Psychology Key Terms PDF

Psychology Key Terms Research methods Glossary: Aim: a general statement that describes the Extraneous Variables: any variable which might purpose of an investigation -> based on theories interfere with the DV but is identified and removed and prior research...

Psychology Key Terms Research methods Glossary: Aim: a general statement that describes the Extraneous Variables: any variable which might purpose of an investigation -> based on theories interfere with the DV but is identified and removed and prior research at the start of the experiment. Hypothesis: a clear and precise statement which Confounding Variables: an unintentional variable predicts the relationship between the variables which may affect the results, which has not been about to be investigated -> a testable statement. controlled. Directional Hypothesis: statement is clear in Situational variables: when the environment can stating the direction of the difference. affect the results because it changes during the Non-directional: statement just states there is a research -> may affect the DV. difference but doesn’t state the direction. Participant variables: when there are differences Variables: ‘things’ which can change during an between the participants in the different groups -> experiment. may affect the DV. The Independent Variable: the variable the Investigator effects: occur when a researcher researcher manipulates or changes. unintentionally or unconsciously influences the The Dependent Variable: the variable that the outcome of their research. researcher measures. Demand characteristics: cues that might indicate Null Hypothesis: the hypothesis of no difference - the study aims to participants. > predicts that the IV will not affect the DV -> Randomisation: a statistical process that randomly predicts that results will simply be due to chance. assigns participants to different groups without Alternative Hypothesis: predicts significant considering any differences or similarities between differences in the DV as a result of the manipulation them. of the IV. Standardisation: the process of making a test or Operationalising Variables: the process of research procedure uniform and consistent. Research methods Glossary: Independent groups design: In each condition, Field experiments: a research method where the you use a different set of participants -> each group independent variable is manipulated, and the of participants only experience 1 condition. dependent variable is measured in a real-world Repeated measures design: In each condition setting. you use the same participants -> all participants Natural experiments: studies where the experience all conditions. investigator cannot manipulate the IV, so the DV is Matched pairs design: Participants are matched simply measured and judged as the effect of an IV - > participants cannot be randomly allocated to based on a particular characteristic that they likely experimental groups as they are already pre-set -> share -> they lace on of them in the 1st condi and essentially investigating naturally occurring the other in the second condition. phenomena. Order effects: occur in repeated groups design, Quasi-experiments: contain a naturally occurring when all participants take place in all the IV -> in a quasi-experiment the naturally occurring experimental conditions. -> Practice effects might IV is a difference between people that already exists occur -> They also may become tired after the first -> The researcher examines the effect of this condition and that may affect their performance on variable on the DV. the second condition. Pilot study: small scale ‘trial run’ of the Counterbalancing: The first and second condition investigation which takes place before the real one is is not the same for every participant. conducted. -> important because they help identify Random allocation: Participants are randomly issues and modify the investigation which will save assigned to either condition A or B. any time and money. Lab experiments: an experiment that uses a Single-Blind Procedure: a clinical trial where the carefully controlled setting and standardised participants don't know which treatment or procedure to establish how changes in the IV affects intervention they're receiving, but the researcher Research methods Glossary: Control Groups: a group in the experiment which a Informed Consent: Telling the participants what is variable is not being tested. going to happen in a study so they can decide if they Sampling: selecting participants for research wish to take part. Target Population: the whole group you are Deception: Deliberately misleading or withholding studying. information from participants at any stage of the Sampling Frame: A list of names from the experiment. population. Protection from harm: Participants should not be Sample: those taking part in the research -> usually placed at any more risk (physically and mentally) drawn from the sampling frame. than they would in everyday life. Random sampling: Participants are picked out at Privacy and confidentiality: Participants have the random. right to control information about themselves. Volunteer Sampling: Asking people to volunteer, usually through adverts placed in the media, or through posters. Opportunity Sampling: Approaching people who are available at the time and wish to take part. Systematic