Psychology Chapter 1 Lecture Slides PDF

Chapter 1 The Evolution of Psychological Science Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Editi...

Chapter 1 The Evolution of Psychological Science Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Chapter Outline ▪ Psychology’s Philosophical Roots ▪ The Late 1800s: Towards a Science of the Mind ▪ The Early 1900s: Psychoanalysis and Behaviourism ▪ The Early 1900s: Resistance to Behaviourism Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ The Late 1900s: The Cognitive Revolution ▪ The Early 2000s: New Frontiers ▪ Becoming a Psychologist PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Psychology’s Philosophical Roots ▪ Psychology: Scientific study of mind and behaviour ▪ Mind: Private events that happen inside a person; not seen by others ▪ Behaviour: Public events Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved (things said and done); potentially observed by “Six Blackfeet Chiefs” others PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Psychology’s Historical Roots ▪ What is missing? ▪ Early history of psychology is filled with accomplishments of White men. ▪ Great deal of diversity and opportunities to advance the study of psychology for women and people of color were severely limited. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Dualism and Materialism (part 1) ▪ René Descartes (1596– 1650): Philosopher who argued for dualism of mind and body ▪ Believed that the physical body was a container for the nonphysical thing called the mind Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Embraced philosophical dualism (mind and body are fundamentally different things) PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Dualism and Materialism (part 2) ▪ Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): Argued against Descartes ▪ Argued that the mind is what the brain does ▪ Espoused philosophical materialism (all mental phenomena are reducible to physical phenomena) Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved So, which philosopher was right? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Realism and Idealism (part 1) ▪ John Locke (1632– 1704): English philosopher argued that there is a real world ▪ Suggested perceptions of the world are like photographs ▪ Championed Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved philosophical realism (perception of the physical world produced Locke’s phrase “the pursuit of entirely by sensory happiness” is also the name of a organ information) Canadian power pop group from the late 1980s to early 1990s. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Realism and Idealism (part 2) ▪ Immanuel Kant (1724–1804): Suggested that Locke’s theory was too simplistic ▪ Theorized beings must be born with some basic knowledge of the world that allows them to acquire additional knowledge of the world ▪ Philosophical idealism: Perceptions of Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved the physical world are brain’s best interpretation of the information that enters through our sensory apparatus. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Empiricism and Nativism ▪ Philosophical empiricism: All knowledge is acquired through experience. ▪ Philosophical nativism: Some knowledge is innate rather than acquired. ▪ Which philosopher was right? ▪ Most modern psychologists embrace some Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved version of nativism. ▪ But research suggests that at least some of what we know is hardwired into our brains. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Other Voices How Should We Judge Historical Figures? ▪ How should we think about people like Kant, whose intellectual contributions are as undeniable as his sexist and racist views? ▪ Should controversial statues in public places be taken down or left in place? ▪ Presentism; uncritical adherence to present-day attitudes ▪ Celebrating attitudes and statements that go squarely against what we believe in now Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved How far should this go? Can you justify your response? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Late 1800s: Towards a Science of the Mind ▪ Hermann Helmholtz (1821–1894): Studied human reaction time; estimated the length of nerve impulse ▪ Stimulus: Sensory input from the environment ▪ Reaction time: Amount of time between the Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved onset of a stimulus and a person’s response to that stimulus PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Structuralism: What Is the Mind Like? (part 1) ▪ Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): Opened the first psychological laboratory ▪ Believed psychology’s primary goal should be to understand: ▪ “the facts of consciousness, its combinations and relations, so that it may ultimately discover the Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved laws which govern these relations and combinations.” ▪ Structuralism: Approach that attempted to isolate and analyze the mind’s basic elements PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Wilhelm Wundt: The First Psychology Course Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) ▪ Taught the world’s first psychology course and published the world’s first psychology textbook ▪ Opened the world’s first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Was the advisor to 184 PhD students, many of whom became well-known psychologists PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Structuralism: What Is the Mind Like? (part 2) ▪ Edward Titchener (1867–1927): Pioneered introspection (systematic self-observation) ▪ Analysis of subjective experience by trained observers; basic dimensions of sensation ▪ Studied under Wundt; focused on identifying basic elements of the mind Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Was not the first to try to identify the elements of conscious experience Structuralism did not last. Can you guess why? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Functionalism: What Is the Mind For? (part 1) ▪ William James (1842–1910): Together with other psychologists (e.g., John Dewey, James Angell) developed a new approach to psychology ▪ Functionalism: Emphasized the adaptive significance of mental processes Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Functionalism: What Is the Mind For? (part 2) ▪ Charles Darwin (1809–1882) ▪ Inspired James; wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection ▪ Natural selection: Process by which specific attributes that promote an organism’s Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved survival and repro- duction become more prevalent in the population over time PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Early 1900s: Psychoanalysis and Behaviourism ▪ Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893) and Pierre Janet (1859–1947): Studied hysteric patients through hypnosis ▪ Hysteria: Loss of function that has no obvious physical origin; influenced Sigmund Freud Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Freud Develops Psychoanalytic Theory (part 1) ▪ Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Believed hysteria caused by painful unconscious experiences ▪ Psychoanalytic theory Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Unconscious ▪ Psychoanalysis PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Freud’s Psychoanalytic Movement ▪ Psychoanalytic theory became controversial ▪ Little attention from experimental psychologists ▪ Carl Jung (1875–1961), Alfred Adler (1870– 1937): Part of psychoanalytic movement Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Freud considered to be one of the two or three most influential thinkers of the 20th century PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Behaviourism: The Mind Does Not Matter ▪ Pavlov and Watson ▪ Behaviourism: The approach to psychology that restricts scientific inquiry to observable behaviour ▪ Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) ▪ Studied the physiology of digestion and founded classical conditioning (stimulus–response) Baika, one of Ivan ▪ Stimulus: Object or event that Pavlov’s famous dogs. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved elicits a response from an organism ▪ Response: Action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Watson and the Emergence of Behaviourism ▪ John B. Watson (1878–1958): Influenced by Pavlov; goal was to predict and control behaviour through the study of observable behaviour ▪ Argued that Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved behaviourism should be study of relationship between stimulus and response PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition B. F. Skinner and the Development of Behaviourism Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner (1904–1990): Developed the conditioning chamber (Skinner box) ▪ Principle of reinforcement: Any behaviour that is rewarded will be repeated, and any behaviour that isn’t rewarded won’t be repeated. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Early 1900s: Resistance to Behaviourism ▪ Max Wertheimer (1880–1943): Founded induced-motion phenomena ▪ Illusions: Errors of perception, memory, or judgement in which subjective experience differs from objective reality; illusionary motions ▪ Gestalt psychology: Psychological approach that emphasizes how the mind creates perceptual experience; the whole rather than the sum of the parts is often perceived Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Pioneering Ideas Lead to Cognitive Psychology (part 1) Sir Frederic Bartlett (1886–1969): Argued that memory is not a simple recording device; our minds use their theories of how the world usually works Researched why people often remembered what they had expected to read rather than what they had read. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Insights into Developmental Psychology ▪ Jean Piaget (1896– 1980): Theorized the mind has theories about how the mind works ▪ Small children have not yet learned these theories; they see the world in a fundamentally Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved different way than adults do. ▪ With Lev Vygotsky created area of developmental psychology PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Development of Social Psychology (part 1) ▪ Kurt Lewin (1890– 1947): Proposed new area of social psychology ▪ Argued behaviour is not a function of the environment but the person’s subjective construal of the environment Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Contended that people react to the world as they see it and not to the world as it is PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Development of Social Psychology (part 2) ▪ Solomon Asch (1907–1996): Researched how people draw inferences about others ▪ Conducted early studies of the “primacy effect” ▪ Led to research on how people draw inferences about others ▪ Gordon Allport (1897–1967): Studied how Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved people form stereotypes and prejudices PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Development of Social Psychology (part 3) ▪ Other social psychologists studied similarly “mentalistic” phenomena. ▪ Carl Hovland (1912–1961) and Irving Janis (1918–1990): Studied how people persuade each other to change their beliefs ▪ Muzafer Sherif (1906–1988): Studied how people create identities based on their social Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved groups ▪ Fritz Heider (1896–1988): Studied how people infer each other’s intentions PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Real World Beneath the Ocean of Memory ▪ Sir Frederic Bartlett studied how memory worked in Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved the real world. He established the Applied Psychology Unit at the Cambridge Laboratory of Industrial Research to help the British military efforts. ▪ His studies of human memory helped locate the warship Sydney. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Late 1900s: The Cognitive Revolution ▪ Noam Chomsky: Argued that behaviourist principles could not explain language learning ▪ Pointed out that even young children generate sentences they have never heard before. ▪ Theorized children could not possibly be Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved learning language by reinforcement. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Cognitive Psychology (part 1) ▪ Computers enter the scene (ENIAC). ▪ Early pioneer- inventors contribute to the study of cognitive psychology. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Cybernetics; artificial intelligence; teaching Edward Tolman (1886-1959) used a Y-maze to demonstrate rat computers to play knowledge that cannot be chess described in behaviourist terms. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Cognitive Psychology (part 2) ▪ Insights into cognitive psychology and human information processing ▪ How is human attention allocated? ▪ Donald Broadbent (1926–1993) and Anne Treisman (1935–2018) ▪ How do people expand their capacity to process information by combining it into chunks? ▪ George Miller (1920–2012) ▪ How can a person’s desires shape their perceptions of physical objects?. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Jerome Bruner (1915–2016) ▪ What is the nature of brief visual memory? ▪ George Sperling (b. 1934) PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Evolutionary Psychology ▪ Evolutionary psychology: Study of the ways in which the human mind has been shaped by natural selection ▪ John Garcia (1919–2012): Every organism is evolved to respond to particular stimuli in particular ways. ▪ E. O. Wilson (1929–2021): Social behaviour has been shaped by natural selection. ▪ Other research Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Donald Symons (b. 1942): There are gender differences in sexual promiscuity. ▪ Leda Cosmides (b. 1957) and John Tooby (b. 1952): People detect cheaters in a social exchange. ▪ David Buss (b. 1953): People select their ideal mate purposefully. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Early 2000s: New Frontiers ▪ Neuroscience ▪ Paul Broca (1824–1880): Had the crucial insight that damage to a specific part of the brain impaired a specific mental function ▪ He demonstrated that the brain and mind are closely linked. ▪ Karl Lashley (1890–1958): Concluded from surgically altered rat brains that learning is not Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved “localized.” ▪ It is not tied to a specific brain area in the same way that language seems to be. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Neuroscience ▪ Cognitive neuroscience: Study of the relationship between the brain and the mind (especially in humans) ▪ Behavioural neuroscience: Study of the relationship between the brain and Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved behaviour (especially in nonhuman animals) PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Neuroscience Today ▪ Technologies such as fMRI allow cognitive neuroscientists to determine which brain areas are most and least active when people perform various mental tasks. ▪ The machine (left) produces what are commonly called “brain scans” (right). Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Montreal: A Birthplace of Cognitive Neuroscience Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Donald Olding Hebb (1904–1985) Brenda Milner (1918–) is a was a Canadian psychologist Canadian psychologist, discovered whose work has had a profound the critical importance of a specific impact on cognitive neuroscience part of the brain, the hippocampus, to memory. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Emergence of Cultural Psychology ▪ Culture: Values, traditions, and beliefs that a particular group of people shares ▪ Cultural psychology: Study of how culture influences mental life Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition A World of Difference to Have or Have Not ▪ In even the most egalitarian societies, people can be divided into higher and lower social classes. As it turns out, social class is a powerful determinant of human behaviour. How does behaviour differ between people in higher and Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved lower classes? What does the research tell us? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Becoming a Psychologist ▪ Professional organizations: America ▪ American Psychological Association (APA) ▪ Association for Psychological Science (APS) ▪ Professional organizations: Canada ▪ Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) ▪ Canadian Society for Brain, Behaviour and Cognitive Science (CSBBCS) Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved ▪ Canadian Association for Neuroscience (association canadienne de neuroscience or CAN-ACN) PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition How Do People Become Psychologists? ▪ To be called a psychologist requires earning an additional advanced degree. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved A person earning an advanced degree in psychology can go on to a wide range of fields, such as these three individuals did PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Becoming a Psychologist (part 2) Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Subfields of Psychology PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition