Social Science Assessment Revision Presentation - SA 1 (Students' Copy) PDF

Date of Social Science Assessment: 30th September, 2024  WHAT IS HISTORY? INTERESTING FACT: History is the study of the past. The word History derived from the Our past consists of events that Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) which have happened as recently...

Date of Social Science Assessment: 30th September, 2024  WHAT IS HISTORY? INTERESTING FACT: History is the study of the past. The word History derived from the Our past consists of events that Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) which have happened as recently as the means 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by day before, a month, a year, a investigation'. decade or tens of thousands of The word "history" entered the English years ago. Each of us has a past language in 1390 CE, meaning the and each of us has a history. "relation of incidents" or a "story." WHY DO WE STUDY HISTORY? HOW DO WE STUDY HISTORY? It gives us a chronological and We study it by referring to various sources of historical systematic account of the past. It information, which can include different types such as: is necessary to study history because it reveals our past, helps Sources of history us to understand who we are, and where we come from and can possibly reveal where we will be Archaeological Sources heading to. In fact, studying our past gives us an opportunity to create our future in a more Literary Sources meaningful way. Archaeological Sources: Archaeology is the study of past cultures and how people lived, based on the material remains left by people long ago. Many of these remains have been found buried deep under the earth and are excavated by archaeologists. Role of Archaeologists: Excavate and study remains to build a picture of past life. Types of Archaeological Sources: Monuments: Buildings, forts, temples, and tombs (e.g., Red Fort, Taj Mahal). Objects: Tools, weapons, pottery, ornaments, seals, paintings, fossils. Inscriptions and Edicts: Carvings on pillars, walls, tablets; provide historical details. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy. Edicts are royal commands issued by rulers. Coins: The study of coins (numismatics) reveals details about rulers and periods. Burial Sites: Provide material remains, especially useful for prehistoric periods.  When determining the age of ancient organic materials, radiocarbon dating is a commonly used method. It works by measuring the How to Determine the Age of amount of carbon-14, a radioactive form of Ancient Organic Materials? carbon that living things absorb while alive. After death, carbon-14 decays at a predictable rate. By assessing how much carbon-14 remains, scientists can estimate how long ago the organism died. This technique is effective for materials up to about 50,000 years old and helps researchers understand historical timelines and environmental changes. Literary Sources: About 5,000 years ago, humans began writing, creating various scripts and written records. These records, including books manuscripts, and inscriptions on various materials, form the basis of our historical knowledge. Types of Literary Sources: Manuscripts: Handwritten records on materials like palm leaves, birch bark, and parchment. They provide insights into ancient scripts and cover religious and secular topics. Old Tripitaka Foreign Accounts: The accounts of these foreign travellers form an important historical source. Megasthenes, the Greek Original Manuscript Of ambassador, visited the court of Kautilya’s Arthashastra Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote Secular Literature: Includes non-religious a book called Indika which gives Religious Manuscripts: texts such as Harshacharita, the biography us valuable information about Include texts like the the Mauryan society. Other of King Harshavardhana written by Mahabharata, important accounts include Banabhatta, poems and dramas written by Upanishads, Bhagavad those given by Chinese famous writers, such as Gita, Jain Angas, and travellers, Fa Hien and Hiuen Abhijnanashakuntalam by Kalidasa, folk Buddhist Tripitakas, Tsang, who came to India to tales, such as the Panchtantra, works on revealing religious study Buddhism and wrote politics, such as Kautilya’s Arthashastra, practices and beliefs. about the people, their lifestyles and books on law, such as Manusmriti. and the society at that time.  Oral history refers to the record of historical information which is based on the personal experiences and opinions of the speaker. Oral history involves the use of interviews, myths, folk tales and songs that have been passed down from generation to generation through word of mouth.  