Sampling: Selecting names from the sampling frame at regular intervals. Stratified Sampling: Pick a group of people to reflect your target population -> split your sampling frame into different categories and then pick people from this at random. Ethical: Respecting the dignity and well-being of Approaches Glossary: Psychology: The scientific study of the human mind Reinforcement: A consequence of behaviour that and its functions, especially those functions affecting increases the likelihood of that behaviour being behaviour in a given context. repeated -> Can be positive or negative. Science: A means of acquiring knowledge through Positive reinforcement: A method for behavior systematic and objective investigation -> The aim is modification that increases the likelihood or to discover general laws. probability that a behavior will occur. Introspection: The first systematic experimental Negative reinforcement: The idea of taking away attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious an unwanted stimulus in order to encourage good awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images behavior. and sensations. Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant Behaviourist approach: A way of explaining stimulus after an unwanted behavior. behaviour in terms of what is observable and in Negative punishment: Removing a pleasant terms of learning. Classical conditioning: Learning stimulus after an unwanted behaviour. by association -> Occurs when two stimuli are Social learning theory: A way of explaining repeatedly paired together: an unconditioned behaviour that includes both direct and indirect stimulus and a new 'neutral' stimulus -> The neutral reinforcement, combining learning theory with the stimulus eventually produces the same response role of cognitive factors. that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus Imitation: Copying the behaviour of others. alone. Identification: When an observer associates Operant conditioning: A form of learning in which themselves with a role model and wants to be like Approaches Glossary: Modelling: From the observer's perspective, Inference: The process whereby cognitive modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model - psychologists draw conclusions about the way > From the role model's perspective, modelling is mental processes operate on the basis of observed the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour behaviour. that may be imitated by an observer. Cognitive neuroscience: The scientific study of Vicarious reinforcement: Reinforcement which is biological structures that underpin cognitive not directly experienced but occurs through processes. observing someone else being reinforced for a Biological approach: A perspective that behaviour -> This is a key factor in imitation. emphasises the importance of physical processes in Cognitive: refers to the mental processes involved the body such as genetic inheritance and neural in gaining knowledge and comprehension. function. Cognitive approach: This approach is focused on Genes: They make up chromosomes and consist of how our mental processes affect behaviour. DNA which codes the physical features of an Internal mental processes: 'Private' operations of organism and psychological features -> Transmitted the mind such as perception and attention that from parents to offspring. mediate between stimulus and response. Biological structure: An arrangement or Schema: A mental framework of beliefs and organisation of parts to form an organ, system or expectations that influence cognitive processing -> living thing. Neurochemistry: Relating to chemicals Developed from experience. in the brain that regulate psychological functioning. Genotype: The particular set of genes that a person Approaches Glossary: Evolution: The changes in inherited characteristics Humanistic approach: An approach to in a biological population over successive understanding behaviour that emphasises the generations. importance of subjective experience and each Psychodynamic approach: A perspective that person's capacity for self-determination. describes the different forces (dynamics), most of Free will: The notion that humans can make which are unconscious, that operate on the mind choices and are not determined by biological or and direct human behaviour and experience. external forces. The unconscious: The part of the mind that we are Self-actualisation: The desire to grow unaware of but which continues to direct much of psychologically and fulfil one's full potential -> our behaviour. becoming what you are capable of. The Id: Entirely unconscious, the id is made up of Hierarchy of needs: A five-levelled hierarchical selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate sequence in which basic needs must be satisfied gratification. The Ego: The 'reality check' that before higher psychological needs can be achieved. balances the conflicting demands of the id and the Self: The ideas and values that characterise 'I' and superego. 