APUSH Past Paper 2020-21 PDF

1. Figure out a schedule where you’ll be working for 12 hours a day. Personally, what I did was sleep at 7:30PM and wake up at 3:30AM. I would use 30 minutes as soon as I wake up to make myself coffee, a light breakfast, and a shower. This gives me 8 hours of sleep and allows me t...

1. Figure out a schedule where you’ll be working for 12 hours a day. Personally, what I did was sleep at 7:30PM and wake up at 3:30AM. I would use 30 minutes as soon as I wake up to make myself coffee, a light breakfast, and a shower. This gives me 8 hours of sleep and allows me to start my studying at 4AM. Now set a consistent pattern of studying for one hour, then taking a 10 minute break. For example: study from 4AM - 5AM and take a break from 5AM - 5:10AM. Study from 5:10AM - 6:10AM. Break from 6:10AM - 6:20AM. This pattern, if followed, lets you finish studying at 3:30PM for you to relax or finish other school work until you go to sleep at 7:30PM (or whatever time you decide is best). 2. Cut out all distractions I really feel that I don’t need to exemplify this point, just block social media, YouTube, or whatever you’ll get distracted by… set up a clean and productive work environment. Okay now that you’ve read a few tips that could help you, below you will find a table of contents that includes study guides, period reviews, practice tests, etc. Please remember that the guides and reviews were written from students (names listed at top of page) so if there is a typo or something like that, try to understand :) Table of Contents Detailed review (Barrons) Pgs 3-171 Condensed review (Barrons) Pgs 172-205 Key concepts Pgs 206-239 Practice tests Pg 240 How to write: SAQ Pg 241 How to write: LEQ (in-person only) Pg 242 How to write: DBQ Pgs 243-244 MUST KNOW CONCEPTS Pgs 245-248 Condensed Review Terms: SCOTUS = Supreme Court of the United States USFG = US Federal Government Roosevelt = Theodore Roosevelt FDR = Franklin Delano Roosevelt LBJ = Lyndon B. Johnson Period 1 (Natives and Exploration) Native Americans Location Economic Social Southwest Maize, hunting, gathering The Pueblo Tribes, Navajo, and Apache deserted the area in 1300 CE because of crop failures West Hunting, gathering, fishing - provided Sedentary villages (different villages goods to trade for different hunting/gathering seasons - they would stay at one and go to another when the season changed) Northeast Three-sister farming: squash, beans, Permanent and large villages in the corn Ohio River Valley Iroquois League curbed intertribal violence Southeast Organized urban centers Five Civilized Tribes made alliances with the colonists (Jamestown) Plains Corn, hunting, gathering Sedentary villages They were the victims of colonists’ westward expansion; native groups forced out of the east settled with Plains natives and led to increased  competition European Interaction Causes Effects - GGG - Columbian Exchange - Treaty of Tordesillas - Encomienda System → Repartimiento/use of black slaves - Virginia Company and Jamestown Big Ideas - Native Americans developed distinct and increasingly complex societies in diverse environments - European nations’ efforts for exploration stemmed from GGG - The Columbian Exchange brought new crops to Europe from the Americas, stimulating European population growth, and new sources of mineral wealth, which facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism - Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews in terms of religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power Period 2 (Colonization) Differences Between Countries’ Colonies England France Spain Economic Agriculture Fur Gold/Silver Population Men and Women Jesuit Priests/Fur Conquistadors (Men) Traders (Men) Native Relationships Hostile/conflict Friendly/Alliances Convert/exploit Intermarriage No Yes Yes Political Self-government Viceroy Viceroy (Burgesses, Mayflower Compact) Diversity Different No non-Catholics No non-Catholics ethnic/religious Population Density Centered around Spread over Canada Spread over South coast America Colonies New England Middle Southern - Puritans and Pilgrims - Breadbasket (grain, oats) - Indentured servants and - Rocky soil → - Fur trade, lumber, slave labor subsistence farming shipbuilding - Rice, indigo, and tobacco - Whaling, fishing, - Religious tolerance - Chattel slavery (slave’s shipbuilding, logging - William Penn - children = slaves) - Bradford - Plymouth Pennsylvania (Quakers) - Jamestown - Winthrop - = freedom of religion, - Lord Baltimore - Massachusetts Bay high immigration Maryland - Headright system - 50 acres for paying for indentured servant’s passage Causes of Slavery Effects of Slavery Bacon’s Rebellion: Stono Rebellion - Former indentured servants grew - Led to the deaths of 20 slave owners resentful of taxes they had to pay and - Tightened slave codes burned down homes of the elite - Lesser rebellion: working slowly, - Virginians turned to slaves instead of breaking tools, keeping cultural ties to unreliable indentured servants Africa Native American Conflict Native Attacks - 1st Powhatan War: Indian assaults led to the death of 347 colonists - 2nd Powhatan War: Indian attempts to drive the colonists out fail - Susquehannock War: Indians attack colonists → Bacon’s Rebellion Colonist Attacks - King Philip’s War: English encroachment on Indian lands, English cattle destroy cornfields - Half of New England towns destroyed, 1/10 colonists dead Spanish - Pueblo Revolt: Encomienda system disrupted native economy, Pueblo religion was banned → 300+ Spanish died, Spanish were driven out for 12 years Britain and the Colonies Economic Mercantilism: - Colonies should benefit the mother country (exports > imports) - so need colony to supply raw materials - Wool, Hat, Iron Act established to prevent the development of manufacturing in the colonies Religious 1st Great Awakening: - An emotional manifestation of religion - preachers held large meetings in rural areas (George Whitfield) - Promoted a democratic sense - everyone should have religious experience - Led to weakening of established churches, rejection of overly intellectual clergy, first unifying experience of the colonies Social Trans-Atlantic Print Culture: - Most news that came from Britain appealed to merchants - commodity prices, ship arrivals, European politics - Regulated by public officials: fear of undermining British authority - By 1776, more than 50% of men were literate - Enlightenment = confidence about attacking government in newspaper - Franklin’s almanac Intellectual Enlightenment: - John Locke: people have natural rights, including the right to rebel under a tyrannical government - Montesquieu: separation of powers and checks and balances - Radical Whig Ideology: Whig pamphlets were spread to the US - concentrated power = threat to liberty, balance between legislature and king Big Ideas - The goals and patterns of colonization varied among the British, French, Spanish, and Dutch empires - The British colonies developed into different regions based on geography, types of settlers, motives for settling, and reliance on slavery - European nations had varying types of relations with natives - sometimes allies and sometimes enemies - Colonies were connected to Britain, but began drifting away Period 3 (Revolution, America in Infancy) Causes of Revolution Political Cause: French and Indian War Causes - Land disputes in the Ohio River Valley → forts built and skirmishes → French and Indian War Timeline - Local affair - continuation of skirmishes between British and French colonists - Full takeover of the war by Britain, seizing supplies and forcing colonists to join the war - the colonists resisted - British government tried to work with the colonies and reinforced the troops with British soldiers → French surrendered in 1761 Effects - Treaty of Paris (1763): France surrendered its North American empire - Canada and east of Mississippi to Britain and West of Mississippi River to Spain - Sugar, Stamp, Quartering Act - Pontiac’s Rebellion: colonists occupied Ottawa land, clash with natives - Proclamation Act of 1763: Britain ordered colonists not to settle beyond the Appalachians; many colonists had already migrated because they believed they deserved the land for the sacrifices they made in the war Economic Causes: Acts Incident Reaction Stamp Act - Stamp Act Congress: delegates wrote a list of grievances: No taxation without representation - Committees of Correspondence: shadow governments that worked to undermine royal governors - Sons of Liberty harassed Stamp Act agents, stores were ransacked if they did not boycott British goods Townshend Act: Taxed imported - Called for boycotts, Americans sought locally goods produced goods - Boston Massacre: Britain deployed troops to quell riots, when heckled, they shot Bostonians Tea Act: allowed British East India - Boston Tea Party: dumped $2 million of tea in Company monopoly the harbor to protest Intolerable Acts: Put MA under - Continental Congress: passed resolutions on British rule, closed Boston’s ports, nonimportation, nonexportation, and expanded the Quartering Act, can nonconsumption to cut off all trade with move trials from MA to Britain Britain - Committees of Safety: enforced the agreements and