HHG4M0 - Final Exam Review PDF

HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY Review questions have been divided according to the unit of study. Each unit of study is accompanied by enduring understandings. To be well prepared for the final exam, be sure to have a good grasp of these enduring understandings. Unit 1: Growth & Developmen...

HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY Review questions have been divided according to the unit of study. Each unit of study is accompanied by enduring understandings. To be well prepared for the final exam, be sure to have a good grasp of these enduring understandings. Unit 1: Growth & Development - Terms and Theories Enduring Understandings: ★​ What are developmental theories and how do they help us understand growth and development? ★​ How does both nature and nurture influence growth and development over the lifespan? ★​ How does growth and development change throughout the lifespan? 1.​ What is the difference between growth and development? GROWTH = refers to a physical change in size DEVELOPMENT = indicates a change in skill level ​ Development in humans is: –​ Similar throughout the world (i.e. all babies babble before they talk) –​ Sequential and builds on earlier development –​ Individualized (every child proceeds at his or her own rate ) –​ Interrelated (age directly correlates to the a human’s capabilities; i.e. abstract thinking cannot develop until middle-to-late childhood) –​ Continuous throughout life (slows down in adulthood) 2.​ Identify and define the 5 types of development (P.I.P.E.S). Provide an example for each type of development. 1.​ Physical ​ Growth and maturation of senses, muscles and motor skills o​ i.e. Large/gross motor skills—riding a bike, skipping, jumping, running, etc. o​ i.e. Small / fine motor skills—puzzles, writing, doing up zippers/fasteners on clothing, etc. 2.​ Intellectual ​ The maturation of mental processes and how we learn; o​ i.e. learning, imagination, memory, perception ​ Development depends on brain growth and stimulation of the brain and the central nervous system by the 5 senses. o​ i.e. reading, singing, learning the alphabet, numbers, colours, etc. 3.​ Psychological ​ The development of behaviour and the human mind; moral development. ​ This includes the development of a sense of right and wrong, and the development of a conscience that governs thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. 4.​ Emotional ​ The maturation and evolution of emotions, social skills, identity, personality, and morals. ​ It includes the development of positive feelings about self, family, friends and other individuals and the world. ​ As feelings develop they are handled appropriately. ​ People are often sensitive (react intensely), placid (easy going), or aggressive (respond vigorously). 5.​ Social ​ The evolution of knowledge of how people interact, play, share, take turns or talk socially. ​ A self-centred and dependent infant becomes an independent adult. ​ Mature social skills include relationships with friends, intimate relationships, leadership and team member skills. ​ The skills are built on self-confidence, cooperation, and a sense of trust that are developed from a secure and loving relationship with primary caregivers at birth. 3.​ Define nature and nurture. Explain, using information covered in class, how both nature and nurture play a role in human growth and development. NATURE = defined as genetic inheritance or the genetic makeup (the information encoded in your genes) which a person inherits from both parents at the time of conception and carries throughout life. Human traits that are predetermined at the time of birth. These traits will reveal themselves at a predetermined stage in the life cycle. NURTURE = nurture can be defined as the different environmental factors to which a person is subjected from birth to death; our development is shaped by our experiences.  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY How both nature and nurture play a role in human growth and development. Many scientists now believe that 20 percent of a person's outcome in life is the result of innate brain capacity. The other 80 per cent is based on what happens after birth. ​ Nature is the genetic makeup of a human being which is responsible for their sex, skin color, color of their eyes and hair as well as distinguishing features which are inherited. ​ Nature can only assist in the growth of a fetus into a normal well-developed adult who may have inherited some special talents. Thus it can be concluded that nature uses genetic coding to help in physical development and does impart some positive or negative traits to an individual. However, it is nurture which can be utilized to improve positive traits and diminish the effect of negative traits in a child. ​ It is indeed important to recognize that nature in the form of inherited traits does exist but a person’s overall behavior is influenced a great deal by nurture or upbringing and the environmental factors involved in this upbringing. Several recent studies carried out on infant and child behavior have shown that there is significant evidence to support the fact that nurture strongly influences human development especially in the early years. ​ In traditional society, most parents encourage their kids to take part in extracurricular activities like learning music, dance or sports in accordance with the child’s talents and interests. The talents given by nature can only be developed into skills through the hard work of nurture. What this all means, controversially, that nurture is far more important than nature alone, although of course the two work in tandem. Changes to nurturing – particularly parenting and schooling – can affect whether a child becomes a surgeon or a slacker. 4.​ Each of the following concepts below can be linked to a developmental theorist studied in this course. i.​ Identify the theorist the concept matches with. ii.