'me' and includes perception and valuing of 'what I The Superego: The moralistic part of our am' and personality which represents the ideal self how we 'what I can do'. ought to be. Ideal self: The part of a person's self-concept that Defence mechanisms: Unconscious strategies that consists of their desires, hopes, and wishes the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id Congruence: The aim of Rogerian therapy -> when and the superego. the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly Psychosexual stages: Five developmental stages accord or match. that all children pass through. At each stage there is Conditions of worth: When a parent places limits Social Influence Glossary: Conformity: A change in a person's behaviour or Compliance: A superficial and transient type of opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure conformity in which we publicly support the from another individual or group. (Aronsson 2011) mainstream perspective while privately disagreeing Group size: Asch expanded the organisation by with it. -> The shift in our behaviour is only adding more confederates, so increasing the size of temporary while we are being monitored by the the majority. group. -> Conformity grew with group size, but only to a Informational social influence (ISI): Adhering to point, plateauing when the majority exceeded three. the majority's opinion because we believe it is Unanimity: The degree to which all members of a correct. -> We accept it because we want to be group agree. -> In Asch's research, the majority was correct, too. This may result in internalisation. unanimous when all of the confederates chose the Normative social influence (NSI): Conformity same comparison line. -> This resulted in the that states that we agree with the majority's opinion greatest degree of conformity among the naive in order to obtain social approval and popularity. -> individuals. This may result in compliance. Task Difficulty: Asch's line-judging task becomes Social roles: The 'parts' people play in diverse more difficult as the correct solution becomes social groups. -> These are complemented by our increasingly difficult to determine. -> Conformity and others' expectations of what constitutes suitable rose because naive individuals believe the majority behaviour in each role. is more likely to be correct. Obedience: A type of social influence in which a Internalisation: A profound type of conformity in person obeys a direct order. -> The person issuing which we adopt the mainstream position because we the order is typically a figure of authority with the authority to punish if submissive behaviour is not believe it is correct. -> Causes a far-reaching and forthcoming. persistent alteration in behaviour, even when the Situational variables: Features of a person's group is not present. immediate physical and social environment that may Identification: A mild form of conformity in which impact their behaviour (for example, proximity, Social Influence Glossary: Agentic state: A mental state in which we believe Social support: The presence of people who resist we are operating on behalf of an authoritative figure, pressure to conform or obey can encourage others i.e. as their agent, and hence bear no personal to do the same. -> Individuals serve as role models responsibility for our actions. -> This frees us from for others, demonstrating that it is possible to defy the demands of our consciences, allowing us to obey social influence. even the most harmful authority figure. Locus of control (LOC): The perception we all Legitimacy of authority: A theory for obedience have about what drives events in our lives. -> that claims we are more willing to obey persons we Internals feel they are primarily responsible for their believe have control over us. -> This authority is own experiences. -> Externals feel it is primarily a justified (legitimised) by the individual's position of question of luck or other external factors outside power in a social hierarchy. their control. Dispositional explanation: Any explanation for Minority Influence: A type of social influence in behaviour that emphasises the significance of the which a small group of people (often just one) individual's personality -> These theories are persuade others to adopt their views, attitudes, or frequently contrasted with situational explanations. practices. -> Leads to internalisation or conversion, Authoritarian Personality: Adorno argued that which alters both private and public attitudes. certain types of personalities were predisposed to Consistency: Always behaving in the same/similar obeying those in positions of authority. -> People are way. -> Minority influence is most successful when likewise regarded to be deferential to those with the minority maintains consistent beliefs throughout higher status and contemptuous of inferiors. time and among all of its members. -> Emphasises Resistance to social influence: People's ability to the minority viewpoint. resist social pressure to conform to the majority or Commitment: A firm decision to do something -> obey authority. -> Influenced by both situational Minority influence is more potent when the minority Social Influence Glossary: Flexibility: The ability to change or be changed easily according to the situation. -> Relentless consistency may be counterproductive if it is perceived by the majority as rigid and unreasonable. -> Minority influence is more successful when the minority is flexible and open to compromise. Social influence: The process by which individuals and groups change each other's attitudes and behaviours. Social change: Occurs when whole societies, rather than just individuals, adopt new attitudes, beliefs and ways of doing things.