recommended military preparations Intellectual Causes Protestant Focused on individual conversion, ministers projected the American Evangelicalism Revolution as a struggle against godless tyranny Enlightenment Ideas of Locke and Montesquieu Common Sense Argued that independence was the only path for the colonies Declaration of Most colonists at the beginning of the war did not want full independence; Independence the Declaration listed grievances and formally declared independence from Britain, after being passed by the Continental Congress Revolution Britain’s Advantages Colonies’ Advantages - Highly trained, professional army - Allied with the French - Strongest navy - British were far from home - Financial resources - Fighting a defensive war - Support of Loyalists - Patriot soldiers believed in their cause - Offered freedom to slaves who joined - Strong leadership: Washington, Britain Nathanael Greene, Henry Knox - Native American alliances - Continental army was underfunded because Congress could not levy taxes, tried to print money → inflation Phase 1 The British thought that the revolution was started by a minority, and suffered heavy losses (although they won) in the Battle of Bunker Hill, and retreated from New England Phase 2 The British tried to gain control of New York to isolate New England and drove Washington and his troops out of New York in 1776 However, they were defeated at the Battle of Saratoga, which convinced France to lend a hand Phase 3 In the South, Britain hoped to rally Loyalist sentiments and the resentment of the slaves, but French aid led Cornwallis to surrender at the Battle of Yorktown Articles of Confederation (Effect of Revolution) Issues  Lack of Political - Loose collection of states Power - No power to enforce laws - Could only request money and troops from the states Lack of Economic - No power to impose taxes, tariffs, or regulate interstate Power commerce - Shay’s Rebellion: veterans had not been paid for the war and were being taxed → rebellion Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Set up a process where territories could apply to become states and banned slavery north of the Ohio River Constitution Constitutional Convention Responses - ⅗ Compromise counted slaves as ⅗ of - Bill of Rights: Antifederalists agreed a man for representation to ratify if it was passed, protecting - Great Compromise meshed the rights of states and the people Virginia and New Jersey plans to - 10th Amendment left all undelegated create the Senate and House power to states - Division of Power - Congress, - Federalist Papers: Written by SCOTUS, President Madison, Jay, and Hamilton who urged ratification America in Infancy Federalists Democratic Republicans - John Adams, Hamilton - Madison, Jefferson - Favored a powerful national - Favored limited role of national government government - Merchants, bankers, landowners - Shop owners, city workers, farmers - Centered in New England - Support based in South and West - Government should be controlled by - Government controlled by capable rich, well born, well educated leaders - Distrusted the common man - Favored individual liberties - Loose interpretation of Constitution - Strict interpretation of Constitution - Tended to favor Britain (criticized as (elastic clause) the monarchist party) - Tended to favor France Washington - Precedent: chose secretaries of state, war, and treasury; served no more than 2 terms; peaceful transfer of power - Maintained neutrality: French Revolution - Pinckney’s Treaty (Spain): US gets right of deposit of the Mississippi River Hamilton - National Bank to hold government tax revenues and stabilized the economy - use elastic clause to achieve this - Insisted that national war debt (bonds) be paid back in full to enhance the bank’s legitimacy and assume states’ debts - met with opposition by states that did not have large debt - Encouraged manufacturing by imposing tariffs on foreign goods - Whiskey (Excise) Tax - Hit grain farmers hard → Whiskey Rebellion (put down by Washington’s troops) Adams - XYZ Affair: American negotiators (to stop the seizure of American ships) were offered a bribe by French agents - Quasi War: undeclared war - instilled respect for America’s navy - Alien and Sedition Acts: allowed deportation of aliens and silenced government criticism during the Quasi War - Kentucky/Virginia Resolutions: Jefferson and Madison asserted that states could nullify government laws if they were unconstitutional Big Ideas - Overview - America begins as the colonial partner of Britain - French and Indian War expenses led to increasing conflict between the mother country and the colonies - Ideas about independence inspired patriots to declare independence - Americans experimented with forms of government - state constitutions, Articles, and Constitution - Washington and Adams breathed life into the Constitution and created institutions for the American experiment - Power of national government - British government vs. Colonies - Articles vs. Constitution - Federalists vs. Democratic Republicans Period 4 (Era of Jefferson and Jackson) Jefferson Change and Continuity of Jefferson with past Federalist presidents Change Continuity - Repealed the Whiskey tax, - Peaceful transfer of power naturalization Act, Judiciary Act of - Maintained bank, funding, and 1801 (midnight judges appointed by assumption policies Adams) - Louisiana Purchase - elastic clause - Pardoned those convicted under - Chesapeake Affair (European Sedition Act interference in American trade) - Sent navy to fight Barbary pirates - Embargo Act - an attempt to avoid war - Louisiana Purchase - first purchase of (cut trade with Britain and France to territory by a president stop impressment but failed and - Lewis and Clark expedition crippled America’s mercantile sector) War of 1812 Causes - Impressment of sailors - Resentment of British leftover from the Revolution - Belief that British were arming/inciting Indians in west - British did not abandon posts and forts in North America - War-hawks elected to Congress in 1812 - American territorial ambitions for Florida and Canada Timeline - The war lasted 2 ½ years - Britain won early battles at Fort Dearborn and Fort Detroit, but in 1813, the US burned the city of York and won the Battle of the Thames in Canada where they defeated British and Indian forces and killed the Indian leader Tecumseh Effects - Hartford Convention: Federalists meet to oppose fighting the war, but seem traitorous when Americans win - ends the Federalist Party - Treaty of Ghent: No territorial changes, impressment not addressed - Growth of American Nationalism Postwar America Politics and Policies American - Henry Clay’s 3 part plan: protective tariff, 2nd National Bank, System building roads and canals - Plan was to have the South exchange agricultural goods with the North’s manufactured goods Missouri - Admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state to keep Compromise the balance - Divided the Louisiana territory at the 36 30 line - slavery was banned north of the line Monroe - Banned the Western hemisphere from European Colonization Doctrine - European attempts to intervene would be seen as dangerous Era of Good - Monroe was elected with support from all sections Feelings - Federalists had disappeared - John Marshall SCOTUS: Marbury v. Madison upheld judicial review, the court’s ability to declare laws unconstitutional Market Revolution Technological - Agricultural efficiency: steel plow, automatic reaper, cotton gin - Eli Whitney’s interchangeable parts → assembly line factory - Steam power came from Britain → steam boats - Telegraph lines Infrastructure - Construction of canals and roads were done by private entities with government subsidies - Railroad tracks connected the entire country by 1860 → lowered cost of transportation Social - Immigration: Irish (potato famine) and German (failed revolution by German states) immigrants - Westward migration - Free labor ideology: Northerners touted the idea that wage earners could eventually own their own land as the standard of living increased, however, many were stuck in the factory - Development of labor unions - collective bargaining with employer - Cult of Domesticity and republican motherhood put women in a separate sphere, maintaining the house and caring for the children Jacksonian Democracy Whigs Democrats Led by Henry Clay Led by Andrew Jackson Politics of the elite and educated Politics of the common man - universal male suffrage American system: manufacturing, business, Agriculture trade, banking Strong central government that promotes Weak federal government, opposed to economic and social goals government action and spending Supported by northerners and cities Supported by southerners and countryside Tariffs No tariffs Jackson’s Administration Election of 1824 - Although Jackson had the most electoral votes, it was not enough to be elected and the House elected John Q. Adams instead - Ended Era of Good Feelings Jackson’s Policies - Expanded role of President: used veto 12 times - Specie Circular (because of suspicion of bankers and credit, government land could only be sold for hard currency) and destruction of the 2nd National Bank led to the Panic of 1837 (economic crisis that stopped