​ Explain what the concept means. UNCONSCIOUS MIND—SIGMUND FREUD ​ The mind is divided into 3 parts: the conscious, pre-conscious, and the unconscious ​ The unconscious mind—the part of the mind that houses irretrievable thoughts and feelings; cannot be controlled. e.g. dreams TRUST VS. MISTRUST—ERIC ERIKSON ​ This is his 1st stage (of 8) of psychosocial development (age: Birth to 1 year) ​ Babies rely on their caregivers for everything ​ They need love and affection, food, and warmth. ​ Children develop trust if this occurs. ​ MALADAPTATION (too much of a good thing)—Too trustful, pushover, vulnerable ​ MALIGNANCY (not enough of a good thing)—Neurotic , afraid INDIVIDUALISM & EXCHANGE—LAWRENCE KOHLBERG ​ 2nd stage of his Theory of Moral Reasoning ​ Morality is judged in terms of consequences; however, we judge it based on what satisfies our own needs (rewards). ​ i.e. the man should steal the drug from the pharmacist b/c then he will have his wife back CARE & RESPONSIBILITY ORIENTATION—CAROL GILLIGAN ​ Her theory on the Ethics of Care is a stage theory of moral development (for women, because all other theories were primarily based on men). ​ There are 3 levels of moral development: ​ The 1st stage = Selfish – Decisions are made by benefiting the self ​ The 2nd stage = Self-Sacrifice – Decisions are made by valuing the interest of others ​ The 3rd stage = Principle of Non-Violence – Decisions are made by valuing the interests of both parties involved in the relationship (Do not hurt others or self). ​ Transitions between the stages are fueled by changes in the sense of self rather than in changes in cognitive capability (as such in other theories). IDENTITY vs. IDENTITY CONFUSION—ERIK ERICKSON  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY ​ The 5th stage of psychosocial development (ages 12-18 years) ​ Teens are figuring who they are in the context of their family, friends, and peers. ​ “Who am I?” ​ Feedback from others helps to inform us of who we are. ​ MALADAPTATION (too much of a good thing)—Self-important, absorbed, extremist ​ MALIGNANCY (not enough of a good thing)—Socially disconnected, indecisive LAW & ORDER—LAWRENCE KOHLBERG ​ Morality is judged in terms of adherence to social rules or norms set by society. ​ i.e. It’s okay to steal the drug because he made a vow to help his wife in sickness and in health and he needs to keep that promise. MESOSYSTEM—URIE BRONFENBRENNER ​ Bronfenbrenner identified four systems, each containing rules, norms, and roles that powerfully shape development. He called these the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. ​ The Mesosystem is composed of connections between the child’s immediate environments (i.e., a child’s home and school). If a child is experiencing difficulties in school, it is likely that the family will be forced to have more interactions with the school’s teachers and administrators, and those family-school interactions should have an effect on the child’s functioning. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT—B.F. SKINNER ​ Operant Conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments for behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour. ​ Positive reinforcement involves the addition of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again in the future. When a favorable outcome, event, or reward occurs after an action, that particular response or behavior will be strengthened. ​ i.e. getting $ for the completion of daily chores….increases the likelihood that the chores will get done. FIXATION—SIGMUND FRUED ​ Believed, we go through five stages of personality development that are focused on the erogenous zones of the body; oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital. ​ The erogenous zones of the body are the different parts of our skin that give us the greatest pleasure. ​ Our success in solving sexual-type conflicts at each stage in life results in what will eventually be our adult personality. ​ Lack of success results in one becoming fixated at that stage—developing an obsession or attachment EGOCENTRISM—Jean Piaget ​ Part of the Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7) ​ Egocentrism—self-centred—Inability to perceive reality from others points of view. ID, EGO, SUPEREGO—SIGMUND FRUED ​ ID: ​ The part of the personality structure that includes a human’s basic needs, instinctual drives, such as sex, hunger, aggressiveness. ​ It is based on the pleasure principle to avoid pain/displeasure and to obtain pleasure. ​ Wants whatever feels good at the time, without consideration for the reality of the situation. ​ Completely unconscious. EGO ​ The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality that attempts to mediate between the id and the superego. ​ It’s the ego’s job to meet the needs of the id, while taking into consideration the reality of the situation. ​ Represents the balance between the ID and the Superego; partly unconscious, mostly conscious. SUPEREGO:  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY ​ The superego is the moral part of the personality that includes the values, social rules and morals of society taught to us by parents and others. ​ The superego’s function is to control the id’s impulses. ​ Partly unconscious and partly conscious. 5.​ Differentiate between Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and Gilligan’s theory of moral development. ​ Kohlberg theorized three distinct stages of moral development, each increasing in sophistication of reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. His theory focused on the male view of right vs. wrong based on individual rights, rules, and justice. ​ Gilligan believed that women are socialized to be more empathetic and caring. Her theory focused on the female view of care based on the consideration and concern for others in human relationships. 6.​ Jean Piaget was one theorist we studied in depth that looked at intellectual development. Briefly identify the stages of his theory and explain how an individual progresses through the stages in an effort to learn and develop intellectually. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (0-2 years) ​ Begin to understand cause-and-effect. (i.e. Actions have consequences.) ​ By 9 months, object permanence appears. (i.e. Realization that objects not in view may still exist) ​ Learn by doing and imitating: looking, touching, and sucking. (i.e. playing catch) PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7 years) ​ Learn by using language and symbols to communicate. (symbolic meaning). (i.e. Say ‘tree’ while pointing to a tree.) ​ Egocentrism also becomes evident. (i.e. Inability to perceive reality from others points of view.) CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11 years) ​ Mature understanding of cause-and-effect. ​ Begin to understand conservation, patterning, and reversibility. (i.e. Patterning/mathematics; Understand that changing the form of a substance or arrangement of objects does not change the amount.) ​ Thinking is still concrete. FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11+ years) ​ Children demonstrate abstract thinking, including logic, deductive reasoning, comparison, and classification. (i.e. Being able to think outside the box, and to think in terms of sequence, patterns, and categorizing when deducing.) How did Piaget’s theory differ from that of Montessori’s? ​ S = Both proposed that children developed in sequence. However, they differed on the timing of this development. ​ D = Piaget believed that children had specific periods of “cognitive” or intellectual development, with children not reaching their “concrete operational” stage until 7. ​ D = Montessori believed, however, that while children had specific “sensitive periods” for development, they should be encouraged to develop their senses from a very early age and that self-learning would be based on the way the senses developed. Unit 2: Brain Development in the Early Years  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY Enduring Understandings: ★​ How has neuroscience and theories of brain development during critical periods in early childhood helped us to understand growth and development? ★​ What are the consequences of environmental deprivation on growth and development? ★​ How do attachment and bonding, play, and exposure to language influence brain development in early childhood? 1.​ Each of the following terms below is related to brain development. Explain each term’s function or role in brain development. BRAIN STEM ▪​ Controls many of the vital basic survival functions, including regulation of heart rate, breathing, sleeping patterns, digestion/eating, body temperature, and elimination of wastes. PREFRONTAL CORTEX ▪​ The brains C.E.O. ▪​ Problem solving, decision making, planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, and moderating social behaviour. CEREBELLUM ▪​ Controls posture, balance, and muscle coordination CORPUS CALLOSUM ▪​ Bundle of nerve fibres that connect the left and right hemispheres; ▪​ Carries the messages that coordinate and integrate left and right brain functions NEURAL PATHWAYS ▪​ A neural pathway connects one part of the nervous system with another via a bundle of axons, the long fibres of neurons. PRUNING ▪​ Is what happens when neural connections in the brain that are not reinforced become weakened and die off. (Use it or lose it—if they are not used then they become weak and will die off). SYNAPSES ▪​ The small gap between neurons; the ends of the axon release a chemical neurotransmitter to carry the message to the dendrites of the next neuron. Allow electrical currents to flow – this flow makes the brain work and signals the behaviours and reactions to stimuli. DENDRITES ▪​ Arms of a neuron; receive messages from other neurons and pass to the cell body for processing. Stimulation increases the number of dendrites and “wires the brain”. NEUROTRANSMITTER ▪​ A chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fibre by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction ▪​ Causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fibre, a muscle fibre, or some other structure. AMYGDALA ▪​ Emotional centre of the brain; crucial for detecting and responding to emotional stimuli ▪​ Controls pleasure & reward ▪​ Works with the prefrontal cortex ▪​ It plays a role in the formation and storage of memories associated with emotional events. This is why you might vividly remember a frightening or joyous experience. LIMBIC SYSTEM ▪​ Limbic System (contains basal ganglia, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus structures) ​ Basal Ganglia ​ “Secretary” to the prefrontal cortex ​ Helps prioritize the cortex’s tasks ​ Works with the corpus callosum to ensure that all things get done. ​ Amygdala ​ Emotional centre of the brain ​ Controls pleasure & reward ​ Works with the prefrontal cortex ​ Processes emotions ​ Hippocampus ​ Plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory and spatial navigation. 2.​ Define attachment.  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY ATTACHMENT ​ Is the continuing and lasting relationship that young children form with one or more adults. ​ It involves the child’s sense of security and safety while in the company of that adult. How does attachment help promote growth and development? Attachment security makes a difference in young children’s immediate and long-term behavior. When infants and toddlers continually feel secure or insecure in their relationships, there are lasting effects, which can even impact how they will parent when they are older. Children learn important lessons about how to interact with other adults and peers in relationships. They learn how to communicate effectively, how to negotiate and cooperate with others, and how others will treat them. Secure children play more harmoniously with their peers as they develop, and they score higher than insecure children on language and cognitive measures. Secure attachments also help children who have more fearful, inhibited temperaments become less fearful. Attachment influences how the brain is structured and how many stress hormones young children experience. Infants and toddlers who consistently do not feel safe may begin to perceive adults and peers as threats and the world as a dangerous place. They may expect others to hurt them, so they react defensively. Children who are securely attached to their teachers exhibit decreased levels of the stress hormone cortisol, while children who are insecurely attached, especially those who have a more fearful temperament, exhibit increased levels of cortisol throughout the day. 3.​ For each term below, identify whether it is most related to Harlow, Bowlby, or Ainsworth. Briefly explain the significance of the term in understanding attachment. MONKEY—Harry Harlow—1st to study attachment ​ Put infant monkeys in a cage with two surrogate mothers: a wire doll holding a bottle of milk, the other a soft cloth doll ​ Infant monkeys developed attachment to the soft doll more than the wire doll ​ When afraid of a strange object, the infant monkeys retreated to the soft doll for comfort, then began to explore. ​ Studies with infant monkeys suggest that the need for comfort and warmth are more important than food. SECURE BASE—Mary Ainsworth—Studied mother-infant attachment. ​ Focused on the effects of separation from caregivers on the infant’s behaviour, via the Strange Situation. ​ Caregivers need to act as a secure base for their infants to explore, especially once they are mobile. ​ Used separation anxiety - the distress shown by infants when their usual caregiver departs - as a way to measure attachment levels. ​ This determined whether they developed secure or insecure attachments to others, which would affect them throughout their lifespan. EXPLORATION—Mary Ainsworth ​ Caregivers acting as a secure base for their infants make them more open to exploring the world around them. ATTACHMENT THEORY—John Bowlby—Created an “attachment theory” ​ Infants cause responses from caregivers, which in turn encourage behaviours in the infant ​ For example, an infant seeks, smiles and clings to parent and the parent responds by touching, holding, or soothing ​ The interaction between baby and parent (i.e. smiles/cries and soothing) provides the security needed for normative positive development ​ The security (or lack thereof) felt by the infant would be internalized, becoming a part of their internal working model 4.​ What is the critical age hypothesis?  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY ​ That the 1st years of life are critical b/c it is the time when experience is perhaps the most influential. ​ In the brain, strengthening and pruning of neural connections is occurring during this time which sets the foundation for the “brain's wiring.” ​ There is a range of time, WOO—Windows of Opportunities—proposed by psychologists, where it is believed that stimulation is essential in order to fully develop certain skills or abilities. o​ For example, there is an ideal time window to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful. o​ If the WOO is missed then optimal growth and development for the child may be missed which could lead to deficits in skill or ability that can range from minor to severe. 5.​ Define the following types of play. Which age group(s) is most likely to engage in this type of play? SOLITARY PLAY—Infants and very young children ​ Children play by themselves ​ i.e. baby playing with its feet; toddler in their crib with an activity centre PARALLEL PLAY—18 months to 3 years ​ Children play side by side with different toys or activities; sharing is very difficult at this age. ​ i.e. Playing side by side in the sand box SYMBOLIC PLAY—Toddlers & up ​ use toys or objects to represent something very different ​ (can be any of the types of play—solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, cooperative) ​ i.e. Hairbrush = microphone, Sticks = swords, Blanket = cape COOPERATIVE PLAY—6-7 years can start to initiate games on their own ​ Children play together in structured games with rules ​ i.e. Hide-and-seek, freeze tag, board games, when older, sports IMAGINATIVE PLAY—4+ years ​ dramatic play; taking on adult roles; can bring together several other kinds of play (symbolic & cooperative) ​ i.e. Playing house; make believe tea party; doctor, etc 6.​ Play throughout the lifespan helps to promote growth and development in different ways. Identify two examples (from any type of development) of how play helps development in each stage in the life cycle. INFANCY Physical ​ Responds to sound and touch ​ Follows moving object with eyes by 3 months ​ Sucks and grasps objects ​ Moves first by rocking, twisting, pivoting, then crawls, scoots, and/or walks ​ Can hold and bang objects as pincer (thumb and forefinger) grasp develops ​ Puts everything in mouth ​ Learns to transfer things from one hand to the other hand ​ Develop awareness of own body ​ Develop small and large motor skills by learning to control body muscles and learning to pick up things and hold them ​ Develop awareness of own environment Intellectual ​ Learns through five senses and through reflexes ​ Develops object permanence (knows objects exist out of sight and searches for them) ​ Begins to be aware that certain behaviors bring same responses (cause and effect) ​ Actively uses hands to explore environment ​ Language begins with cooing and vowel sounds ​ Will imitate the sounds of others ​ Older infant distinguished sounds as words and makes consonant sounds ​ Learn that certain behaviors bring same responses (cause and effect) ​ Realize that objects not seen still exist (the beginning of reason) ​ Use of positive responses by adults when a new skill is performed helps baby gain confidence in ability to learn  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY ​ Learn by interactions with caregiver and through activities going on nearby ​ Two-way communication teaches that words have meaning and that people will respond to baby's sounds (baby-talk) Psychological ​ Develop trust and security if needs are met consistently ​ Older baby begins to develop self-esteem and independence Social/Emotional ​ Develops sense of trust and attachment ​ Recognizes familiar objects and people ​ Expresses affection for others ​ Explores environment in presence of caregiver ​ Copies simple motions, like clapping ​ Become socially interactive and competent ​ Develop trust, love and security ​ Develop and maintain trusting relationship with primary caregiver CHILDHOOD Physical ​ Activities such as running, climbing, jumping rope and riding a