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UNIT 2 The Brain 10/1/2024 Neurons KNOW FOR EXAM Anatomy ○ Dendrites ○ Soma ○ Nucleus ○ Axon ○ Myelin sheath ○ Nodes of Ranvier ○ Schwann cells ○ Axon terminal Anatomy of a Neuron ○ Neurons can be BIG...

UNIT 2 The Brain 10/1/2024 Neurons KNOW FOR EXAM Anatomy ○ Dendrites ○ Soma ○ Nucleus ○ Axon ○ Myelin sheath ○ Nodes of Ranvier ○ Schwann cells ○ Axon terminal Anatomy of a Neuron ○ Neurons can be BIG One neuron reaches from the tip of your toe all the way to the base of your spinal cord ○ Born with all the Neurons you’ll have and hen they grow and connect together ○ Axon terminals communicate with dendrites Neutron Communication  ○ Neurotransmitters start to build up the charge in the soma of the neuron ○ When it reaches the threshold, the action potential triggers fast chemical changes down the axon * Neurotransmitters are not shooting down the axon* ○ When it reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitter onto other neurons ○ Synapse Action potential Electrical signals from one neuron to another caused by chemical changes across the cell membrane After positive is introduced, lots of negatives are “put in” to balance back out Once back at resting, it starts again How do we measure brain activity? Electroencephalograms (EEG) ○ Measures electrical activity in the brain ○ Excellent at measuring the timing of brain activity ○ Worse at measuring where the brain is active ○ WHEN it fires, NOT WHERE Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) ○ Spin the giant magnet around the brain, blood flows to the parts that are active bc. iron=magnetic Lets us see where ○ Measures WHERE the brain is active Excellent at measuring where the brain is active Worse at measuring the timing of brain activity Both EEG and fMRIs are safe and Non-invasive ○ Do NOT involve medical procedures Dementia & Alzheimer’s Dementia ○ General term Loss of memory, language, problem-solving and other thinking abilities that are severe enough to interfere with daily life More than just loss of memory ○ Impacts behavior, feelings, and relationships Changes in the brain Alzheimer;s is the most common for of dementia There are others Alzheimer’s Disease ○ Three main pathologies (cause and effects of disease) Amyloid plaques  Amyloid beta build up outside the neurons in the brain ○ Clump together and form large plaques ○ Toxic to neurons Kill neurons around them ○ Happens outside the neuron Neurofibrillary tangles Happen inside the neurons Tau proteins stabilize microtubules ○ Microtubules help transport materials from the cell body down the axon ○ Get stuck in the tangles Tau tangles disrupt transport inside the neurons Chronic inflammation Amyloid plaque and neurofibrillary tangles leads to chronic inflammation in the brain ○ Detrimental immune response in the brain ○ There things combines lead to: Neurons dying Brain shrinking Loss of connections between Neurons Neuronal cell death This is why it's not just our memory that is affected ○ Language, relationships, etc. Degeneration of the brain Source of declining cognitive abilities ○ Types of Alzheimer’s Disease Familial (early onset): inherited genetically Having a family member with Alzheimer’s disease does NOT mean you are guaranteed to also have Alzheimer’s Increased risk Sporadic (late onset): Through environmental factors A lifetime of environmental wear causes genetic mutations resulting in Alzheimer’s disease Can reduce the risk by engaging in healthy behaviors. Study Guide Be able to identify and label each part of a neuron. Know what each part of the neuron does. Understand the basics of how an action potential lets neurons communicate with each other. What is dementia? What are the pathologies of Alzheimer's? How do they effect the brain?  What are two ways that we measure the brain? What are their strengths and their weaknesses The Brain II 10/3/2024 Frontal Lobe Higher order mental processes ○ Language planning ○ Decision making ○ Reasoning ○ Problem solving Primary motor cortex ○ Where we plan movement ○ Motor Homunculus Language Areas of the Brain Typically on the left side of the brain ○ Left side more likely to have language centers than right side Broca’s Area (Frontal Lobe) ○ Near motor cortex ○ In charge of SPEECH production Wernicke’s Area (Temporal Lobe) ○ In charge of UNDERSTANDING speech ○ Near auditory cortex Parietal Lobe (near wernicke’s area) Primary somatosensory cortex ○ Touch and sensation from our body ○ Receiving information from the body  Initial spatial/location processing ○ People only attending to half their visual Field sometimes–due to issue in parietal lobe Temporal Lobe Primary auditory cortex Object identification ○ Chair, dog, table Face identification ○ Fusiform space area→Facial expressions for others/things(cars, clouds) Area of