The names that we use for our country today are India, Hindustan and Bharat. The name ‘India’ is The Iranians and Greeks, who came to Bharat, as derived from the India through the northwest around mentioned in the Indus River that flows 2,500 years ago, referred to the River Rig Veda, was through the Indus as Hindu or Indu. Over time, the used for people northwestern part of Persian influence further transformed who lived in the the subcontinent and the word ‘Sindhu’ to ‘Hindu,’ and they north-west and is referred to as began referring to the land of the people was later used for Sindhu in Sanskrit. living east of the Indus as ‘Hindustan.’ the whole country. The scholars who study history and write about the past are known as historians. Historians have divided the past into two periods— prehistory and history. Prehistory is that period of history when human beings did not know how History is the period after writing to read or write. It was the period was invented. It is the period for before writing was invented. We do not which written records are available. have any written records of this period. Geographical Location: India is bounded by the Himalayas in the north and seas on three sides. The Himalayas protected India from invaders and cold winds, while mountain passes and sea routes facilitated trade and interaction. Geographical Influence: Rivers like the Ganga, Indus, and Narmada supported settled life and influenced migration patterns. Geography played a significant role in shaping India's history and major events. When does history take place: Historians use BC (Before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini) to date events relative to the birth of Christ. Recently, BCE (Before Common Era) and CE (Common Era) have become more common, starting from year one to the present. A video for self study and revision. Life in the Prehistoric Period Prehistory refers to the time before written records. This period spans from the emergence of humans to the start of written language. Human societies relied on hunting and gathering for food. Early humans navigated their environments and made crucial survival decisions. They developed tools, social structures, and cultural practices. These developments laid the foundation for future civilizations. Hunter-Gatherer Lifestyle Modern humans (Homo sapiens) appeared about 200,000 years ago. They evolved from hominins who could walk upright and make fire. Early humans were nomadic, moving frequently in search of food. They hunted animals for meat and gathered fruits, roots, and honey. Their shelters included caves or huts made from twigs, logs, and animal skins. Tools made of stone, sticks, and bones were used for protection, hunting, and building. Stone Tools and the Stone Age Early humans primarily used stone tools. Archaeologists call this time period the Stone Age. Stone tools are categorized into: Core tools (for pounding and smashing) Flake tools (for scraping and slitting) Blade tools (early knives) STONE AGE PALEOLITHIC AGE MESOLITHIC AGE NEOLITHIC AGE Palaeolithic Age: Time Period: 2 million to 12,000 years ago. Early Humans: Lived in caves, relied on hunting and gathering for food. Stone Tools: Included clubs, scrapers, choppers, hand axes, bows, and arrows. Age Divisions: Lower Palaeolithic: Characterized by simple tools (e.g., cobbled flakes); artefacts found in the Shiwalik Range and Soan Valley. Middle Palaeolithic: Featured scrapers and borers; saw the development of group living, cave paintings, and burial practices. Upper Palaeolithic: Marked by a warmer climate and advanced tools (e.g., blades, burins); notable sites include Bhopal and Chota Nagpur. Fire Discovery: Accidentally discovered by rubbing stones. Used for cooking and warmth. Earliest controlled use of fire evidenced at Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, Israel, Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, Israel dated to 790,000 years ago. Mesolithic Age Time Period: 12,000-10,000 years ago Lifestyle: Hunter-gatherers adapted to a warm, dry climate. Continued reliance on hunting animals and gathering plant resources. Tools: Developed small, sharp tools known as microliths. Microliths were often fitted onto spears and arrows for more efficient hunting. Settlements: Settlements were established along river banks to take advantage of water sources and fertile lands. Microliths Notable locations include the Ganga Valley and the Damodar River, where early humans began to settle in more permanent locations compared to earlier nomadic lifestyles.  Art of the Prehistoric Period Prehistoric Cave Paintings: Locations: Natural caves and rock shelters Depictions: Hunting, tribal rituals, ceremonies Age: Nearly 9,000 to 10,000 years old Bhimbetka, India: Significance: Most fascinating among over 150 sites in India Discoveries: Rock paintings and drawings Themes: Stick figures hunting, dancing, performing rituals Colours: Mainly ochre/red and white, found in nature Global Sites: Examples: Lascaux in France, Spain, and other countries Hunsgi Valley: A Stone Tool Hub Location: Situated in Karnataka's Gulbarga district, Hunsgi Valley is abundant with stone tools. Significance: Archaeologists believe it was a hub where people lived in large numbers and manufactured stone tools. Site Types: Identified as a factory site where tools were mass-produced, different from habitation sites where people lived temporarily. Isampur Quarry: A recent focus of excavations, yielding over 15,000 Palaeolithic stone tools. Neolithic Age Time Period: 10,000-4,000 years ago Key Changes: Agriculture: Humans began cultivating crops, leading to a shift from hunting-gathering to farming. Domestication: Animals such as sheep and cattle were domesticated for food, labor, and other uses. Settlements: Permanent settlements formed as agriculture allowed for larger, more stable communities. Neolithic Revolution: These changes, known as the Neolithic Revolution, marked a major transition from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural societies, paving the way for the development of civilizations. Discovery of Lucy - a collection of several hundred pieces of fossilized bone comprising 40 percent of the skeleton of a female of the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis: Found in 1974, Ethiopia Named after the song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" Walked erect on two legs Significant for understanding human evolution A video for self study and revision. The Vedic Age Around 1500 BCE, following the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Vedic Age began. Key Features: Composition of the Vedas and epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata). Emergence of a new cultural influence on Indian society. Aryans: Migrated from Central Asia, possibly cattle herders. Settled in the Sapta Sindhu region (present-day Afghanistan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh). Some argue they were descendants of the Harappans. Vedas: Means ‘wisdom’ or ‘knowledge’ in Sanskrit. Four Vedas: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda. Originally oral, later written in Sanskrit. The Vedic Age is divided into two phases: Early Vedic Age (1500 BCE–1000 BCE) Later Vedic Age (1000 BCE–600 BCE) Let’s compare and contrast the significant features of the two phases of the Vedic Age.  Political Life Early Vedic Period: Later Vedic Period: Society was organized into tribes called janas, Society transitioned from tribes to large with the rajan (tribal chief) leading each tribe. kingdoms or janapadas. The position of the rajan was often hereditary, but The role of the king became more hereditary he could also be elected by the samiti (tribal and absolute. His authority increased, and he assembly). became a powerful figure with divine status. The sabha and samiti were key assemblies, and The rajasuya (royal consecration), vajapeya both men and women were allowed to participate. (chariot race) and ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) The administration was simple, with the gramani rituals were performed to legitimize kingship. (village headman) managing village affairs, and The assemblies like the sabha and samiti lost the purohita (priest) and senani (military chief) their importance, becoming more aristocratic. assisting the rajan. Women were excluded from these assemblies. The rajan received voluntary offerings called bali The bureaucracy expanded, and new officials from his subjects. such as tax collectors and treasurers emerged.  Economic Life Early Vedic Period: Later Vedic Period: People were primarily pastoralists, with cattle as Agriculture became the dominant mode of the main form of wealth. Agriculture was subsistence, and plough-based farming practised but not as extensively. intensified. Cows were highly valued and considered the Iron tools (particularly the iron ploughshare) chief measure of wealth. led to the expansion of agriculture, especially Barter was the dominant system of exchange, in the fertile Ganges valley. and there was little evidence of structured trade Trade and commerce grew significantly, with or commerce. coins beginning to be used as a medium of Simple crafts such as weaving, pottery, and exchange. chariot-making were present, but on a smaller New crafts and guilds emerged, and trade scale. networks expanded within and beyond India.  Social Life Early Vedic Period: Later Vedic Period: Society was loosely divided The varna system became more rigid, and social into four varnas (castes) based mobility decreased. The Brahmanas and Kshatriyas on occupation: Brahmanas solidified their positions as the elite classes. (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), The concept of jati (sub-caste) emerged, with Vaishyas (farmers and occupations becoming hereditary. traders), and Shudras The life of an individual was divided into four stages, (servants). However, these or ashramas: Brahmacharya (student life), Grihastha divisions were flexible, and (householder's life), Vanaprastha (hermit's life), and mobility between varnas was Sanyasa (renunciation of worldly life). These stages possible. guided a person through different phases of spiritual and social responsibilities. Women enjoyed a relatively high status. They could Women’s status declined. They lost the right to attend assemblies, choose their husbands, and had participate in assemblies, and child marriage access to education. Widow remarriage was allowed, became more common. Widow remarriage was and child marriage was uncommon. discouraged, and patriarchy became more entrenched.  