bicycle help the large muscles of the back, arms and legs develop. ​ Making jigsaw puzzles, finger painting and stringing beads all help a child learn to control the small muscles of the hands. ​ Keeps them active. Intellectual ​ A toy or game doesn’t have to be “educational” to promote mental development. ​ Simple activities such as singing nursery rhymes, stacking blocks and sorting through a box of buttons help a child learn language, balance and how to organize objects. Psychological ​ Play teaches valuable lessons about right and wrong. ​ Through play children learn to follow rules and act fairly towards others. ​ They learn to share and to encourage the efforts of others. Emotional ​ Play can help children work through life’s challenges and problems. ​ For example, acting out the role of a parent, firefighter, or jungle explorer can lessen the frustrations of being a small person in a big world. Social ​ At first children play alone and gradually they learn to play together. ​ From this play, they learn how to take turns, work together towards a common goal, lead and follow. ​ They further develop their communication skills. ADOLESCENCE Physical ​ Participating in sports—will be more likely to be active throughout the rest of adulthood ​ Intellectual ​ Still learning and perceiving the things in the world around them ​ Psychological ​ Spending time socializing increases confidence, especially as by now most will know their own interests, likes and dislikes. ​ Various tasks can help them assert their independence ​ Strong, happy, healthy families provide a sense of safety and security, a strong based, from which to branch out and explore the world around them Emotional ​ Choice in friends, self-built relationships, can actually help them develop skills such as empathy, sharing and leadership, as well as having a positive impact on them in terms of academic motivation and aspirations. Social ​ Hanging out with friends—more time spent with friends ​ Need to continue to spend a bit of time playing as a family, making time to have fun together will help keep the family bonded and working in a happy and healthy way ADULTHOOD  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY Physical ​ Participating in sports—will be more likely to be active throughout the rest of adulthood ​ Exercising—stay in shape, healthy, active—distress and have more energy for other things; feel good Intellectual ​ Reading, boards games, etc…stimulate and challenge the mind, encourage creativity, etc. ​ Keeps the mind sharp Psychological ​ Keeps the “youthful fire burning”—contributes to feelings confidence, positive self-esteem, etc. ​ May lighten up the mood (from the daily grind of life) to laugh and have fun Emotional ​ Feel good—happy, excited, etc. ​ Further develop skills such as empathy, sharing and leadership, as well as having a positive impact on them in terms of productivity. Social ​ Spending quality time with friends and family, doing fun activities together ​ Meeting new people, forming connections, forming relationship with life partner, etc. OLD-AGE Physical ​ Encourage physical activity—keep the body active and healthier Intellectual ​ Reading, boards games, etc…stimulate and challenge the mind, encourage creativity, etc. ​ Keeps the mind sharp (i.e. Luminosity Games) Psychological ​ Keeps you feeling like a valuable contributing member of society Emotional ​ Keep you feeling joy, happiness, love, etc ​ May help you cope with feeling of sadness, grief, loss—May be dealing with the loss of loved ones (spouse, friends, family members) Social ​ Help with the maintenance of a social network, especially when the social network may be getting smaller with people passing on. 7.​ Environmental deprivation has drastic negative consequences on ‘normal’ development. In the case of ‘Genie’, she was deprived of attachment and bonding, social interaction and play, exercise, proper healthy nutrition, and regular exposure to language and verbal communication. For each type of deprivation mentioned, identify a minimum of two potential negative consequences on any area of growth and development (P.I.P.E.S). Environmental Type(s) of Growth & Development Deprivation Development Consequences affected Lack of attachment & ​ Behaves withdrawn and/or aggressive under stress bonding ​ Psychological ​ Unable to establish normal attachments to others (w/ at least one ​ Social ​ Has a sense of mistrust in others (re: Erikson) trusted caregiver) ​ Emotional ​ Depression rates are higher ​ Intelligence and academic performance are stifled Lack of social ​ Psychological ​ May develop a learning disability linked to poor synapse interaction ​ Emotional connections and stimulation ​ Intellectual ​ Lacks emotional stability (including play) ​ Social ​ Demonstrates bizarre social behaviour ​ Extremely weak gross motor skills ​ Could neither stand up straight nor fully straighten any of her Lack of exercise ​ Physical limbs, had very little endurance ​ Movements were very hesitant and unsteady ​ Extreme difficulty with sensory processing and an inability to integrate visual and tactile information. ​ Fine motor skills were better, determining they were at approximately the level of a two-year-old. ​ Stunted growth Lack of healthy and ​ Physical ​ Lifelong poor eating habits leading to NRDs varied nutrition ​ Intellectual ​ Poor physical and mental health ​ Psychological ​ Poor focus and low intelligence ​ She never ate regular food as a child—difficulties with chewing  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY ​ Poor reading, writing, and speaking fluency Lack of exposure to ​ Intellectual ​ Inability to maintain an acceptable level of fluency to sustain language and verbal ​ Social conversations communication ​ Inability to perform higher order brain functions including sentence structure, problem solving, and abstract thinking 8.​ Although nurture plays a prominent role in optimal development for most individuals, nature has a profound effect on the developmental trajectory in children with exceptionalities. i.