plateau. This is a relatively low plateau which extends from Igala country in Kogi State through Anambra, Enugu. Imo and Abia States. From this plateau which has a general elevation of over 300m ASL, this slopes down to the Lower Benue in the north (elevation less than 150m ASL). Finally. the land slopes down to the Cross River Valley in the east (elevation less than 150m ASL). The second and smaller of the three upland areas making up the Eastern Relief Block is the Oban Hills. Located north of Calabar, this upland area rises to over 300m A SL. It is separated from the third and largest of the three upland areas by the Cross River Valley. The third upland area rises from the Benue Valley to form a belt of high plateau and hills. The highest point In Nigeria is to be found in this area and in the Shebshi Mountains. This relief block rises to a general elevation of over 600m ASL with large areas rising to over 1000m. The famous Mambilla Plateau and the Alantika Mountains are to be found in this area. Relief Regions A relief region is an area which can be distinguished from the areas around it by its height above sea level and how uneven the land surface is. For example, the Niger Delta is a relief region because: i) it is low-lying, standing only a few metres above sea level; ii) it is flat; iii) it is crossed by a complex network of creeks all of which are distributaries of the Niger River. Similarly, the Jos Plateau is a 21 relief region because: i) it is an upland at over 1000m ASL; ii) it is separated from the areas around it by very steep slopes called escarpments; iii) it is has a general land surface which is either undulating, rolling or flat and may therefore be called a plain. Having defined, with examples, what a relief region is, let us now divide Nigeria into relief regions. Let us start by dividing the country into two types of relief region based on height above sea level. These are: a) the upland areas and b) the lowlands. The upland areas may be subdivided into seven relief regions, namely: i) the High Plains of Hausaland; ii) the Jos Plateau; iii) the Biu Plateau; iv) the Western Uplands; v) the Mandara Mountains; vi) the Eastern Highlands; and vii) the Oban Hills. The lowlands may also be subdivided into seven relief regions, namely: i) the Sokoto Plains; ii) the Chad Plains; iii) the Niger-Benue Trough; iv) the Coastal plains of South-Western Nigeria; v) the Coastal Plains of South-Eastern Nigeria; vi) the Lowlands and Scarplands of South-Eastern Nigeria; and vii) the Niger Delta. We shall now look at these relief regions which are shown on Figure 3.2, paying particular attention to their economic importance. a(i) The High Plains of Hausaland These are generally favourable for the production of a wide range of food crops as Well as some export crops, notably, groundnuts and cotton. There are many places where the rivers draining these plains provide excellent sites for the construction of hydroelectric power dams. Sonic of these have been studied but only the site at Shiroro on the River Kaduna has been developed. a(ii) The Jos Plateau Because of the height above sea level, this upland plain is famous for its cool weather. The plateau is suitable for arable agriculture. There are many potential dam sites around its edges. Only the ones at Kwol and Kurro Falls have been developed. 22 a(iii) The Bin Plateau This relief region is an upland plain with rich soils which are good for arable agriculture. a(iv) The Western Uplands The weather areas of the Western Uplands are famous for export crop production, notably cocoa. The drier areas concentrate on food crops such as yams. a(v) The Mandara Mountains a(vi) The Eastern Highlands a(vii) The Oban Hills These three relief regions are often taken together and called the Eastern Highlands. They are crossed by the boundary between Nigeria and Cameroon which is the most varied of the land boundaries of the country. The boundary is therefore poorly patrolled. It is to be noted that the more hilly parts of Nigeria's upland areas served in the past as refuge sites for human settlement. People settled in these areas to escape from slave raiding on the surrounding plains. During the colonial period more peaceful conditions were established and roads and railway lines were built. The result was widespread abandonment of hill top settlements and relocation on the plains around. Unfortunately, the people also abandoned their system of arable agriculture which involved elaborate terracing and the use of animal manure in favour of shifting cultivation and bush fallowing. Later in this course, we shall see some of the problems confronting shifting cultivation and bush fallowing today. b(i) The Sokoto Plains These flat plains are famous for food crop production, notably millet, guinea corn and rice. b(ii) The Chad Plains. These are similar to the Sokoto Plains. b(iii) The Niger-Benue Trough these flat to undulating plains are the country's bread basket. They are famous for the production of both grain and root crops, the huge potentials on the Niger have only been partially developed (at Kainji and Jebba). b(iv) The Coastal Plains of South-Western Nigeria b(v) The Coastal Plains of South-Eastern Nigeria b(vi) The Lowlands and Scraplands of South-Eastern Nigeria 23 This is a region of plains and Hills. The hills form distinctive belts which are steep on one side (called scarps) and are gently sloping on the other. The hills are subject to gully erosion. As a matter of fact this region is the relief region worst hit by gully erosion in the country. b(vii) The Niger Delta The relief of the Niger Delta has been described earlier. The only thing we need to add to that description is that it is subject to extensive flooding and is therefore swampy. The Niger Delta is particularly important to the economy of Nigeria because most of the country's crude oil exports come from there and from the adjacent shallow water area of the Atlantic Ocean. 3.2 Drainage Figure 3.3 shows the drainage pattern of Nigeria. It shows Lake Chad which Nigeria shares with Niger, Chad and Cameroon. It also shows the main river systems as well as some of the coastal creeks and lagoons. Lake Chad This is a peculiar body of water. Although it is an inland lake with no outlet, it is a freshwater lake. It receives water mainly from Central Africa (the River Chari) and secondarily from Nigeria (Rivers Komadugu-Yobe, Ngadda and Yadseram). Because the lake is in a shallow basin, its area varies considerably depending on variation of rainfall in the areas supplying water to it. Lake Chad is very important to the Nigeria economy because it supports a large fishing population and supplies the country with a large proportion of its animal protein. The Lake is therefore critical to Nigeria's food security. Unfortunately, conflicts often arise between Nigerian, Chadian and Cameroonian fishermen over fishing rights. This is so especially as the boundaries the four countries share are poorly demarcated and the Nigerian side is poorly patrolled and defended. 24 The River Systems Nigeria is well drained with a dense network of rivers. In order to describe it, let us look at the three relief blocks described above. The Northern Relief Block is drained largely by rivers taking their sources from two centres: i) The first centre is located around Zaria in Kaduna State. From there, rivers drain north-westwards to join the Sokoto river which eventually flows into the Niger River, which also flows southwards to the River Kaduna which is also a tributary of the Niger. Finally, some rivers flow north-eastwards towards Lake Chad. ii) The second centre is the Jos Plateau from which rivers flow north-eastwards towards Lake Chad and into the Gongola river which is a tributary of the Benue; rivers flow north-westwards to join River Kaduna; they also flow south-wards to join the Benue. You should also note that some rivers flow from the Mandara Mountains northwards to Lake Chad. The Western Relief Block is 25 drained by rivers which flow in three main directions: i) northwards to join the Middle Niger; ii) southwards to empty into the Atlantic Ocean; iii) eastwards to join the Lower Niger. The Eastern Relief Block is drained mainly by four sets of rivers: i) Those which flow from the Eastern Highlands to join the Benue; ii) Those which flow into the Cross River which empties into the Atlantic. iii) Those which flow into the Lower Niger; and iv) Those which flow directly southwards into the Atlantic. Uses of Nigeria's Rivers The rivers of Nigeria have many uses, including:  domestic water supply;  hydro-electric power generation;  irrigation;  fishing: and  transportation Problems of Nigeria's Rivers Nigeria's rivers and their use have some problems which pose threats to national security, food security or the security of lives and properties. These include the following:  The country's two largest rivers are international rivers. This means that the uses to which the countries lying upstream of N igeria put these rivers, affect the amount of water available for Nigeria to use. Thus, because more dams are being built in the countries through which the River Niger passes before entering Nigeria, the amount of water available for the Kainji and the Jebba hydroelectric dam reservoirs has been decreasing. This is a threat to Nigeria's electricity supply.  