Religion Early Vedic Period: Later Vedic Period: The Early Vedic religion was centered around Religion became more ritualistic and complex. The nature worship. Deities like Indra (god of thunder), Brahmanas gained significant power as priests, and Agni (god of fire), Surya (sun god), and Varuna large-scale sacrifices like the ashvamedha and (god of water) were prominent. rajasuya were conducted to affirm the king’s divinity. Religious practices involved simple rituals, New gods like Rudra (an early form of Shiva) and offerings, and sacrifices. Hymns from the Rig Veda Vishnu emerged and gained prominence, while older were recited during yagnas (sacrifices), and gods nature deities like Indra declined in importance. were worshipped through prayers, food offerings, The rise of philosophical thinking marked this period, and soma (a sacred drink). with the composition of the Upanishads, which Brahmanas (priests) played a key role in religious emphasized concepts like karma (action) and moksha rituals, but the overall system was less complex. (liberation).  Cultural and Intellectual Life Early Vedic Period: Later Vedic Period: Oral Traditions: The main focus was on Literature and Texts: Information about this period comes oral traditions, with hymns from the Rig primarily from the Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda, Veda passed down orally. which contain prayer songs, hymns for yagnas, and protective Cultural Activities: Music, dance, and spells. A significant shift towards written texts occurred, with games like chariot racing, horse racing, the composition of Samhitas (priestly texts), Brahmanas, and dice were popular. Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Education: Education was informal and Cultural Shifts: The concept of dharma (duty) and ritual largely limited to reciting Vedic hymns. purity became important cultural tenets. Food and Drinks: The diet was simple, Education: More emphasis was placed on formal education, consisting of milk, barley, wheat, meat, with the establishment of gurukuls (residential schools). and soma (a sacred drink). Food and Drinks: Rice became a staple food, and meat Dress and Ornaments: People wore consumption declined. The cow became a sacred animal. simple garments made of cotton or wool Dress and Ornaments: Clothing became more elaborate, and and adorned themselves with basic jewellery became more ornate, often made with gold and ornaments. gems. Inamgaon (Chalcolithic Site) Located near Pune, Maharashtra (1700 BCE–600 BCE). Economy based on farming (rice, wheat, barley) and cattle rearing. Red pottery with black designs, stone and copper tools, and gold ornaments found. Rectangular mud houses; some pit dwellings. Burials included vessels with food and water, indicating beliefs in the afterlife. Megaliths Large stone structures marking burial sites, common in South India. Associated with Iron Age cultures (1000 BCE onwards). Burials often contained grave goods like pottery, tools, and ornaments. Indicate advanced knowledge of construction and belief in life after death.  ur History Revision Up O —Now ped O rap n to e W Ge e’v ogr W ap y! hy Ya ! The Earth in the Solar System  Here is a diagram showing the Our Solar System belongs to the connection among the solar system, Milky Way galaxy. galaxy and universe. It is estimated that there are between 200 billion to 2 trillion galaxies in the observable universe. The Universe and the Big Bang Theory The universe is a boundless expanse where all matter exists. Big Bang Theory: Most accepted theory of the universe's birth. Description: Initially, all matter was contained in a huge burning ball of fire which exploded. Result: Formation of galaxies from the matter thrown out. Here is a detailed video on the origin of the Universe - Big Bang Theory  Stars and Constellations Stars: Heavenly bodies that produce their own light, e.g., the Sun. Examples: Alpha and Proxima Centauri are the nearest stars to our solar system. Constellations: Recognizable patterns of stars in the sky. Examples: Great Bear (Ursa Major), Little Bear (Ursa Minor), Orion the Hunter.  The Solar System Solar System: The sun and the group of heavenly bodies that revolve around it, including the eight planets, their satellites, meteors, comets, and asteroids. Components: Eight planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) Moons, meteors, comets, and asteroids. Sun: The center of the solar system, a huge ball of hot gases.  