​ What must children need in order to be considered as having a learning exceptionality? ​ Significant deficits in memory, metacognition, and social skills. Academic struggles in common reading, language, and math despite the fact of average or above average intelligence. ii.​ What is the difference b/w a learning and developmental exceptionality? Learning exceptionality ​ Significant deficits in memory, metacognition, and social skills. ​ Academic struggles common in reading, written language, and math. ​ This is despite that fact they have average or above average intelligence. Developmental exceptionality ​ Cognitive disabilities that develop at a much slower rate than do their peers, resulting in significant limitations in development. They can be mild or severe. ​ Despite these limitations, they are often successful in community and school programs and can lead productive adult lives. iii.​ What characterizes a behavioural/emotional exceptionality? ​ Dysfunctional interactions with the environment, including classroom, home, and community. o​ Conduct: aggression, disobedience o​ Personality: withdrawal, anxiety o​ Immaturity: passivity o​ Delinquency: involvement in gang cultures Unit 3: Brain Development in Adolescence & Beyond Enduring Understandings: ★​ How does brain development in adolescence and adulthood differ than in infancy and childhood? ★​ How does brain research help to explain behaviour unique to adolescence and adulthood? ★​ How can disorders of the brain affect growth and development? 1.​ Explain the role of the brain in the development of schizophrenia. Be sure to include mention of key structures involved in the development of schizophrenia. ​ The brain is a work in progress and adolescence is the last great time of enormous brain change and development, especially the prefrontal cortex (part of the brain that is involved in highly abstract areas such as decision-making, self-control, personal responsibility and morality). ​ The developing teenage brain is in flux, shaping personality, behaviour, and identity. ​ As the brain matures, the teen faces special risks from addiction, which can hijack the brain, to the chaos of schizophrenia, which strikes most often during adolescence. ​ In schizophrenia, several different regions of the brain underperform: regions responsible for thinking & reasoning, memory, and emotion. However, scientists focus their attention on the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that coordinates the many abilities of the brain. ​ Schizophrenia is a disease that affects the highest of human functions; for example, the ability to think at high conceptual levels. 2.​ Two friends have grown up together since kindergarten. They are both female, the same age, have university degrees, and have the same circle of friends. However, one is an alcoholic and drug abuser and the other is not. Identify all the possible reasons why only one became addicted to drugs and alcohol even though they have markedly similar life experiences and characteristics. BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT are key factors in the question of who becomes addicted to drugs.  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY BIOLOGY: The genes that someone is born with (in combination with environmental factors) account for about half of a person’s risk for drug addiction. Other biological factors include: a person’s gender (in this case, both are female), ethnic background (in this case, both have markedly similar characteristics), whether there are mental disorders present (in this case, the one with the addiction may potentially have a mental disorder putting her at higher risk for addiction), and how each drug affects each person’s unique biology (in this case, the one with the addiction may have biological factors making it more likely to develop an addiction). Developmental stages also affect one’s addiction vulnerability. Here, adolescents face a double challenge: One part is that the earlier that drug use begins, the more likely it is to progress to more serious abuse. The other part is that adolescents’ brains are still developing in the areas that govern decision making, judgment, and self-control. Because of this, teens are especially prone to risk taking behaviors, including trying drugs. (In this case, if the addict experimented with drugs and alcohol as an adolescent, her stage of development may have increased her risk for addiction). ENVIRONMENT: Environmental factors can be broken down into two categories: “Risk factors” include those that make drug use more likely. Examples include lack of parental supervision or chaotic home environments; substance abuse at home; associating with peers who use drugs; and even the availability and cost of drugs. “Protective factors” reduce the potential for drug use. Examples include parental monitoring and involvement; strong neighborhood, community, or school attachments; or strong family connections. Assessing personal risk is a complex issue—and risk factors for one person may be quite different from those for another. However, eliminating risk factors, or increasing protective factors, are actions that can help keep you safe from drug abuse. **With the two women in this case having similar life experiences and characteristics and the same circle of friends—environmental factors may not play much of a role in the development of one's addiction. Therefore, biological factors have played a bigger influence in this case. 3.​ Using your understanding of the brain and how it works, explain why disorders such as phobias/PTSD/anxiety etc., emerge among individuals. "Several parts of the brain are key actors in the production of fear and anxiety… Scientists have discovered that the amygdala and the hippocampus play significant roles in most anxiety disorders.” The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure deep in the brain that is believed to be a communications hub between the parts of the brain that process incoming sensory signals and the parts that interpret these signals. It can alert the rest of the brain that a threat is present and trigger a fear or anxiety response. The emotional memories stored in the central part of the amygdala may play a role in anxiety disorders involving very distinct fears, such as fears of dogs, spiders, or flying. The hippocampus is the part of the brain that encodes threatening events into memories." ii) Differentiate between social phobia and specific phobia. Social phobia= ​ Fear of being watched/judged ​ Excessively self-conscious ​ Extreme sweating, nausea, trembling, difficulty talking ​ Fear is unreasonable and difficult to overcome Specific phobia= ​ Fear of a specific item/situation ​ i.e. fear of heights, spiders, water, planes, claustrophobia, needles, etc. 4.