It is also to be noted that Cameroon has built a dam (the Lagdo Dam) on the Upper Benue. From time to time, large volumes of water are released from this dam and these cause extensive flooding in the Benue Valley within Nigeria. Such flooding causes loss of lives, crops and other properties;  Many of Nigeria's rivers are subject to annual flooding, e.g. the Cross River;  The rivers of Nigeria are characterised by seasonal flow. This puts a limit on water transportation. 26 The Coastal Creeks and Lagoons in the Niger Delta The rivers of the Niger Delta and the creeks and lagoons to the west and east of it form an intricate network and are an important aspect of the country's drainage. They form a network of waterways, which present peculiar problems for crime prevention and security. The waterways are difficult to patrol effectively. Therefore, smuggling is rampant, a major threat to Nigeria's manufacturing industries. 4.0 Conclusion The relief and drainage of Nigeria present several economic advantages, such as:  Land suitable for agriculture;  Hydro-electric power dam sites:  Fisheries; and  Waterways. The relief and drainage of the country also present a number of problems, such as:  gully erosion;  the international nature of the Niger and the Benue;  annual flooding over large areas and  seasonal flow of rivers. 5.0 Summary Nigeria may be divided into three large relief blocks. Each block is made up partly of lowlands and partly of uplands. We have divided the lowlands into seven relief regions and the uplands also into seven relief regions. Most of the lowlands are plains. Most of the uplands are also plains but they are to be found at a higher elevation than the lowlands. Most of the country's relief is not a limiting factor for agriculture. Thus, both food and export crops can be grown over large areas. The drainage of the country is made up of Lake Chad, and international water bodies, a dense network of rivers and the lagoons and creeks of the coastal belt. These water bodies are used for a variety of purposes. They are also characterised by several problems, which are a threat to national security, food security or the security of lives and properties. 6.0 Self-assessment Exercise Discuss the economic importance of Nigeria's drainage pattern. 27 7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment Nil 8.0 Further Reading and Other Materials Nil 28 Unit 4: Climate 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.1 Temperature 3.2 Pressure and Winds 3.3 Mean Annual Rainfall 3.4 Seasonal Distribution of Rainfall 3.5 Destructive Thunderstorms 3.6 Climate and Flood Disasters 3.7 The Rainy Season and Food Supply 3.8 The Dry Season 3.9 Rainfall and Agricultural Zones 3.10 Rainfall Variation and Drought 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Self-assessment Exercise 7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment 8.0 Further Reading and Other Materials 1.0 Introduction The climate of an area is the average weather conditions in that area. Weather conditions are the conditions of the atmosphere at a particular point in time. These conditions include sunshine, temperature, humidity, air masses, atmospheric pressure, winds and rainfall. When we talk of the weather at Abuja at 8.00a.m on 1st April 2002, we are talking of these conditions as observed or measured at Abuja at that time on that day. When these conditions have been observed or measured at 8.00a.m on the 1st April of every year for many years, we can build up an average picture of what to expect at 8.00a.m on the 1st of April in any one year. Such an average picture can be built up for all hours of the day and for all days of the year for Abuja or any other place. Such an exercise will enable us to talk about what we expect conditions of the atmosphere to be in these places at any time of the year. In other words, we can talk of the climate of these various places. This is how scientists have been able to build up a picture of the climate in Nigeria. In this unit, we shall not be concerned with all aspects of the climate of Nigeria. Rather, we shall concentrate on those aspects of climate which are of direct importance to security studies. These include winds and rainfall. Winds and rainfall are important to the study of security in Nigeria because: 29  they affect civil aviation;  rainfall affects vegetation;  rainfall affects agriculture and food security;  rainfall causes flood disasters;  thunderstorms are often destructive; and  ocean surges associated with winds cause catastrophic erosion. Below are the learning outcomes of the unit. 2.0 Objectives By the time you have completed this unit you should be able