infrastructure building, led to business collapse, and high unemployment) - Indian Removal Act - relocated them to Oklahoma (Trail of Tears) Nullification - When SC passed a resolution nullifying the Tariff Act of 1828 (as Crisis they depended heavily on cotton exports), he authorized military action against them Age of Reform Second Great Awakening (Cause of Reform) - At beginning of the 1800s, many clergy members worried that Americans were more captivated by politics than God and Salvation, and Americans felt a yearning for a more immediate religious experience - Second Great Awakening ministers such as Finney told people they could control their eternal life, much different from predestination, which encouraged individual redemption and even societal reformation - It acted as a springboard for a variety of reform movements Reforms Temperance - Many women were troubled by their husbands spending all their income on alcohol and domestic abuse - Tried to limit or ban the sale and consumption of alcohol - Temporarily reduced alcohol consumption by ½ in the US, but did  not last through the 1870s - EXAMPLE Asylum - Dorothea Dix advocated for the rights of the mentally ill, and created the first mental asylums in the US Education - Horace Mann, the secretary of the education, led a movement for free public education, which was seen as essential to democratic participation Abolition - Led by free African Americans like Frederick Douglass and benevolent white Americans like William Lloyd Garrison - Uncle Tom’s Cabin - Harriet Beecher Stowe - written to depict the brutality of slavery Women’s Rights - Seneca Falls Convention organized by Elizabeth Stanton and Lucretia Mott to discuss the rights of women - Declaration of Sentiments: “All men and women created equal” Big Ideas - SCOTUS established that federal laws take precedence over state laws - America underwent an economic and technological revolution - cotton gin, steam engine, factory system, and railroads and canals - The US expanded after the Louisiana Purchase - wanted to be a major player in foreign trade - The debate over slavery raged on - the Missouri Compromise resolved some tension for the next 3 decades - By the 1820s and 30s, new parties arose - the Democrats (Andrew Jackson) and the Whigs (Clay) - that disagreed about the role and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvement - The rise of democratic and individual beliefs, rationalism, and changes caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographical mobility, contributed to various reform movements Period 5 (Manifest Destiny, Civil War, Reconstruction) Manifest Destiny Causes - Population increase - Economic depressions - 1819 and 1837 (Panics)  - Abundance of cheap (or free) land in West - Expansion offered opportunities for new commerce - People began moving over new trails like Santa Fe Trail and Oregon Trail Timeline - Belief that God determined America should stretch from Atlantic to Pacific - Believed that US had mission to extend boundaries of freedom to others by sharing idealism and democratic institutions - James K. Polk = Manifest Destiny - Mexican American War: US gained the Mexican Cession - debate over whether or not to permit slavery in these territories; Wilmot Proviso would ban slavery in Mexican Cession Effects - Increased tensions between settlers and natives, abolitionists and slaveholders - Sectionalism - Compromise of 1850: stricter Fugitive Slave Law, admission of CA as free state, popular sovereignty in NM and UT Civil War Causes Slavery / - Dred Scott decision: Dred Scott sues on the basis that he lived in a Sectionalism free state and was a free man, and was being forced into slavery - SCOTUS ruled that Scott was still a slave and could not initiate a lawsuit, and declared that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and that Congress cannot ban slavery in any territory Extremism - John Brown raided the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry to arm and incite a generalized slave revolt in the south; was executed and became a martyr - Senator Sumner was beat with a cane after condemning slavery acts in Kansas Kansas-Nebraska - Let Kansas and Nebraska determine slaves by popular sovereignty Act of 1854 (even though they were above the Missouri Compromise line) - Bleeding Kansas: Pro-slavery border ruffians came into these states to vote, violence broke out, Pierce ended up recognizing the pro-slavery governments - Formation of Republican Party: dedicated to stopping the expansion of slavery into “free” soil; defended “free labor” ideology  Election of - Lincoln was elected in 1860 1860/Secession - SC and 6 other states seceded the following year, forming the Confederate States of America - Confederacy fired on Fort Sumter, and Lincoln rallied 75,000 troops after Confederates North Advantages South Advantages - Greater population (much of the - Fighting a defensive war southern population was slaves) - Did not have to invade the North to - Greater military capacity win, just had to fight on home soil - Border States were loyal to Union - South’s rich military tradition - had - Extensive railroad network able generals and a cohort of military - This allowed the Union to resupply its men to draw from troops and bring reinforcements as the war dragged on Union’s 3 Part Strategy 1. Anaconda Plan: The navy would blockade southern ports to prevent supplies from reaching the South and prevent Southern exports to stifle economy 2. Divide Confederate territory in half by taking control of the Mississippi River 3. Troops march on the confederate capital of Richmond, VA to achieve victory Trajectory of the War Beginning - Union suffered many defeats: First/Second Battle of Bull Run, etc. - Lincoln went through many incompetent generals before Grant - Battle of Antietam: Slight Union victory, McClellan repels Confederate forces in bloodiest day of fighting - Successfully execute Anaconda Plan Turning Point - Battle of Gettysburg: Confederacy was now on the retreat End - Victory at Vicksburg: gained control of Mississippi River - Sherman’s March to the Sea: military campaign designed to raid and loot civilians; destroy their morale so they would beg for the war to end - Robert E. Lee surrenders to Grant at the Appomattox Courthouse Abraham Lincoln Emancipation - Waited until Union achieved a victory (Antietam) Proclamation - Freed slaves in states of rebellion (not border states that were part of  Union) - Not universally applauded by North Gettysburg - Framed the war as fulfilling the US’s democratic goals Address - After Civil War, US was referred to as a nation, not just a union of states 10% Plan - If 10% of the voting population in Southern states swore loyalty to the Union, they would be let back in Reconstruction (Effect of the War) Effects of Reconstruction Reconstruction: process of readmitting the former Confederate states into the Union 1. Cities, towns, and farms ruined 2. High food prices and crop failures → many southerners faced starvation 3. Confederate money because worthless → Banks failed and merchants became bankrupt → people couldn’t pay their debts Amendments 13th Declared slavery illegal in America 14th Granted citizenship to everyone born in the US; equal protection of the law 15th Granted black men the right to vote Andrew Johnson Policy - Pro-slavery, did not care for emancipation or black equality - Tried to veto all bills giving civil rights to blacks Reconstruction - Passed by the Radical Republicans, it divided the South into 5 Act of 1867 military districts - To be readmitted, states would have to ratify the 14th Amendment Impeachment - Opposed to Reconstruction, tried to remove Secretary of War - Impeached, but not removed from office - Impeachment made it so that he could not act while the Reconstruction Acts were being passed Slavery Freedmen' - Blacks faced many needs - owners no longer had to feed and shelter them s Bureau - The Bureau was created to undertake the relief effort and help educate  them Resistance - Black Codes - KKK - Redeemers (wanted to redeem white supremacy) Compromise of 1877 - Election of 1876: Neither Hayes or Tilden had enough electoral votes to be declared the winner - Compromise: Hayes (Republican) was declared president in exchange for the removal of federal troops from the South - end of Reconstruction Big Ideas - Americans enthusiastically supported Western expansion in hopes of finding economic opportunities - Manifest Destiny - The Compromise of 1850, Kansas-Nebraska Act, and Dred Scott decision were precursors to the Civil War - Debates about slavery led to a widening gap between North and South - Due to superior military strategy, more resources, larger population, and better infrastructure, the Union defeated the Confederacy - After the Civil War, the 13th Amendment officially ended slavery, and the 14th and 15th Amendments further expanded the rights of blacks Key Concepts Period 1 (1491 - 1607): 4-6% ​ s native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America 1. A over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. A. The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies. Ex. Pueblo, Navajo B. Societies responded to the aridity of the Great Basin and the grasslands of the western Great Plains by developing largely mobile lifestyles.  