​ Sociopathy is a unique disorder in that there are consistent patterns of behaviour from an early age. Imagine you were a teacher. What types of behaviours/signs would you look for in order to determine whether your student was a sociopath or not.  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY ​ tend to be nervous & easily agitated ​ volatile & prone to emotional outbursts (fits of rage) ​ likely to be uneducated ​ difficult—but not impossible to form attachments with others ​ disregard for laws & social mores ​ disregard for rights of others ​ failure to feel remorse or guilt ​ a tendency to display violent behavior ​ history of criminality 5.​ In utero, the developing brain is extremely susceptible to harm from chemicals, bacteria, and the like. By circling yes or no, identify which of the following developmental consequences is possible if a fetus is exposed to these types of harmful factors. YES​ NO​ schizophrenia YES​ NO​ learning disabilities/exceptionalities YES​ NO​ behavioural/emotional problems (i.e. smoking during pregnancy—can contribute to social/emotional developmental issues) YES​ NO​ anxiety disorders (in utero disturbances during fetal development— may increase the likelihood of development in later life) YES​ NO​ increased risk of addiction to alcohol and drugs YES​ NO​ Psychopathy 6.​ Cortisol and dopamine are two types of chemicals in the brain. Differentiate between the two chemicals. CORTISOL ​ Stress hormone released by the adrenal glands ▪​ Cortisol increases blood sugar and blood pressure. Long-term stress (also known as chronic stress) and increased supply of cortisol in the blood can lead to many negative symptoms…long-term Cortisol secretion: i)​ turns stored carbohydrates into sugar and makes you “wound up”. ii)​ makes your bones weaker iii)​changes your immune system and makes you more likely to get ill. iv)​ causes neurons in the brain to be damaged. v)​ puts more lipids (fats) in the blood that can cause heart disease and strokes. DOPAMINE ​ Dopamine is a neurotransmitter present in regions of the brain that regulate movement, emotion, cognition, motivation, and feelings of pleasure. ​ It is part of the brain’s rewards system. ​ The overstimulation of this system, which rewards our natural behaviours, produces the euphoric effects sought by people who abuse drugs and teaches them to repeat the behaviour. ​ Drugs, like cocaine, cause the nerve cells to release abnormally large amounts of dopamine neurotransmitters. This overabundance produces a greatly amplified message, causing disruption in the communication between neurons. 7.​ For each type of development (P.I.P.E.S), identify two examples of how a person suffering from gender identity disorder may develop negatively. PHYSICAL ​ Changes in voice ​ Sex change ​ Self-harm, esp. in genital area ​ Self-harm ​ Infertility due to sex change ​ Changes in appearance to match other sex ​ Changes in mannerisms ​ Eating disorders ​ Substance abuse INTELLECTUAL ​ Lack of focus in school PSYCHOLOGICAL ​ Identifying with the other gender  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY ​ Depression ​ Confusion with self-identity ​ Anxiety disorders EMOTIONAL ​ Mood swings ​ Desire for a sex change SOCIAL ​ Not conforming to societal expectations of gender roles ​ Being isolated from others ​ Trouble forming relationships, both peer and intimate ​ Socializing with the gender they want to be Unit 4: Agents of Socialization Enduring Understandings: ★​ How do social institutions like family, school, and media influence and shape growth and development? ★​ As a parent/educator, what can we do as responsible adults to help children develop positively in school and in response to negative media exposure? ★​ How has the work of George Gerbner helped us to understand the effects of television viewing on children? 1.​ Define socialization. ​ Socialization is the process by which people learn to adopt the norms, values, attitudes, and behaviours accepted and practiced by the ongoing system around them. 2.​ Be familiar with the different parenting styles (refer to the chart covered in class). Authoritarian Authoritative Permissive / Uninvolved / Indulgent Neglectful How do parents * total cooperation * high responsiveness * acts as child’s friend * no communication approach and demandingness teaching their * expects high * lots of * no encouragement child the skills maturity = being present and communication, but necessary for supportive; fostering low maturity optimal * low communication self-control and development? self-assertion and learning through discipline, supervision, willingness to confront the child if they disobey What are the * no tolerance for * taught to follow rules, * low demands * no demands or rules parent’s breaking rules or ask questions followed expectations questions when it comes to following rules? What are the * not encouraged to * encouraged to have * high self-esteem * never taught how to social have opinions opinions act around people development * good social skills outcomes with * shy * more comfortable this style of with peers * decreased parenting? independence & maturity What are the * constant worry about * stable emotions * low levels of * low self-esteem/ emotional disappointing parents depression confidence development * self-confidence outcomes with (emotional maturity) * depression this style of parenting? 3.