the brain specialized in face recognition I see a human being, I need to act like a human being ○ Prosopagnosia inability to recognize faces Typically result of brain damage, tumor, damage to Fusiform space area Hippocampus Occipital Lobe Primary Visual Cortex ○ Only does visual processing Cerebellum Not technically a lobe Involved in coordination of movements ○ Balance (vestibular) ○ Which muscles need to be used ○ Smoothness of motion Brain Stem and Inner Portions of the Brain Vital Functions ○ Breathing, heart beat, etc Automatic body functions Directing information from the body to the correct lobe ○ Anything going in and out of the brain ○ Only access point for our neurons to connect to the rest of the body Directing information from the brain back to the body Right Brained or Left Brained? Not much scientific evidence We use 100% of our brain 100% of the time ○ If we didn’t use part of our brain we would not have that part of our brain Where did left brained or right brained come from?  ○ Both sides do logic and reasoning ○ Both sides do imagination ○ Both sides do creativity and art ○ Both sides do emotions The left side is typically the center for language production Study Guide Be able to correctly label each major part of the brain. For each part, know what its main functions are. What is a homunculus? How does it apply to the primary motor cortex and the primary sensory cortex? What is prosopagnosia? Are we right brained or left brained? How much of your brain do we use? Sensation and Perception 10/8/2024 Sensation ○ What we sense in our sensory organs ○ Passive process ○ Physiological processing (cells with receptors) Perception ○ Conscious sensory experience ○ Psychological processing ○ Not the same thing as reality Sensation Seven Senses ○ Vision ○ Hearing (audition) ○ Smell (olfaction) ○ Taste (gustation) ○ Touch (somatosensory) ○ Vestibular (speed) ○ Proprioception (where our body is in space/what our body is doing) Vision Detect light in our environment Sensory organ: retina Rods ○ Detect contrast Differences in shapes/lines ○ Sensitive even in low light ○ peripheral vision  ○ Cannot see colors Cones ○ Detect color ○ Needs lots of light to work ○ Forea (center) spot where eye projects what you focus on, where most of the cones are Hearing (audition) Detect sound waves Sensory organs: cochlea Outer ear: ○ Capture sound waves and funnel to inner ear Middle ear ○ Ear canal ○ Ear drum, thin skin membrane Translate air waves in the air into air waves in fluid Pressure waves in inner ear Inner ear ○ Cochlea Covered in little hairs When they die, they do not come back ○ Detect sound Vestibular Sense of balance, movement, and acceleration Sensory organ: vestibular apparatus Semicircular canals ○ Detect angular acceleration turns ○ Have fluid in them like cochlea Utricle ○ Detects horizontal acceleration Saccule ○ Detects vertical acceleration Smell-Olfaction Detect molecules in the air Sensory organ:nasal cavities Molecules in the air travel through the nasal cavities Chemoreceptors detect the molecules Needs a layer of mucus to do this ○ If you don’t have enough mucus the molecules cannot connect ○ Same happens with too much mucus Taste-Gustation Detection of molecules in food Sensory organ: taste buds Receptors on the tongue detect different molecules in your mouth ○ Sweet: glucose(sugar) ○ Salty: salt, and other metal ions ○ Sour: acids ○ Bitter: inorganic compounds→poison ○ Umami: glutamate (protein) “Different parts of my tongue taste different things” ○ The five types on receptors are across your whole tongue ○ Slight sensitivity differences between regions ○ Your whole tongue is affected but some regions have a more apparent reaction Spicy foods ○ Capsaicin ○ Enters cells through the cell membrane ○ Triggers receptors that register heat and pain ○ Spice is on the INSIDE ○ Milk can also go through the cell membrane, helps wash off capsaicin (because of the fat in the milk) Water can only wash off the outside Flavor ≠ Taste ○ Flavor is a combination of smell and taste : perception Touch-Somatosensory Detects pressure on the skin, vibration, and temperature Sensory organ-skin Various receptors in the skin react to different stimuli Biggest receptor because it is all of our skin Proprioception Detects where our body is in space Sensory organ: receptors in joints and muscles Gymnasts and ice skaters are better at proprioception bc they think fast about where their body parts are/going to be Neurons that measure when tendons and muscles are contracted or extended Sensation to Perception Sensation = Perception? NO Perception = Reality? NO Perception Bottom-Up Procession ○ data -driven (sensory) ○ Begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain Top-Down Processing ○ Conceptually-driven ○ What we are actually getting from the environment, actual