Planets and Other Celestial Bodies Planets: Rocky Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Gas Giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune Asteroids: Rocky bodies mainly found between Mars and Jupiter. Meteors: Pieces of rocks entering Earth’s atmosphere; meteorites if they reach Earth. Comets: Balls of dust, ice particles, and gases with long tails when near the sun. Here is a detailed video on Solar System  Satellites and the Moon Satellites: Celestial bodies that revolve around planets, reflecting the sun’s light. Moon: Earth’s only natural satellite. Distance: About 384,400 km from Earth. Characteristics: The moon has no atmosphere and water, resulting in the absence of any form of life on it. Its diameter is one-fourth of that of the earth and its gravity is one-sixth of the earth’s. Phases: Takes about 28 days to orbit Earth and rotate on its axis. Phases of the Moon A video for self study and revision.  The Shape of the Earth Spherical Shape: The Earth is spherical, slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. Term: The shape is called a ‘geoid,’ meaning ‘earth-shaped.’  Latitude and Longitude Purpose: To locate positions on Earth accurately. Latitude: Horizontal lines (east-west) called parallels. Longitude: Vertical lines (north-south) called meridians. Grid: Together, these lines form a grid to locate places on maps.  Important Latitudes Equator (0°): Divides the Earth into northern and southern hemispheres. Tropic of Cancer (23½°N): Marks the northern limit of the sun's overhead rays. Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S): Marks the southern limit of the sun's overhead rays. Arctic Circle (66½°N): Marks the northern limit for 24-hour daylight or darkness. Antarctic Circle (66½°S): Marks the southern limit for 24-hour daylight or darkness.  Heat Zones Torrid Zone: Between the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S) - the hottest zone. Temperate Zones: Between the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N) and the Arctic Circle (66½°N), and the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S) and the Antarctic Circle (66½°S) - moderate temperatures. Frigid Zones: Between the Arctic Circle (66½°N) and the North Pole, and the Antarctic Circle (66½°S) and the South Pole - the coldest zones.  Important Longitudes Prime Meridian (0°): Passes through Greenwich, UK; opposite is 180° longitude. International Date Line (IDL): Runs along 180° longitude, where day and date change. The Greenwich meridian is a prime meridian, a geographical reference line that passes through the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in London, England. 180° meridian or International Date Line  Longitude and Time Earth's Rotation: From west to east, affecting local time. Time calculation: Time Zones: Globe divided into 24 time zones; each 15° apart. Indian Standard Time (IST): 82½°E longitude.  Longitude and Time If GMT is 12 PM, then what is the local time in - 1. 15° East and West Longitudes 2. 30° East and West Longitudes 3. 45° East and West Longitudes 4. 60° East and West Longitudes 5. 75° East and West Longitudes 6. 90° East and West Longitudes  International Date Line 180° meridian or International Date Line is not a straight line. It separates two calendar dates. Places situated in the Eastern hemisphere are one day ahead of the places situated in the Western hemisphere.  Great Circles Definition: Each line of longitude and its opposite forms a great circle. Significance: Great circles are the shortest distances between two places on Earth, used for shipping and airline routes. A great circle always divides the Earth in half, thus the Equator is a great circle (but no other latitudes) and all lines of longitude are great circles. Practice identifying coordinates by referring to this world map.  through a Venn Diagram Longitudes Latitudes Meaning: Lines of Meaning: Lines of longitude converging at latitude parallel to the the poles. equator. Determine locations on Orientation: North- Orientation: East-West. Earth South. Distance: Equidistant Imaginary Distance: Meet at the from each other, never lines poles, vary in distance. meet. Measured in Mid-Day: Meridians - Parallels: All lines of degrees meaning mid-day. The latitude are drawn Create a grid midday is half-way point parallel to the equator system of the sun’s journey and are, therefore, also between sunrise and called parallels. sunset. Q. How does the earth rotate? Ans: The earth rotates around its axis. The axis is tilted at an angle of 23½º. It takes 24 hours. The earth rotates from west to east and that is why the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. The circle that separates day and night is called the circle of illumination. As you can see, it doesn’t coincide with the axis. Q. What will happen if the earth stops rotating? Q. Why the earth is tilted? Ans: Long, long ago, when Earth was young, it is thought that something