to:  describe the winds which prevail over Nigeria;  show how the dust-laden North East Trade Winds cause a reduction in visibility which has a negative effect on civil aviation;  describe the mean annual rainfall across Nigeria;  describe the seasonal distribution of rainfall across Nigeria  discuss the variability of rainfall and the occurrence of drought in Nigeria;  relate these characteristics to the pattern of agriculture and food security;  explain the connection between drought and rural-urban migration;  discuss the relationship between rainfall and the occurrence of flood disasters in the country;  discuss the occurrence and economic impact of destructive thunderstorms; and  discuss the effects of storm waves on coastal erosion in general and the erosion of Bar Beach in particular. 3.1 Temperature Because Nigeria is located close to the Equator, the sun is high in the sky at mid-day throughout the year. Moreover the annual average number of hours of sunshine is high everywhere when compared with countries in Europe, for example, the annual average number of hours of sunshine increases from less than 1500 along the coast to over 3000 along the northern border. For these reasons, temperatures are high throughout the year. In the upland areas, mean annual temperatures vary from 210C to 270C. On the lowlands, means annual temperatures are higher than 270C. The hottest months are March, April, October and November. The coolest months are July and August because heavy clouds tend to keep out the sun. In the north, December and January are also cool months partly because cool harmattan winds from the Sahara 30 Desert blow across the area. 3.2 Pressure and Winds Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air above the ground at a certain place. If the pressure at a particular place is high, the weight of air will tend to squeeze out the air at ground level, causing it to move away from that place as wind, if, on the other hand, the pressure is low, the air will tend to rise up. As it does so, air will flow in as wind from any area of high pressure around. Thus, it is the differences in air pressure which cause winds on the earth’s surface and it is these winds which produce weather and climate in the areas across which they blow. The climate of Nigeria is due to the effects of two belts of high pressure and one belt of low pressure. These high and low pressure belts are:  the belt of high pressure which stretches east-west across the Sahara Desert:  the belt of high pressure which stretches east-west across the South Atlantic Ocean: and  the belt of low pressure which stretches east-west across West Africa. It is important to note that these pressure belts are not static, i.e. they do not remain in the same place throughout the Year. Rather, they move north and south with the overhead sun. These movements of the pressure belts affect the winds which they produce which in turn affects climate over Nigeria. 31 The two high-pressure belts produce two wind systems which blow in opposite directions: i) the high pressure belt over the Sahara produce what are called the North East Trade Winds. These winds blow from northeast to southwest. They are cool, dry winds and they bring with them a great quantity of dust called the harmattan dust. They always produce dry weather. ii) the high pressure belt over the South Pacific produce winds which at first blow from south east to north west. But when these winds cross the Equator, the rotation of the earth from west to east causes them to be diverted to form the South West Trade Winds. These blow across West Africa from South West to Northeast. They pick up moisture as they blow over the ocean. Thus they reach West Africa as warm, moist winds, which produce cloudy skies with the possibility of rain. These two wind systems meet the in the belt of low pressure referred to above. As this belt of low pressure moves north and south so the areas affected by each of the two-wind systems increase or decrease, producing the weather and climate which we experience in Nigeria. Figure 4.1 A show s that in January the low pressure belt is along the coast. Most of Nigeria is under the influence of the North East Trade Winds. It is the height of the dry season. There is no rainfall over most of Nigeria. In fact there are virtually no clouds over most of the country and the harmattan dust brought from the Sahara Desert may make visibility so low as to make civil aviation hazardous. Under these conditions, airlines often cancel their flights. Those that do not do so know that they are taking a risk. Air crashes have occurred several times as a result of this atmospheric hazard. As a matter of fact, one of Nigeria's worst air disasters occurred at Aminu Kano International Airport in the morning of 22nd January 1973 hen harmattan haze reduced visibility to only 300 metres. A Jordanian airline crashed, killing 176 people. At this time of the year (i.e. in January), only the southern part of. the country is covered by the South West Trade Winds. Cloud limitation and rainfall occur only in the coastal belt. In July (Figure 4.1B), the low-pressure belt is located well north of Nigeria. The whole country is under the influence of the South West Trade Winds cloud formation and rainfall may be expected all over Nigeria. This is the height of the rainy season. You should also take note of the fact that it is during the period between June and October that the South West Winds produce destructive waves which cause catastrophic erosion all along the Nigerian coastline. Driven by the South West Trade Winds, these waves erode the land at a 32 rapid rate. At Badagry Beach, west of Lagos, wave erosion is eating Lip the land at between 2 and 6 metres per year. The rates at other sections of' the coastline are 25 to 30m on Bar Beach on Victoria Island, Lagos: 18 to 24m at Ogborodo/Moluwe in Ondo State: 20 to 22m at Forcados in the Niger Delta: 16 to 19m at Brass in the Niger Delta and 10 to 19m at Ibeno Eket in Akwa Ibom State. Such rates of coastal erosion pose a serious disaster threat wherever there are settlements or infrastructures located near the coast. The best example is Victoria Island where enormous amounts of investment are being threatened by the erosion of Bar Beach. 3.3 Mean Annual Rainfall Figure 4.2 shows the distribution of rainfall in Nigeria. It shows that mean annual rainfall decreases from over 3000mm along the coast to less than 500mm in the Lake Chad area. Fig. 4.2: Mean Annual Rainfall in Nigeria 33 3.4 Seasonal Distribution of Rainfall The seasonal distribution of rainfall is of much greater importance to agriculture than the mean annual rainfall. One of the most salient features of the climate of Nigeria is that the year is divided into two main seasons on the basis of rainfall. These are: i) the rainy season which in general lasts from April to October; and ii) the dry season which in general lasts from November to March. The rainy season starts earlier and ends later in the south than in the north. The result is that the rainy season is more than nine months long in the extreme south, decreasing to less than three months on the shores of Lake Chad. Figure 4.3 shows rainfall in Nigeria between May and October. It shows that rainfall decreases from over 250mm in the Niger Delta area to less than 1000mm in the north. This is the season when rain-fed agriculture, that is, agriculture relying solely on rainfall, is possible. 3.5 Destructive Thunderstorms One other important aspect of the climate of Nigeria is the occurrence of destructive thunderstorms characterised by heavy torrential rainfall and strong winds. They are normally of short duration but may last for several hours. These thunderstorms cause:  poor visibility, which may lead to aviation disasters, as at Enugu in 1983;  urban flooding, as in Lagos, Sokoto and Maiduguri;  dam collapse, e.g. Bagauda Dam which burst in 1988 sweeping away villages and farmlands and killing many people and livestock;  damage to power lines, telecommunication masts, public and private buildings;  river flooding;  the destruction of crops by hail and gusty winds. Destructive thunderstorms occur throughout Nigeria, especially at the beginning and towards the end of the rainy season. In March 2002, the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) witnessed a particularly destructive storm which broke clown high-tension power lines, creating an electricity blackout that lasted several days. 3.6 Climate and Flood Disasters There are several causes of flood disasters in Nigeria but the underlying cause is heavy rainfall. Thus, flooding occurs extensively in the Coastal 34 Plains of South West Nigeria, the Coastal Plains of South Fast Nigeria and the Niger Delta. Flooding is most common in these areas in the months of July, August and September when rainfall is heaviest. But some places may stay under water for up to five months in the year. In the Niger Delta, flooding affects some 24,000 sq. km. either seasonally or permanently and this is because the area is flat and rainfall is very heavy. River flooding occurs during the rainy season in the flood plains of the larger rivers of Nigeria. These include the Niger, Benue, Gongola, Sokoto, Hadejia, Yedseram, Katsina Ala, Dong, Taraba. Cross River, Imo, Anambra, Ogun, Kampe, Kaduna, Gurara, Mada and Shemanker. Urban flooding occurs in many Nigerian towns as a result of heavy rainfall during the rainy season. These include Lagos, Ibadan, Maiduguri, Aba. In 1980, the Ogunpa, a river in Ibadan, rose and covered about 6 sq. km. as a result of a heavy downpour. Some 200 people were drowned and 30,000 rendered homeless. Flooding is a threat to human lives and all physical infrastructure such as residential accommodation, commercial and industrial properties, roads, rail lines, bridges and so on. It destroys farmlands, including the crops growing on them. 3.7 The Rainy Season and Food Supply As soon as the rains start, farmers prepare the land for planting. As soon as the soil is wet enough, he plants his seeds. This is a very critical time for the farmer. He has to work very hard to clear and plant as much land as possible in order to obtain a harvest that will keep him and his family going for the next year. As a result of the hard work, farmers lose weight at this time. This is because all this hard work has to be done five months or more after the previous harvest by which time food is in short supply. In many, if not most rural areas this time is called the hunger season when the food intake falls down to only 70% or even 60% of food needs. In many parts of the country, early maize ripens by June or July, a very welcome addition to the diet of rural people. The rains also bring a greater variety of vegetables. Thus, between June or July and November or December, food supply is relatively good both in quantity and quality. Unfortunately, because of the need for cash, many farmers tend to sell more of their harvest than is good for-their food security. This is partly why food stocks run too low during the planting season. 35 3.8 The Dry Season The dry season starts later and ends earlier in the north than in the south. Therefore the dry season is less than three months long in the extreme south but more than nine months long in the extreme north. As shown on Figure 4.4. only along the coast and in the extreme southeast is there more than 500mm rainfall between November and April. Over most of the dry season, crops cannot be grown without irrigation. Therefore, farmers are forced:  to remain idle; or  to find alternative employment; or  practice irrigation. During the dry season, farmers migrate temporarily:  from rural to urban areas to seek employment, returning home when the rainy season starts;  from the Sokoto area into the cocoa belt to work on cocoa farms until the rainy season starts when they return home. 36 37 3.9 Rainfall and Agricultural Zones Because of the annual and the seasonal distribution of rainfall, crops which need a lot of water and a long rainy season are best grown in the south. Crops which do not need much water and can tolerate a short rainy season can be grown in the far north. Between these two extremes, we have crops that can thrive in areas where rainfall conditions are not as good as in the south or as relatively poor as in the far north. Thus. Nigeria may be divided into three agricultural zones, namely: i) the southern tree and root crop zone; ii) the mixed root and grain crop zone; and iii) the northern grain crop zone. These agricultural zones and the main crops grown in these zones are shown in Figure 4.5. 3.10 Rainfall Variation and Drought There are two other aspects of the climate of Nigeria which are important for national security: i) the fact that rainfall varies from year to year: and ii) the occurrence of drought from time to time. Rainfall Variation In Nigeria, it is more common for rainfall at any particular place for any particular year to be either more than or less than the average. For example, the mean annual rainfall at Sokoto is 710m. But in 1984 it received only 467m of rain. At Katsina the mean annual rainfall is 714m. But in 1980 the town received 773mm of rain. Rainfall variation is very important when the difference between actual rainfall in any year is much more or much less than the average:  when actual rainfall is much more than the average in an area, extensive flooding is likely to occur resulting in much destruction of livelihoods and infrastructures. Too much rain may also result in poor harvests for some crops such as maize, guinea corn and early yams;  when actual rainfall is much less than the average, we say that there is drought, widespread crop failure and water shortage, as shown below. Both excessive rainfall and drought occur throughout Nigeria and have adverse effects on security. Drought Drought occurs throughout Nigeria but it is more frequent and more severe as we move northwards from t

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