Ex. Sioux, Apache C. In the Northeast, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter–gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages. Ex. Iroquois Confederacy of the Northeast, Creek, Choctaw, or Cherokee of the Southeast D. Societies in the Northwest and present-day California supported themselves by hunting and gathering, and in some areas developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean. Ex. Chinook, Nez Perce, Shoshone 2. Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the western hemisphere generated intense social, religious, policial, and economic competition and changes within European societies A. European nations’ efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity. Ex. “3 Gs”: Gold, God, and Glory, founding of St. Augustine (1565), Northwest Passage, Roanoke Island B. The Columbian Exchange brought new crops to Europe from the Americas, stimulating European population growth, and new sources of mineral wealth, which facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism. Ex. Introduction of corn, potatoes, and tomatoes to Europe, growth of European nation-states C. Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as joint-stock companies, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas. Ex. Caravel, sextant, joint-stock trading company II. The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic and social changes A. Spanish exploration and conquest were accompanied and furthered by widespread deadly epidemics that devastated native populations and by the introduction of crops and animals not found in the Americas. Ex. Spread of smallpox; European introduction of horses, rice, wheat, and oxen to the New World; bison hunting on the Great Plains B. In the encomienda system, Spanish colonial economies marshaled Native American labor to support plantation-based agriculture and extract precious metals and other resources. Ex. Sugar plantations, silver mines, Black Legend C. European traders partnered with some African groups who practiced slavery to forcibly extract slave labor for the Americas. The Spanish imported enslaved Africans to labor in plantation agriculture and mining.  Ex. Line of Demarcation, Middle Passage D. The Spanish developed a caste system that incorporated, and carefully defined the status of, the diverse population of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire. Ex. Mestizo, Zambo, mulatto III. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power. A. Mutual misunderstandings between Europeans and Native Americans often defined the early years of interaction and trade as each group sought to make sense of the other. Over time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other’s culture. Ex. African religious traditions combined with Christian traditions, Maroon communities B. As European encroachments on Native Americans’ lands and demands on their labor increased, native peoples sought to defend and maintain their political sovereignty, economic prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations through diplomatic negotiations and military resistance. Ex. Spanish mission system, Juan de Onate, Acoma War and defeat of the Pueblo (1599) C. Extended contact with Native Americans and Africans fostered debate among European religious and political leaders about how non-Europeans should be treated, as well as evolving religious, cultural, and racial justifications for the subjugation of Africans and Native Americans. Ex. Juan de Sepulveda, Bartolome de Las Casas, communal nature of land, private vs. public ownership of land, animism. Period 2 (1607 - 1754): 6-8% 1. Europeans developed a variety of colonization and migration patterns, influenced by different imperial goals, cultures, and the varied North American environments where they settled, and they competed with each other and American Indians for resources I. Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonizers had different economic and imperial goals involving land and labor that shaped the social and political development of their colonies as well as their relationships with native populations. A. Spanish efforts to extract wealth from the land led them to develop institutions based on subjugating native populations, converting them to Christianity, and incorporating them, along with enslaved and free Africans, into the Spanish colonial society. Ex. Christopher Columbus, Cortez, Pizarro, conquistadores, mission system, encomienda system, New Spain, establishment of Santa Fe (1610) B. French and Dutch colonial efforts involved relatively few Europeans and relied on trade alliances and intermarriage with American Indians to build economic and diplomatic relationships and acquires furs and other products for export to Europe. Ex. Samuel de Champlain, Coureurs de bois, New Netherland, Jesuit missionaries, French alliance with Huron Indians C. English colonization efforts attracted a comparatively large number of male and female British migrants, as well as other European migrants, all of whom sought social mobility, economic prosperity, religious freedom, and improved living conditions. These colonists focused on agriculture and settled on land taken from Native Americans, from whom they lived separately. Ex. Jamestown (1607), starving time, head-right system, John Rolfe, tobacco as cash crop II. In the 17th century, early British colonies developed along the Atlantic coast, with regional differences that reflected various environmental, economic, cultural, and demographic factors. A. The Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies grew prosperous exporting tobacco — a labor-intensive product initially cultivated by white, mostly male indentured servants and later by enslaved Africans. Ex. Middle Passage, indentured servants, Bacon’s Rebellion (1676), Chesapeake colonies, racial hierarchy B. The New England colonies, initially settled by Puritans, developed around small towns with family farms and achieved a thriving mixed economy of agriculture and commerce. Ex. Puritan work ethic, town meetings, expanded life expectancy in New England, social hierarchy, blue laws, subsistence farming, John Winthrop’s “city upon a hill”, Salem witch trials, trial of Anne Hutchinson, banishment of Roger Williams, establishment of Harvard College (1636) C. The middle colonies supported a flourishing export economy based on cereal crops and attracted a broad range of European migrants, leading to societies with greater cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity and tolerance. Ex. William Penn, Quakers, religious toleration, “middle way”, ethnic diversity, “bread-basket colonies” D. The colonies of the southernmost Atlantic coast and the British West Indies used long growing seasons to develop plantation economies based on exporting staple crops. They  depended on the labor of enslaved Africans, who often constituted the majority of the population in these areas and developed their own forms of cultural and religious autonomy. Ex. rice as cash crop in Georgia and the Carolinas, sugar as cash crop in Barbados, slave codes, Gullah, ring-shout, spirituals E. Distance and Britain’s initially lax attention led to the colonies creating self-governing institutions that were unusually democratic for the era. The New England colonies based power in participatory town meetings, which in turn elected members to their colonial legislatures; in the Southern colonies, elite planters exercised local authority and also dominated the elected assemblies. Ex. Mayflower Compact (1620), Maryland Toleration Act (1649), House of Burgesses, Massachusetts General Court III. Competition over resources between European rivals and American Indians encouraged industry and trade and led to conflict in the Americas. A. An Atlantic economy developed in which goods, as well as enslaved Africans and American Indians, were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and theAmericas through extensive trade networks. European colonial economies focused on acquiring, producing, and exporting commodities that were valued in Europe and gaining new sources of labor. Ex. Triangular trade routes, direct trade routes, Middle Passage B. Continuing trade with Europeans increased the flow of goods in and out of American Indian communities, stimulating cultural and economic changes and spreading epidemic diseases that caused radical demographic shifts. Ex. Praying towns, fur trade C. Interactions between European rivals and American Indian populations fostered both accommodation and conflict. French, Dutch, British, and Spanish colonies allied with and armed American Indian groups, who frequently sought alliances with Europeans against other Indian groups. Ex. Beaver Wars of the mid-1600s, Chickasaw Wars of the mid-1700s, King William’s War (1688-1697), Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713), King George’s War (1744-1748) D. The goals and interests of European leaders and colonists at times diverged, leading to a growing mistrust on both sides of the Atlantic. Colonists, especially in British North America, expressed dissatisfaction over issues including territorial settlements, frontier defense, self-rule, and trade. Ex. Bacon’s