big hit Earth and knocked it off-kilter. So instead of rotating with its axis straight up and down, it leans over a bit. By the way, that big thing that hit Earth is called Theia. Q. Earth is tilted, but we are standing straight on earth. Why is it so? Ans: Gravity always pulls you towards the middle of the object. So for the Earth, which is shaped like a ball, the force of gravity pulls you to the centre from every point on the ground. That's why, no matter where you stand on the Earth, you always feel like the ground is at the bottom and the sky is up. How revolution causes a change in seasons? SOLSTICE & EQUINOX SOLSTICE & EQUINOX  Why does earth need 365 days to complete the revolution? What is length of orbit of earth? One complete revolution takes 365.25 days or one year. The Earth revolves around the Sun because gravity keeps it in a roughly circular orbit around the Sun. In one year, Earth travels 940 million kilometres (584 million miles). The path around which the earth revolves is known as orbit. The orbit is elliptical in shape. The earth takes 365 days, 5 hours, 59 minutes and 16 seconds to complete one revolution. However, we consider one year to have 365 days. The remaining six hours are added and after every four years, an extra day is added to February. The year in which there are 366 days and February has 29 days is known as a leap year.  The Four Domains of the Earth Lithosphere: The solid portion of the earth. Atmosphere: The gaseous layers that surround the earth. Hydrosphere: The water-covered portion of the earth's surface. Biosphere: It is the narrow zone where land, water and air together are found.  Lithosphere The lithosphere is the solid outer layer of the Earth, consisting of rock and soil. It is also referred to as the crust. Crust Layers: Sial: Upper layer of the crust; rich in silicon and aluminium. Sima: Lower layer of the crust; rich in silicon and magnesium. Continents: Composed of both sial and sima. Ocean Floor: Composed only of sima. Landforms: The lithosphere is uneven and features various landforms, including mountains, plains, and plateaus. Landforms are distinguished based on height and geographical features. Importance of Landforms: Support for Life: Different landforms support diverse plants and animals. Human Activities: Agriculture: Plains are more suitable for agriculture compared to mountains. Mountains: High mountains with glaciers are sources of rivers, which are crucial for agriculture and other uses. Continents: The lithosphere includes all seven continents—Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Australia, and Antarctica.  Hydrosphere Comprises all water bodies: oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, ice sheets, underground water, and water vapor in the atmosphere. Water Distribution: 97% of Earth's water is found in oceans and seas. Ocean water is saline and unsuitable for direct human consumption. Water Cycle: Evaporation: Water from oceans heats up and turns into water vapour. Condensation: Water vapour cools in the atmosphere, forming minute droplets. Precipitation: Droplets combine to form clouds and fall as rain, replenishing fresh water supplies. Importance of Oceans: Food: Provides habitat for marine life and seafood for human consumption. Climate: Modulates Earth's climate by regulating temperatures. Minerals: Ocean floors contain mineral resources like oil, manganese, and salt. Transportation: Shipping is a cost-effective method for transporting goods compared to air or other transport forms.  Atmosphere An envelope of air surrounding Earth, held in place by gravity. Extent and Composition: Extends over 1,600 km above Earth's surface. Most gases are concentrated within the lower 32 km. Contains water vapour and dust particles in addition to primary gases. Layers of the Atmosphere: Troposphere: Lowest layer where weather occurs. Stratosphere: Contains the ozone layer. Mesosphere: Meteors burn up in this layer. Thermosphere: Contains the ionosphere. Exosphere: Outermost layer, transitioning into outer space.  Atmosphere Atmospheric Gases: Nitrogen: 78%—supports life and growth. Oxygen: 21%—essential for respiration. Other Gases: Hydrogen, helium, argon, ozone, and carbon dioxide. Carbon Dioxide: 0.03%—important for photosynthesis and temperature regulation. Functions of the Atmosphere: Maintains suitable temperatures on Earth. Protects Earth from meteors through frictional burn-up. The ozone layer shields us from harmful ultraviolet rays.  Biosphere The narrow zone where land, water, and air intersect, supporting all life. Ecosystems: Distinct zones within the biosphere with unique climatic patterns, plant, and animal life. Physical environment (land, water, air) and biological environment (living beings) are interrelated and interdependent. Human Impact: Deforestation: Forests are cleared for human settlements and agriculture. Overfishing: Oceans and seas are excessively fished. Pesticide Use: Increased use of pesticides pollutes land. Extinction: Pollution causes many species of animals and birds to become extinct. Environmental Issues: Global Warming: Caused by loss of forest cover and pollution, leading to higher carbon dioxide levels. Climate Change: Results in rising global temperatures, melting polar ice, and rising sea levels, affecting coastal areas and islands. Immediate action is needed to address these issues and protect the planet.  ur Geography Revis Up O ion— ped N ap ow r On e W ’v to e C ! W ivi ay c s! Y  Our world is interesting because there is variety in our surroundings. This variety is called diversity. Diversity is the state of being varied or different from one another. Examples: Different cultures, languages, religions, traditions, physical characteristics.  Consider the given situations: In a classroom, students may vary in physical traits such as height, hair type (curly, straight), and eye colour (brown, black). For instance, one student may be tall with curly hair and brown eyes, while another may be shorter with straight hair and black eyes. In a community, individuals come from different states within India, each with its own unique cultural practices and languages spoken at home. For example, someone from Kerala may speak Malayalam at home, while another from Punjab may speak Punjabi. During festivals in India, such as Diwali or Eid, people from different religious backgrounds celebrate in distinct ways. Hindus may light lamps and burst fireworks during Diwali, whereas Muslims may offer prayers and share sweets during Eid. In a workplace cafeteria, employees from diverse backgrounds may have varied dietary preferences and habits. Some may prefer vegetarian meals due to religious beliefs, while others may enjoy non-vegetarian dishes or have specific dietary restrictions based on health needs. These are some examples of physical differences  Consider the given situations: Historically, individuals from lower castes were not allowed to draw water from the same wells as upper castes. Though illegal now, remnants of these practices can still be observed in rural areas where social attitudes have not completely changed. A wealthy family may easily afford private healthcare and top-tier education for their children, while a poor family may struggle to access basic medical services and may have to send their children to underfunded public schools. During the COVID-19 pandemic, economically disadvantaged individuals were more likely to lose their jobs and have difficulty accessing remote learning resources for their children, exacerbating the gap between rich and poor. These are some examples of social and economic differences  Cultural Diversity Geographical Diversity Diversity Evolution of Cultural in India: Integration Key Points Foreign Influence Religious Diversity Cultural Diversity: India has a rich variety of cultures, traditions, castes, communities, regions, religions, languages, and festivals. There are 122 spoken languages* and around 1,600 dialects in India. *122 - 2001 census 121 - 2011 census Link for reference Geographical Diversity: India is divided into five main physical regions: Northern Mountains, Northern Plains, Peninsular Plateau, Great Indian Desert, and Coastal Plains and Islands. Varied topography influences climate, diet, dress, customs, and culture. Evolution of Cultural Integration: Historically, limited transport and communication kept communities isolated, leading to unique cultural developments. Improved transportation, wars, and natural disasters led to migration and cultural mixing. Foreign Influence: Foreign travelers and invaders integrated into Indian society, contributing to a cultural synthesis. Religious Diversity: Home to multiple religions: Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, etc. The Indian Constitution declares India a secular nation with equal respect for all religions.  WHAT DOES DIVERSITY ADD TO OUR LIVES? Enrichment: Diversity enhances our lives with varied food, clothes, religions, customs, and traditions. Represents a blend of influences forming our heritage. Learning and Tolerance: Teaches different ways of doing things. Fosters tolerance and respect for different beliefs and customs. Unique Identity: Despite differences, we share a unique identity as Indians. Creates a strong sense of oneness, seen in historical struggles and international events. Unity in Diversity: India's diversity leads to a unique cultural richness and unity. A video for self study and revision.  Consider the given scenario We will not talk to This person is Red is a bad this red in colour so colour. White person. he is a bad is good. person. Consider the given scenario Stereotype: Prejudice: "Girls are "They weak." cannot play basketball." Discrimination: "Girls are End result: consistently Denial of excluded from opportunities joining the to people. basketball team." Discrimination occurs based on religion, race, caste, region, and gender. Let's examine some historical incidents and the individuals who fought against these injustices, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.  