​ Which parenting style has the most overall negative outcomes? UNINVOLVED/NEGLECTFUL PARENTING STYLE Identify one negative outcome for each type of development (P.I.P.E.S). (-ve) PHYSICAL ​ Malnourished ​ Unkempt  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY ​ May have injuries/illnesses for which medical attention is not received (-ve) INTELLECTUAL ​ Tend to do poorly in school; poor attendance and fail to complete assignments on time ​ May be unmotivated/too unfocused to learn (-ve) PSYCHOLOGICAL ​ Feel unloved/unimportant ​ Over inflated sense of responsibility because they feel the need to take on all aspects of caring for themselves and possibly others in the family ​ Anxiety ​ Increased risk of substance abuse (-ve) EMOTIONAL ​ Usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful and anxious (-ve) SOCIAL ​ Less socially competent because they are never taught how to be around other people, therefore, feel awkward in social situations ​ Outcasted-if they have an unkempt appearance 4.​ Which parenting style has the most overall positive outcomes? AUTHORITATIVE (DEMOCRATIC) PARENTING STYLE Identify one positive outcome for each type of development (P.I.P.E.S). (+ve) PHYSICAL ​ Physical health is promoted (+ve) INTELLECTUAL ​ ​ High test scores/academic achievement ​ Good critical thinking skills ​ Self-regulation ​ Independence (+ve) PSYCHOLOGICAL ​ High self-esteem ​ Self-reliant ​ Not likely to be disruptive ​ Sense of comfort and independence ​ Individuality (+ve) EMOTIONAL ​ Happy ​ Stable emotions ​ Self-regulation ​ Appropriate assertiveness (+ve) SOCIAL ​ good social skills ​ cooperative with others ​ social responsibility 5.​ What is negative socialization? ​ Unacceptable or unethical behaviour that is modeled and/or expected by a family member. ​ Unacceptable or unethical behaviour can include: o​ Divorce, substance abuse, mental illness, addiction, unemployment, poverty, poor coping skills, helicopter parenting, etc. Identify three different examples of negative socialization. ​ Child abuse, neglect, or family violence; all of which have an extremely negative impact on growth, development, and socialization of children. 6.​ Identify three suggestions by the American Academy of Pediatrics with regards to children and television viewing. Recommendations: ​ Children under 2 years of age, TV viewing is discouraged ​ Limit total media time to max 2 hrs/day ​ Remove TV from children’s bedrooms ​ Monitor the shows children watch and discuss any disturbing/inappropriate content 7.​ Define ‘Mean World Syndrome’.  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY MEAN WORLD SYNDROME = (George Gerber) ​ Children develop MWS when they come to believe the world to be more dangerous and mean than it actually is, creating a sense of anxiety, fear, and anger that is out of proportion with reality. ​ This insecurity often leads to a greater desire for protection from the perceived dangers of the world. o​ This may occur when children watch a lot of violent media What are four potential negative outcomes on development (from any area of P.I.P.E.S) for children who suffer from MWS? (-ve) PHYSICAL ​ Develop unhealthy eating habits ​ Less physically active (indoors more watching a lot of TV) ​ Poorer quality of health (from pessimism, anxiety, etc taking their toll) ​ Introduction of alcohol/drugs (method of escape) ​ Poor hygiene (-ve) INTELLECTUAL ​ Inability to focus (paranoia) ​ (-ve) PSYCHOLOGICAL ​ Insecurity; low self-esteem ​ Anxiety ​ Pessimism / Cynicism ​ Paranoia ​ Helplessness ​ Dependent, easily manipulated and controlled (-ve) EMOTIONAL ​ Fearful ​ Anxious ​ Sad ​ Depression (-ve) SOCIAL ​ Less socially competent—modeling of poor interactions in social relationships ​ Isolation from spending a lot of time indoors ​ Little face-to-face communication ​ Violent/aggressive ​ Break rules ​ Become bullies/are bullied 8.​ Research argues that prolonged exposure to media is detrimental to the brain; however, new emerging research argues otherwise. In fact, there are many benefits to media exposure often ignored by these researchers. Pick the side you most agree with and provide four specific examples of evidence (for any type of media) to support your decision. **Answers may vary TYPE OF Positive Negative MEDIA + Stimulates creativity; promotes physical - Lyrics about sex, drugs, violence; activity (dancing); creative offensive language; can be offensive to Music storytelling/poetry; can be women inspirational/educational; brings cultures together; brings social interaction + Can be educational (e.g. health-related - Subliminal messaging; reinforces Advertisements products); promotes healthy living (e.g. importance of looking glamorous to feel smoking= cancer); good; promotes consumerism; uses sex to sell products + Communication around the world; maintain - Exposure to pornography; lack of long-distance relationships; online games restriction/ censorship; affects critical Internet help promote critical thinking; vast library of thinking skills (info is obtained easily); information that is easily accessible copyright infringement; affects face-to-face communication  HHG4M0 – Final Exam Review – ANSWER KEY + Books as storytelling, promote reading, - Celebrity magazines show its okay to Print media creativity and learning; newspapers and infringe on people’s lives; photo-shopped magazines educate about the world images have a profound effect on body image; much of print media is biased; messages of how to ‘improve’ yourself promotes self-consciousness + Stimulates critical thinking; quick - Exposure to extreme violence; affects Video games decision-making; fine motor skill face-to-face communication; addiction; development; games for the elderly laziness/obesity; blurs the line between real and make believe; increased ADHD + Documentaries teach about the world - Exposure to extreme and uncensored Film around us; great entertainment for a short violence, sex, and offensive language amount of time + Can promote learning (e.g. educational - Exposure to violence and sex; reality TV TV shows); can model how to successfully deal shows mediocrity is acceptable; too much with relationships; News programs educate decreases physical activity; affects about the world; can teach language face-to-face communication; ‘Mean World development Syndrome’; models poor interactions in social relationships