Rebellion (1676), revocation of Massachusetts’ charter, Navigation Acts/smuggling, protests against the Dominion of New England E. British conflicts with American Indians over land, resources, and political boundaries led to military confrontations, such as Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War) in New England. Ex. Anglo-Powhatan Wars (1610-1640s), Pequot War (1636-1637), King Philip’s War (1675-1676) F. American Indian resistance to Spanish colonizing efforts in North America, particularly after the Pueblo Revolt, led to Spanish accommodation of some aspects of American Indian culture in the Southwest. Ex. Caste system, mulattoes, mestizos, Pueblo Revolt (1680) 2. The British colonies participated in policial, social, cultural, and economic exchanges with Great Britain that encouraged both stronger bonds with Britain and resistance to British control I. Transatlantic commercial, religious, philosophical, and political exchanges led residents of the British colonies to evolve in their political and cultural attitudes as they became increasingly tied to Britain and one another. A. The presence of different European religious and ethnic groups contributed to a significant degree of pluralism and intellectual exchange, which were later enhanced by the First Great Awakening and the spread of European Enlightenment ideas. Ex. Great Awakening, Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield, “new lights vs. old lights”, Enlightenment, John Locke B. The British colonies experienced a gradual Anglicization over time, developing autonomous political communities based on English models with influence from inter-colonial commercial ties, the emergence of a trans-Atlantic print culture, and the spread of Protestant evangelicalism. Ex. Anglicization, republicanism, salutary neglect, trial of John Peter Zenger C. The British government increasingly attempted to incorporate its North American colonies into a coherent, hierarchical, and imperial structure in order to pursue mercantilist economic aims, but conflicts with colonists and American Indians led to erratic enforcement of imperial policies. Ex. Mercantilism, Board of Trade, Navigation Act of the 1660s, Dominion of New England, Wool Act of 1699, Molasses Act of 1733 D. Colonists’ resistance to imperial control drew on local experiences of self- government, evolving ideas of liberty, the political thought of the Enlightenment, greater religious independence and diversity, and an ideology critical of perceived corruption in the imperial system. Ex. Widespread smuggling, Dominion of New England/Edmund Andros, First Great Awakening (J. Edwards & G. Whitefield), John Locke II. Like other European empires in the Americas that participated in the Atlantic slave trade, the English colonies developed a system of slavery that reflected the specific economic, demographic, and geographic characteristics of those colonies. A. All the British colonies participated to varying degrees in the Atlantic slave trade due to the abundance of land and a growing European demand forcolonial goods, as well as a shortage of indentured servants. Small New England farms used relatively few enslaved laborers, all port cities held significant minorities of enslaved people, and the emerging plantation systems of the Chesapeake and the southernmost Atlantic coast had large numbers of enslaved workers, while the great majority of enslaved Africans were sent to the West Indies. Ex. Triangular trade, Middle Passage, plantation agriculture B. As chattel slavery became the dominant labor system in many southern colonies, new laws created a strict racial system that prohibited interracial relationships and defined the descendants of African American mothers as black and enslaved in perpetuity. Ex. Barbados slave code, Stone Rebellion of 1739, NYC slave revolt of 1741 C. Africans developed both overt and covert means to resist the dehumanizing aspects of slavery and maintain their family and gender systems, culture, and religion.  Ex. Work slowdowns, runaway slaves, NYC slave revolt (1711), Stono Rebellion (1739) Period 3 (1754 - 1800): 10-17% 1. British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War I. The competition among the British, French, and American Indians for economic and political advantage in North America culminated in the Seven years’ War (the French and Indian War), in which Britain defeated France and allied American Indians. A. Colonial rivalry intensified between Britain and France in the mid-18th century, as the growing population of the British colonies expanded into the interior of North America, threatening French–Indian trade networks and American Indian autonomy. Ex. French-Huron alliance, British-Iroquois alliance, French and Indian War, Albany Plan of Union, Treaty of Paris B. Britain achieved a major expansion of its territorial holdings by defeating the French, but at tremendous expense, setting the stage for imperial efforts to raise revenue and consolidate control over the colonies. Ex. End of salutary neglect, writs of assistance, use of admiralty courts to try smugglers, virtual representation of Parliament C. After the British victory, imperial officials’ attempts to prevent colonists from moving westward generated colonial opposition, while native groups sought to both continue trading with Europeans and resist the encroachments of colonists on tribal lands. Ex. Pontiac’s War, Proclamation of 1763, Iroquois Confederacy, Chief Little Turtle and the Western Confederacy (1793-1795) II. The desire of many colonists to assert ideals of self-government in the face of renewed British imperial efforts led to a colonial independence movement and war with Britain A. The imperial struggles of the mid-18th century, as well as new British efforts to collect taxes without direct colonial representation or consent and to assert imperial authority in the colonies, began to unite the colonists against perceived and real constraints on their economic activities and political rights. Ex. Sugar Act (1764), Stamp Act (1765), Quartering Act (1765), Declaratory Act (1766), Townshend Acts (1767), Tea Act (1773), Intolerable Acts (1774), Quebec Act (1774) B. Colonial leaders based their calls for resistance to Britain on arguments about the rights of British subjects, the rights of the individual, local traditions of self-rule, and the ideas of the Enlightenment. Ex. Taxation without representation, consent of the governed, republicanism, bicameral colonial legislatures, natural rights C. The effort for American independence was energized by colonial leaders such as Benjamin Franklin, as well as by popular movements that included the political activism of laborers, artisans, and women. Ex. Otis Warren, Paul Revere, Mercy Otis Warren, John Hancock, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Sons of Liberty, Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (John Dickinson), Stamp Act Congress (1765), Boston Tea Party, committees of correspondence, First and Second Continental Congress  D. In the face of economic shortages and the British military occupation of some regions, men and women mobilized in large numbers to provide financial and material support to the Patriot movement. Ex. Committees of Correspondence, Minutemen of Massachusetts E. Despite considerable loyalist opposition, as well as Great Britain’s apparently overwhelming military and financial advantages, the Patriot cause succeeded because of the actions of colonial militias and the Continental Army, George Washington’s military leadership, the colonists’ ideological commitment and resilience, and assistance sent by European allies. Ex. Battle of Trenton, Battle of Saratoga, French Alliance, Battle of Yorktown 2. The American Revolution’s democratic and republican ideas inspired new experiments with different forms of government I. The ideals that inspired the revolutionary cause reflected new beliefs about politics, religion, and society that had been developing over the course of the18th century. A. Enlightenment ideas and philosophy inspired many American political thinkers to emphasize individual talent over hereditary privilege, while religion strengthened Americans’ view of themselves as a people blessed with liberty. Ex. End of primogeniture laws, First Great Awakening, New Lights vs. Old Lights, consent of the governed, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau B. The colonists’ belief in the superiority of republican forms of government based on the natural rights of the people found expression in Thomas Paine’s Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence. The ideas in these documents resonated throughout American history, shaping Americans’ understanding of the ideals on which the nation was based. Ex. Common Sense, Declaration of Independence, republicanism, natural rights C. During and after the American Revolution, an increased awareness of inequalities in society motivated some individuals and groups to call for the abolition of slavery and greater political democracy in the new state and national governments. Ex. Quakers, Abigail Adams’ “remember the ladies”, Pennsylvania gradual emancipation law (1780), Vermont constitution abolished slavery, reduction of state property requirements to