Caste Discrimination in India Historical Context: Ancient Indian society was divided into four main castes based on occupation. The first three castes were considered high-born due to their roles. The fourth caste performed menial tasks and served the other castes. Exclusion and Inhuman Treatment: Dalits were assigned menial work and considered Rigid Division: outcastes. Members of a caste could not change their They were denied opportunities in education and occupation. work. Over time, caste divisions became more They could not use public facilities used by upper rigid. castes. Lower castes, called Dalits, were treated as Higher castes did not interact with them, leading untouchables and had to live separately. to inhuman conditions.  Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and the Fight Against Caste Discrimination Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956): Known as Babasaheb, he was a pioneer against caste oppression. Born into a poor low-caste family and treated as an untouchable. Despite attending school, he faced discrimination and exclusion. Activism and Achievements: Fought against prejudices and for the rights of untouchables. Led movements against untouchability. Became Chairman of the Drafting Committee for the Indian Constitution. Constitutional Provisions: The Indian Constitution guarantees equality for all. The Preamble aims for justice, equality, liberty, and fraternity. Fundamental Rights abolish untouchability and forbid discrimination. All people are equal before the law. The Constitution seeks to fulfill the dreams of freedom fighters. Despite progress, discrimination still exists, and it's our duty to embrace diversity. A video for self study and revision.  The Origins of Government: How It Started and Why This System Prevails Early Societies: Hunter-gatherers lived simply. Evolution: As people began farming and forming settlements, life became more complex. Need for Organization: Required leaders to create laws and manage community needs. Historical Context: Ancient leaders were kings; today, governments vary by country. Purpose: Governments provide structure for achieving common goals and managing societal needs.  Provide safety and security to citizens. Provide disaster relief Maintain law and maintain and order. international relations. Make decisions on Functions of the national Develop Government development. infrastructure (roads, schools, hospitals, etc.). Defend against Manage war and enemy resources for attacks. public benefit.  Organs or Branches of the Government Organs of Government Functions - Makes laws to regulate the behavior of people. Legislature - Satisfies the general needs of the people. Executive - Ensures that laws are enforced. - Ensures that the government functions according to the laws. Judiciary - Protects people against unjust rule through the court system. Levels of the Government Types of the Government  Democratic Governments Democracy is a government by the people, for the people, and of the people. Representative Democracy: In democracies like India, people elect representatives to govern on their behalf. Fact: The word "Democracy" is derived from the Greek words 'demos' (people) and 'kratos' (rule).  Universal Adult Franchise in India Voting Rights: Every adult above 18 has the right to vote in India. World’s Largest Democracy: India conducts elections every 5 years. Government Accountability: Democracy ensures that the government is responsible for its actions; citizens can remove it if unsatisfied.  Importance of Democracy People’s Government: Democracy is considered the most suitable form of government as it represents the people's needs and aspirations. Citizen’s Right: Every citizen has the right to have a say in governance and leadership. Freedom Fighters’ Dream: Indian freedom fighters struggled to secure these rights, which we enjoy today. The Suffragette Movement The Anti-Apartheid Struggle Suffrage means the right to vote. Apartheid: A racial segregation Historical Context: Women were system in South Africa where the historically denied voting rights black majority was oppressed. and had to fight for them. Nelson Mandela’s Role: Led the The pioneer of the movement was fight against apartheid, was Emmeline Pankhurst. imprisoned for 27 years, and Key Milestones: Women got voting became South Africa's first black rights in New Zealand (1893), president in 1994. Australia (1902), USA (1920), UK Outcome: Apartheid was abolished, (1918). granting equal rights to all citizens. It is noteworthy to observe that India granted all people, men and women (above the age of 18 years), the right to vote as soon as it became independent in 1947. A video for self study and revision.  ready to rock the a e’re ssess ! W me ay nt! Y