vote, abolition societies, separation of church and state, Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786) D. In response to women’s participation in the American Revolution, Enlightenment ideas, and women’s appeals for expanded roles, an ideal of “republican motherhood” gained popularity. It called on women to teach republican values within the family and granted women a new importance in American political culture. Ex. Republican motherhood, improved education for women, republican virtues of liberty and natural rights, E. The American Revolution and the ideals set forth in the Declaration of Independence reverberated in France, Haiti, and Latin America, inspiring future independence movements. Ex. French Revolution (1789-1799), US Neutrality Proclamation, Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) II. After declaring independence, American political leaders created new constitutions and declarations of rights that articulated the role of the state and federal governments while protecting individual liberties and limiting both centralized power and excessive popular influence. A. Many new state constitutions placed power in the hands of the legislative branch and maintained property qualifications for voting and citizenship. Ex. Conventions to ratify constitutions, fundamental laws, strong state legislatures combined with weak governors and courts B. The Articles of Confederation unified the newly independent states, creating a central government with limited power. After the Revolution, difficulties over international trade, finances, interstate commerce, foreign relations, and internal unrest led to calls for a stronger central government. Ex. Unicameral legislature with no power to tax, draft soldiers, or regulate trade; lack of judicial or executive branch; tariff and currency disputes; Spanish restrictions on Mississippi River; British occupation of forts on US land; Shay’s Rebellion; Newburgh Conspiracy; Annapolis Convention C. Delegates from the states participated in a Constitutional Convention and through negotiation, collaboration, and compromise proposed a constitution that created a limited but dynamic central government embodying federalism and providing for a separation of powers between its three branches. Ex. Great (Connecticut) Compromise, checks and balances, separation of powers, Electoral College, Supreme Court, republicanism, federalism D. The Constitutional Convention compromised over the representation of slave states in Congress and the role of the federal government in regulating both slavery and the slave trade, allowing the prohibition of the international slave trade after 1808. Ex. Three-fifths compromise, slave trade compromise, fugitive slave clause E. In the debate over ratifying the Constitution, Anti-Federalists opposing ratification battled with Federalists, whose principals were articulated in the Federalist Papers (primarily written by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison). Federalists ensured the ratification of the Constitution by promising the addition of a Bill of Rights that enumerated individual rights and explicitly restricted the powers of the federal government. Ex. Federalist Papers, Bill of Rights, Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists III. New forms of national culture and political institutions developed in the United States alongside continued regional variations and differences over economic, political, social, and foreign policy issues. A. During the presidential administrations of George Washington and John Adams, political leaders created institutions and precedents that put the principles of the Constitution into practice. Ex. Executive branch departments, Cabinet, Judiciary Act of 1789 B. Political leaders in the 1790s took a variety of positions on issues such as the relationship between the national government and the states, economic policy, foreign policy, and the balance between liberty and order. This led to the formation of political parties — most significantly the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.  Ex. Hamilton’s financial plan, creation of the Bank of the US, elastic clause, strict vs. loose interpretation of the Constitution, formation of the Federalist Party, formation of the Democratic-Republican Party, Alien and Sedition Acts, Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions by Jefferson and Madison C. The expansion of slavery in the deep South and adjacent western lands and rising antislavery sentiment began to create distinctive regional attitudes toward the institution. Ex. Anti-slavery societies, limited rights of free blacks D. Ideas about national identity increasingly found expression in works of art, literature, and architecture. Ex. John Trumbull, Benjamin Banneker, US flag, growth of nationalism, Mercy Otis Warren’s History of the American Revolution, Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin 3. Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations I. In the decades after American independence, interactions among different groups resulted in competition for resources, shifting alliances, and cultural blending. A. Various American Indian groups repeatedly evaluated and adjusted their alliances with Europeans, other tribes, and the U.S., seeking to limit migration of white settlers and maintain control of tribal lands and natural resources. British alliances with American Indians contributed to tensions between the U.S. and Britain. Ex. March of the Paxton Boys, Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794), Treaty of Greenville (1795) B. As increasing numbers of migrants from North America and other parts of the world continued to move westward, frontier cultures that had emerged in the colonial period continued to grow, fueling social, political, and ethnic tensions. Ex. Scots-Irish migration to the frontier, frontier vs. tidewater Virginia, Whiskey Rebellion, Regulator Movement C. As settlers moved westward during the 1780s, Congress enacted the Northwest Ordinance for admitting new states; the ordinance promoted public education, the protection of private property, and a ban on slavery in the Northwest Territory. Ex. Land Ordinance of 1785, Northwest Ordinance of 1787, Section 16, equal statement, abolition of slavery in Northwest Territory D. An ambiguous relationship between the federal government and American Indian tribes contributed to problems regarding treaties and American Indian legal claims relating to the seizure of their lands. Ex. Battle of Fallen Timbers, Treaty of Greenville E. The Spanish, supported by the bonded labor of the local American Indians, expanded their mission settlements into California; these provided opportunities for social mobility among soldiers and led to new cultural blending. Ex. Expansion of Spanish missions in California, Spanish vaqueros (cowboys) of the Southwest, mestizos II. The continued presence of European powers in North America challenged the United States to find ways to safeguard its borders, maintain neutral trading rights, and promote its economic interests. A. The United States government forged diplomatic initiatives aimed at dealing with the continued British and Spanish presence in North America, as U.S. settlers migrated beyond the Appalachians and sought free navigation of the Mississippi River. Ex. Spanish control of Mississippi River, British occupation of US forts, impressment of US sailors, Jay Treaty (1794), Pinckney Treaty (1795) B. War between France and Britain resulting from the French Revolution presented challenges to the United States over issues of free trade and foreign policy and fostered political disagreement. Ex. French Revolution, US Proclamation of Neutrality, Citizen Genet Affair, XYZ Affair (1797-1798), Quasi-war with France, Convention of 1800 C. George Washington’s Farewell Address encouraged national unity, as he cautioned against political factions and warned about the danger of permanent foreign alliances. Ex. Political disagreements about aid to the French Revolution and the establishment of the Bank of the US, Farewell Address warned against entangling alliances and political parties. Period 4 (1800 - 1848): 10-17% 1. The United States began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture, while Americans sought to define the nation’s democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them I. The nation’s transformation to a more participatory democracy was achieved by expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political parties. A. In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers. Ex. Election of 1800 (“Revolution of 1800”), First Party System, Louisiana Purchase (1803), 12th Amendment (1804), War with Tripoli (1801-1805), Chesapeake Leopard Affair (1807), Embargo Act of 1807, Non-intercourse Act (1809), Macon’s Bill #2 (1810), “War Hawks”, War of 1812 (impressment, desire for Canada, British occupation of US forts, British aid to Indians), Federalists and the Hartford Convention (1814), Treaty of Ghent (1815), Henry Clay’s “American System”, protective tariff of 1816, Second Band of the US, Era of Good Feelings, Madison’s veto of Bonus Bill (1817) B. Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining the meaning of the Constitution and asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws. Ex. John Marshall, Marbury v. Madison, McCullough v. Maryland, Worcester v. Georgia, Gibbons v. Ogden, Dartmouth College v. Woodward C. By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose — the Democrats, led, by Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs, led by Henry Clay — that disagreed about the role and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvements. Ex. Corrupt bargain of 1824, Second Party System, opposition of Whigs to Democrat “King Andrew”, end of property requirements to vote by 1828, Jackson’s use of spoils system, universal manhood suffrage, “Age of the Common Man”, Webster Hayne Debate of 1830, Jackson’s veto of Maysville Road (1830), Jackson’s veto of Second Bank of US re-charter, Jackson’s use of “pet banks”, South Carolina Exposition and Protest by John Calhoun (1828), South Carolina nullification of Tariffs of 1828 and 1832, Jackson’s “Force Act” of 1833, Compromise Tariff of 1833 D. Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders’ positions on slavery and economic policy. Ex. John Calhoun’s “positive good” arguments, Missouri Compromise of 1820, sectional balance in the Senate, Indian Removal Act of 1830, South Carolina nullification of Tariffs of 1828 and 1832, Jackson’ Force Act of 1833, Compromise Tariff of 1833 II. While Americans embraced a new national culture, various groups developed distinctive cultures of their own. A. The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographical  mobility, contributed to a Second Great Awakening among Protestants that influenced moral and social reforms and inspired utopian and other religious movements. Ex. Charles Finney, Seneca Falls Convention (1848), Utopian communities (Brook Farm, Shakers, Mormons, Oneida), American, American Temperance Society, Dorothea Dix and prison reform, Horace Mann and education reform B. A new national culture emerged that combined American elements, European influences, and regional cultural sensibilities. Ex. Hudson River School of art; transcendental writers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau; James Audubon, Knickerbocker writers such as Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper; Noah Webster’s American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) C. Liberal social ideas from abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfectibility influenced literature, art, philosophy, and architecture. Ex. Romanticism, transcendentalism, Federal style of architecture, Thomas Jefferson’s rotunda D. Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts aimed at changing their status. Ex. surrogate families; covert resistance (work slowdowns, sabotage, and runaways); spirituals; Richard Allen’ African Methodist Episcopal Church (1816); American Colonization Society (1816); Benjamin Lunch’s Genius of Universal Emancipation (gradual emancipation); David Walker’s Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829); William Lloyd Garrison’s “immediate and uncompensated” emancipation; American Anti-slavery Society (1833); Garrison’s Liberator (1831); Underground Railroad; Sojourner Truth; Frederick Douglass’ North Star (1847); Liberty Party (1840) III. Increasing numbers of Americans, many inspired by new religious and intellectual movements, worked primarily outside of government institutions to advance their ideals. A. Americans formed new voluntary organizations that aimed to change individual behaviors and improve society through temperance and other reform efforts. Ex. American Temperance Society, American Anti-slavery Society, Seneca Falls Convention and the Declaration of Sentiments, Oberlin College B. Abolitionist and antislavery movements gradually achieved emancipation in the North, contributing to the growth of the free African American population, even as many state governments restricted African Americans’ rights. Antislavery efforts in the South were largely limited to unsuccessful slave rebellions. Ex. American Colonization Society, William Lloyd Garrison’s “immediate and uncompensated” emancipation, gradual emancipation, Denmark Vesey’s rebellion, Nat Turner’s rebellion C. A women’s rights movement sought to create greater equality and opportunities for women, expressing its ideals at the Seneca Falls Convention. Ex. Seneca Falls Convention, Declaration of Sentiments, Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton 2. Innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce powerfully accelerated the American economy, precipitating profound changes to U.S. society and to national and regional identities I. New transportation systems and technologies dramatically expanded manufacturing and agricultural production. A. Entrepreneurs helped to create a market revolution in production and commerce, in which market relationships between producers and consumers cameto prevail as the manufacture of goods became more organized. Ex. John Deere’s steel plow, Cyrus McCormick’s mechanical reaper, Samuel Slater “Father of American Factory System”, Eli Whitney’s cotton gin and interchangeable part, Samuel Morse and the telegraph, Robert Fulton’s Clermont steamboat, Lowell system, Baldwin Locomotive Works of Pennsylvania B. Innovations including textile machinery, steam engines, interchangeable parts, the telegraph, and agricultural inventions increased the efficiency of production methods. Ex. Lowell system, steam locomotives, steamboats, spinning jenny, steamboats, interchangeable parts, cotton gin, telegraph, steel plow, mechanical reaper, improved roads/turnpikes C. Legislation and judicial systems supported the development of roads, canals, and railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional interdependence. Transportation networks linked the North and Midwest more closely than either was linked to the South. Ex. Lancaster Turnpike, regional specialization and interdependence, Erie Canal, Canal Era, Henry Clay’s American System, Cumberland (National) Road, protective tariff of 1816, Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837) II. The changes caused by the market revolution had significant effects on U.S. society, workers’ lives, and gender and family relations. A. Increasing numbers of Americans, especially women and men working in factories, no longer relied on semi-subsistence agriculture; instead they supported themselves producing goods for distant markets. Ex. Lowell mills, Industrial Revolution, factory system B. The growth of manufacturing drove a significant increase in prosperity and standards of living for some; this led to the emergence of a larger middle class and a small but wealthy business elite but also to a large and growing population of laboring poor. Ex. Income gap, social hierarchy, plantation aristocracy, “Yankee traders”, National Trades Union, Commonwealth v. Hunt C. Gender and family roles changed in response to the market revolution, particularly with the growth of definitions of domestic ideals that emphasized the separation of public and private spheres. Ex. Cult of domesticity, Lydia Child challenged cult of domesticity, Elizabeth Blackwell, Sojourner Truth’s Ain’t I a Woman?, Grimke sisters III. Economic development shaped settlement and trade patterns, helping to unify the nation while also encouraging the growth of different regions.  A. Large numbers of international migrants moved to industrializing northern cities, while many Americans moved west of the Appalachians, developing thriving new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Ex. Erie Canal, Lancaster Turnpike, German immigration, Irish immigration, Midwest farm goods traded for New England factory goods B. Increasing Southern cotton production and the related growth of Northern manufacturing, banking, and shipping industries promoted the development of national and international commercial ties. Ex. “King Cotton”, protective tariffs, textile industry, whaling and fishing industry, “Yankee traders”, Treaty of Wanghia (1844) expanded trade with China C. Southern business leaders continued to rely on the production and export of traditional agricultural staples, contributing to the growth of a distinctive Southern regional identity. Ex. Slow urban growth, planter aristocracy (“cottonocracy”), growth of the internal slave trade D. Plans to further unify the U.S. economy, such as the American System, generated debates over whether such policies would benefit agriculture or industry, potentially favoring different sections of the country. Ex. Protective tariffs of 1816 and 1824, Madison’s veto of the Bonus Bill, internal improvements, Cumberland (National) Road, Jackson’s veto of the Maysville Road, Second Bank of the US 3. The U.S. interest in increasing foregin trade and expanding its national borders shaped the nation's foreign policy and spurred government and private initiatives I. Struggling to create an independent global presence, the United States sought to claim territory throughout the North American continent and promote foreign trade. A. Following the Louisiana Purchase, the United States government sought influence and control over North America and the Western Hemisphere through a variety of means, including exploration, military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine. Ex. Rush Bagot Treaty (1817), Convention of 1818, Adams Onis Treaty (1819), Monroe Doctrine (1823), dispute over annexation of Texas (1836-1845), annexation of Texas by joint resolution (1845), Webster Ashburton Treaty (1842), Oregon Treaty with Britain (1846), Mexican American War (1846-1848), Manifest Destiny B. Frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian resistance led to a sequence of wars and federal efforts to control and relocate American Indian populations. Ex. Tecumseh’s Confederacy (1808-1813), Battle of Tippecanoe (1811), First Seminole War (1816-1818), Indian Removal Act (1830), Trail of Tears, Second Seminole War (1835-1842), Indian Territory II. The United States’ acquisition of lands in the West gave rise to contests over the extension of slavery into new territories. A. As over-cultivation depleted arable land in the Southeast, slaveholders began relocating their plantations to more fertile lands west of the Appalachians, where the institution of slavery continued to grow. Ex. Cotton gin and growth of upland (short-staple) cotton, growth of the internal slave trade B. Antislavery efforts increased in the North, while in the South, although the majority of Southerners owned no slaves, most leaders argued that slavery was part of the Southern way of life. Ex. John Calhoun’s “positive good” arguments, Biblical justifications for slavery, Constitutional justifications for slavery (fugitive slave clause and three-fifths clause) C. Congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the Missouri Compromise, only temporarily stemmed growing tensions between opponents and defenders of slavery. Ex. Jefferson’s “firebell in the night” warning (1820), Webster Hayne Debate (1830) dispute over annexation of Texas (1836-1845), gag rule, Wilmot Proviso (1846) Period 5 (1848 - 1877): 10-17% 1. The United States became more connected with the world, pursued an expansionist forieng policy in the Western Hemisphere, and emerged as the destination for many migrants from other countries I. Popular enthusiasm for U.S. expansion, bolstered by economic and security interests, resulted in the acquisition of new territories, substantial migration westward, and new overseas initiatives. A. The desire for access to natural and mineral resources and the hope of many settlers for economic opportunities or religious refuge led to an increased migration to and settlement in the West. Ex. Mormon settlements in Utah (1847), California gold rush (1848), Chinese immigration, Comstock Lode - silver mining in Nevada (1859), Pike’s Peak gold rush (1858-1861), decline of the buffalo B. Advocates of annexing western lands argued that Manifest Destiny and the superiority of American institutions compelled the United States to expand its borders westward to the Pacific Ocean. Ex. Manifest Destiny, Election of 1844, Slidell Mission (1845), US annexation of Texas (1845), Bear Flag Revolt (1846), Oregon Boundary Treaty (1846), Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), Gadsden Purchase (1853), Pony Express (1860-1861) C. The U.S. added large territories in the West through victory in the Mexican–American War and diplomatic negotiations, raising questions about the status of slavery, American Indians, and Mexicans in the newly acquired lands. Ex. Wilmot Proviso (1846), Lincoln’s spot resolutions (1846), Free Soil Party (1848), Civil Disobedience by Henry David Thoreau (1849), popular sovereignty, Ostend Manifesto (1854) D. Westward migration was boosted during and after the Civil War by the passage of new legislation promoting Western transportation and economic development. Ex. Gadsden Purchase (1853), Pacific Railway Act (1862), Homestead Act (1862), Homestead Act (1862), Morrill Land Grant Act (1862), completion of the Union Pacific Railroad (1869) E. U.S. interest in expanding trade led to economic, diplomatic, and cultural initiatives to create more ties with Asia. Ex. Clipper ships, Treaty of Wanghia (1846), Commodore Perry’s expedition to Japan (1852-1854), missionaries II. In the 1840s and 1850s, Americans continued to debate questions about rights and citizenship for various groups of U.S. inhabitants. A. Substantial numbers of international migrants continued to arrive in the United States from Europe and Asia, mainly from Ireland and Germany, often settling in ethnic communities where they could preserve elements of their languages and customs. Ex. Old Immigration from North and Western Europe, Irish potato famine (1845-1851), parochial schools B. A strongly anti-Catholic nativist movement arose that was aimed at limiting new immigrants’ political power and cultural influence. Ex. Know-Nothing movement (1840s and 1850s), American Party (1854)  C. U.S. government interaction and conflict with Mexican Americans and American Indians increased in regions newly taken from American Indians and Mexico, altering these groups’ economic self-sufficiency and cultures. Ex. Sand Creek Massacre (1864), Battle of Little Big Horn (Custer’s Last Stand - 1876), reservation system, Mariano Vallejo 2. Intensified by expansion and deepening regional divisions, debates over slavery and other economic, cultural, and policial issues led the nation into civil war I. Ideological and economic differences over slavery produced an array of diverging responses from Americans in the North and the South. A. The North’s expanding manufacturing economy relied on free labor in contrast to the Southern economy’s dependence on slave labor. Some Northerners did not object to slavery on principle but claimed that slavery would undermine the free labor market. As a result, a free-soil movement arose that portrayed the expansion of slavery as incompatible with free labor. Ex. Bessemer process (1855), Oil drilling in Titusville, Pennsylvania (1859), Free Soil Party (1848-1852), Hinton Helper’s Impending Crisis of the South (1857) B. African American and white abolitionists, although a minority in the North, mounted a highly visible campaign against slavery, presenting moral arguments against the institution, assisting slaves’ escapes, and sometimes expressing a willingness to use violence to achieve their goals. Ex. William Lloyd Garrison’s Liberator and the American Antislavery Society, Liberty Party (1840-1844), Underground Railroad, Harriet Tubman (1849), Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852), John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry (1859) C. Defenders of slavery based their arguments on racial doctrines, the view that slavery was a positive social good, and the belief that slavery and states’ rights were protected by the Constitution. D. Ex. “positive good” thesis, John C. Calhoun, states’ rights, nullification, George Fitzhugh’s Cannibals All! (1857), minstrel shows II. Debates over slavery came to dominate political discussion in the 1850s, culminating in the bitter election of 1860 and the secession of Southern states. A. The Mexican Cession led to heated controversies over whether to allow slavery in the newly acquired territories. Ex. end of gag rule (1844), Wilmot Proviso (1846), Mexican Cession (1848), popular sovereignty B. The courts and national leaders made a variety of attempts to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, including the Compromise of 1850, the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and the Dred Scott decision, but these ultimately failed to reduce conflict. Ex. Compromise of 1850, Fugitive Slave Act (1850), personal liberty laws, Kansas Nebraska Act (1854), “Crime against Kansas Speech” by Charles Sumner and attack by Preston Brooks (1856), Pottawatomie Creek, Dispute over Lecompton Constitution (1857), Bleeding Kansas (1856-1861), Dred Scott Supreme Court decision (1857)  C. The Second Party System ended when the issues of slavery and anti-immigrant nativism weakened loyalties to the two major parties and fostered the emergence of sectional parties, most notably the Republican Party in the North. Ex. Formation of the Republican Party (1854), Lincoln’s support of free soil doctrine, Lincoln’s “House Divided Speech” (1858), Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858), Freeport Doctrine (1858) D. Abraham Lincoln’s victory on the Republicans’ free-soil platform in the election of 1860 was accomplished without any Southern electoral votes. After a series of contested debates about secession, most slave states voted to secede from the Union, precipitating the Civil War. Ex. Secession of seven southern states (1860-1861), Crittenden Compromise rejected (1860-1861), Fort Sumter and secession of four additional southern states (1861), Lincoln’s call for troops 3. The Union victory in the Civil War and the contested Reconstruction of the SOuth settled the issues of slavery and secession, but left unresolved amny questions about the power fo the federal government and citizenship rights I. The North’s greater manpower and industrial resources, the leadership of Abraham Lincoln and others, and the decision to emancipate slaves eventually led to the Union military victory over the Confederacy in the devastating Civil War. A. Both the Union and the Confederacy mobilized their economies and societies to wage the war even while facing co