information ○ Guided by higher-level mental processes (e.g., expectation, memory) Color-After Effects Made the regular flag Bottom-Up Processing Gestalt Principles Gestalt Principles ○ Describe typical grouping or organization tendencies ○ Emphasis on perceiving the whole ○ Law of Proximity Closer elements are grouped together ○ Law of Closure We ignore all gaps/fill in missing parts Changing words, but keeping the right last letter, brian makes sense ○ Figure ground We determine what is the figure and what is the ground All TOP-DOWN PROCESS The Moon Illusion The moon seems larger when it is close to the ground than when over head Closer to the ground we can compare it to the scale of the objects on the horizon We are bad at perceiving the shape of the moons orbit Time Perception Time is ubiquitous Our perception of how time has passed or will pass in the future Long-term ○ Why does time seem to go faster as you get older? At shorter time intervals (a week, month, or even a year): retrospective perceptions of time are similar regardless of age At longer intervals (decades or more): older adults perceive time to have gone by faster than younger adults ○ Memory As we get older we have fewer new memories and our brain thinks that because we don’t have new memories happening all the time, then time is going fast because it goes from one new memory to the other fast In early life we have lots of new experiences – lots of novel memories. We understand that these experiences had time between them. So, when you think back and recall MANY new experiences in one year, we perceive that there must have been lots of time between each and therefore the year is perceived as being long Later in life we have fewer new experiences and more familiar experiences. We have fewer novel experiences to recall, but we still perceive a similar amount of time between new experiences, so the time is perceived as going by quickly. Study Guide What are the 7 senses? What are the primary sensory organs for each of our senses? Understand the basics of how each sensory organ functions. What is the relationship between sensation and perception? What is the relationship between perception and reality? Give Examples. What is bottom-up processing, and what is top-down processing? Be able to give examples of each (think about the gestalt principles) What are some factors that can influence our perception of time? Conditioning and Learning 10/10/2024 Behaviorism Pavlov’s Experiment During the 1890s Was not interested in psychology, he was interested in spit Interested in digestion and the gastrointestinal system ○ Cut part of their cheeks out to collect samples of saliva ○ Exposed dogs to food to make them salivate ○ Collected saliva from dogs ○ Found that over time, the dogs began salivating before the food was presented Replace the US with a new stimulus ○ US is the natural response vs the new stimulus that becomes an unnatural response Classical conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus ○ An event or thing that triggers an involuntary response Unconditioned Response ○ The voluntary response to the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned Stimulus ○ An event or thing that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can elicit the same response without the unconditioned stimulus present Conditioned Response  ○ The response to the conditioned stimulus. The same type of response at the unconditioned response, but it is now paired with the conditioned stimulus Example: ○ US (tired) → UR (fall asleep) ○ New (Bed) + US (Tired) → UR (fall asleep) ○ Conditioned Stimulus (bed) → Conditioned REsponse (sleep) Terms: ○ Acquisition The process of pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus can elicit the conditioned response by itself Learning the association between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response Extinction The weakening of a conditioned stimulus’ ability to elicit the conditioned response ○ Forgetting the associating between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response Spontaneous Recovery When the association between the conditioned stimulus and conditions response reappears after extinction and a break in time Acquisition The new stimulus over and over Acquire a new skill Extinction The bell gets less and less powerful by itself Forgotten Spontaneous Recovery When there is a gap in time “Maybe last time they forgot the food. I’ll give them a little reaction just in case they have food again” Habituation and Sensitization Habituation ○ When you respond less and less to a frequently repeated stimulus Response to stimulus not conditioning to stimulus ○ Examples Smells Wearing the same perfume or cologne everyday until you no longer notice the smell at all Living near trains After time you no longer notice the sound of the train going through town Loud music you get used to so you make music even louder when you get used to the old loud volume Fire Drills  Get used to the sound and that it is a test, so you do nothing ○ Not the same as extinction Does not involve conditioning, just responding Sensitization ○ Opposite of habituation ○ When you respond more and more to a frequently repeated stimulus ○ Examples A dripping faucet while trying to sleep Can ignore it at first, but not forever Door slamming Becomes more annoying with repeated exposures Classical Conditioning Examples Unconditioned Stimulus- thunder, girlfriends perfume, library Unconditioned response- startled or scared, think of your gf, study Conditioned stimulus- storm clouds, broke up, same album makes you want to study Conditioned response- startled or scared, think of your girlfriend, you study when album plays Study Guide What was Ivan Pavlov's experiment? What did he do? What did he find? What is an unconditioned stimulus? What is an Unconditioned response? What is a Conditioned stimulus? What is a Conditioned response? Be able to generate an example of classical condition and be able to identify the different components of classical conditioning. What is acquisition? What is extinction? What is spontaneous recovery? What is habituation ? What is sensitization? Conditioning and Learning pt.2 Types of Conditioning Classical Conditioning ○ Learning occurs by pairing a new stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until it becomes a conditioned stimulus and can elicit a conditioned response  Operant conditioning ○ The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future. ○ Stimulus: A light turning on ○ Target Response: Lever press ○ Reinforcement: Food from the dispenser ○ Example: 1. I say “sploot” 2. Winston lays with his back legs out 3. I give him a treat Shaping How do you get a rat to start pressing a lever? ○ A rat isn’t just going to start pressing a lever for no reason Reinforcing successive behaviors until the desired behavior is learned ○ 1st few times Reinforce sniffing the lever The rat just has to be interested in the lever ○ Next: Reinforce putting a paw on the lever but not sniffing ○ Finally Reinforce pressing the lever only Example: Goal= “Sploot” ○ 1st few times Reinforce sitting down ○ Next Reinforce laying down ○ Finally Reinforce laying down with his back legs out Reinforcement and Punishment Positive Reinforcement Reinforcement Punishment is the MOST effective Increase a Behavior Decrease a Behavior way to teach a behavior Positive Something is added to Something is added to increase the likelihood decrease the likelihood of a behavior of a behavior  Negative Something is removed Something is removed to increase the to decrease the likelihood of a likelihood of a behavior behavior Scenario: You want your kid to clean their room Reinforcement Punishment Increase room cleaning Decrease other behavior non-room cleaning behavior Positive You tell your kid they You tell your kid their will get a tasty snack will also have to clean for cleaning their room the toilet if they don’t clean their room Negative You tell your kid that they don’t have to eat their broccoli if they clean their room Scenraio: Training a dog to be calm when meeting new people Give a dog a treat Spraying the dog with anytime they are calm water when its frantic meeting new people Let your dog out of its Taking toys away when crate when it is cal frantic meeting new people Traning a dog not to bark at strangers Increase non barking Decrease in barking behavior Give a treat anytime Spray with bottle when they do not bark bark Let out of crate when Take away toys from no bark crate when bark Reinforcement and Punishment ○ Reinforcement is not just for “good” behavior It just increases the likelihood of a behavior. ○ Punishment is not just for “bad” behavior It just decreases the likelihood of a behavior. ○ Positive Reinforcement is better than punishment. Works faster  Teaches a behavior they know is desired Even when the desired outcome is less of a type of behavior (like barking) Types of Reinforcement What makes a good reinforcer? ○ Primary Reinforcers ○ Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer→more survival based ○ Reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities Ex: Water, food, sleep, sex, touch, shelter, pleasure/enjoyment These kinds of reinforcers are not learned Organisms do not lose their drive for these things ○ Examples Giving belly rubs to train your dog-touch/enjoyable Candy to reinforce study for a kid-food/also enjoyable Jumping in a pool to cool off-offers a physical need/also enjoyable Secondary Reinforcers Secondary reinforcers ○ Reinforcers with no inherent value. Only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. ○ Examples: Praise: Linked to affection Hearing “ great question” is not inherently valuable Money Only worth something when you can use it to buy other things—either things that satisfy basic needs (food, water, shelter—all primary reinforcers) or other secondary reinforcers Stickers Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforcement ○ Reinforcement is given every time the behavior is completed (Typically immediate) Partial Reinforcement (Intermittent Reinforcement) ○ Reinforcement is only given sometimes after the behavior is completed ○ 4 types  Fixed interval Variable interval Fixed ratio Variable ratio Fixed Interval Reinforcement Schedule Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, or 20 minutes) Example: Leads to moderate responding with pauses after reinforcement. ○ No reason to do the behavior right after you get the reinforcer because you know it's not going to happen again immediately. ○ Lowest amount of responding of any schedule Quickest to extinction of any schedule ○ Missing even one reinforcers changes responding Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g. after 5, 7, 10, 20 minutes) Moderate and steady responding ○ You don’t know when the reinforcer will come so you respond regularly. More resistant to extinction than fixed Interval  ○ Because the rewards could come at anytime, long gaps between reinforcers is more normal Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g. after 2, 4, 6, or 8 responses) Lots of responding with a pause after reinforcement The more you respond the more often you get the reward. Liked fixed interval, missing a reinforcer can lead to extinction Variable Ratio Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g.. after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses) Lots of constant responding ○ You don’t know the ratio, so you just respond as much as possible, because any response could get a reward. Ex. Gambling ○ Most responding of any schedule ○ Very resistant to extinction Study Guide How is operant conditioning different form classical conditioning? What is a shaping? What are the four types of reinforcement and punishment? Provide an example of each What are primary and secondary reinforcers? What are the different reinforcement schedules? How much responding do they result in? Which is most resistant to extinction? Development 1 Approaches to Development Physical development Psychosocial Development Cognitive development Moral development ○ More next week Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development CHECK PHONE TO FILL OUT REST Age (years) Stage Description Developmental Issues 0-2 sensorimotor 2-6 preoperational 7-11 Concrete operational 12- Formal operational Development during infancy 0-1 Newborn behavior ○ Most behavior is reflexive ○ Reflex Automatic response to particular forms of stimulation Help a baby survive until they develop more complex behaviors ○ Examples Rooting reflex When you stroke a baby’s cheek, they natural turn their head in that direction and begins to suck  Sucking reflex The automatic, unlearned, sucking motions that infants so with their mouths Grasp reflex A baby automatically grasps anything that touches their palms ○ They cannot let go, brain says hold on Physical Developments ○ Fine motor skills Focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions Grabbing, bringing things to their mouth, etc. ○ Gross motor skills Focus in large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements Sitting, holding up their head, rolling over, crawling, walking, etc. ○ Neuronal Blooming Newborns have all the neurons they will ever have They start making tons of new connections with each other Rapid increase in the size of the brain Continue to make more and more connections for the first few years ○ Improved vision Newborns can only see 8-15 inches primarily white, black, and red Big improvements by about 3 months old From brain development and from eye development ○ Smiling Newborns have a smile reflex, but it is not in response to anything 6-8 weeks Baby develop a responsive smile ○ Smile as a response to something enjoyable like seeing a face or being cuddled 2-4 months Development of a social smile ○ Smiling as a social gesture Social Development ○ Attachment A long-standing connection or bond with others More than just meeting basic needs like nourishment Feelings of comfort and security are critical The type of Bond between caregiver and infants depends on  If the caregiver is responsible to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs If the caregiver and child engage in mutually enjoyable interactions ○ How do parent and infant attachment bonds form? Harlow (1958) Theory Cupboard theory ○ Nourishments (i.e. food) is more important than bodily contact forming attachments Comfort theory ○ Bodily contact is more important than nourishment in forming attachments Wire mother (food) vs cloth mother (comfort) Result: ○ Monkeys spent more time on the cloth mother than on the wire mother ○ Not just important to meet an infants biological needs but their social as well Attachment ○ A long-standing connection or bond with others More than just meeting basic needs like nourishment Feelings of comfort and security are critical ○ Strange Situation Testing Attachment: Using the Strange Situation (Ainsworth) 1. The primary caregiver and the infant (age 12-18 months) are placed in a room together. 2. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver and child spend some time alone in the room. 3. After the child has had time to explore their surroundings, a stranger enters the room. 4. The caregiver then leaves the baby with the stranger. 5. After a few minutes, they return to comfort the child. Observe how the Baby responds to the separation and reunion with the caregiver ○ Types of Attachment Secure attachment The caregivers are sensitive and responsive to the baby’s needs In the strange situation ○ The baby was distressed when their caregivers left the room Stranger anxiety  ○ When the caregiver returns, the security attached baby was happy to see them The baby views the caregiver as a secure base ○ Secure base A parental presence that gives the baby a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings Avoidant attachment The caregiver is insensitive and inattentive to the baby’s needs and the baby is unresponsive in return In strange situation ○ The baby does not care if the parent leaves the room ○ When their caregiver returns, the baby is slow to show a positive reaction Does not use the parent as a secure base Resistant (anxious) attachment The caregiver is inconsistent in their level of response to the baby’s needs ○ Tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them In the strange situation ○ The baby does not explore the toys in the room, even with a caregiver in the room ○ The baby becomes extremely disturbed and angry when the parent leaves the room ○ When the caregiver returns, the baby is difficult to comfort Disorganized attachment Very uncommon Most often when the baby has been abused ○ Tend to show odd or erratic behavior In the strange situation ○ The baby freezes or runs around the room ○ When the caregiver returns, the baby way try to run away ○ Disrupts the baby’s ability to regulate their emotions Cognitive Development ○ Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage Language Not just learning how to speak Listening and identifying speech sounds  ○ Learn to distinguish speech from other sounds ○ Objects permanence An object still exists even when we can’t see it Develops around 8-months old Why peek-a-boo works Object permanence box to exercise this knowledge Development during early childhood: Toddlers 1-3, Preschool aged 3-5 Physical development ○ Typically…by age 2 years old Kicks a ball, walks up and down stairs 3 years old Climbs and runs, pedals tricycle 4 years old Catches balls, uses scissors, write letters 5 years ol Hops and swings, uses fork and spoon ○ Phase of neuronal pruning As infants Neurons make a bunch of connection Not all of these connections are necessary, so they are “pruned” back Not a bad thing! Helps refines these connections Extremely taxing, requires a lot of sleep Social Development ○ Develop a sense of self Self awareness 2-3 years old (18 months) Knowledge that you are your own entity ○ That you are your own being not part of the environment or other beings Self-recognition mirror test ○ Reach out to the mirror-no sense of self ○ Reach towards the face-sense of self ○ Between 2-5 years Children will… Play alongside other children; copy adults Take turns’ express many emotions; dress self Knows likes and dislikes and interests Distinguishes real from pretend Having a positive self-concept is important for this development ○ Impacted by parenting Cognitive development  ○ Piaget’s Preoperational stage Pre-operational stage/second stage Language Go from forming simple sentences to full and clear use of language ○ Big difference between 2 and 5 yrs old Writing letters and learning numbers, colors, and shapes. ○ By kindergarten kids can typically identify some words Can play make believe and use complicated toys Tell real life from imaginary and can play in the imaginary Moving parts of your imagination Play and share with others better Lack logical reasoning Do what they see, copy cats Not identifying why they do something, they just act Parenting Parenting is not an isolated experience It is influenced by ○ Cultural context ○ The child ○ The parent ○ The environment ○ Many more Styles ○ Authoritarian The parent Places high value on conformity and obedience Considers the rules to be set and not flexible ○ “Because I said so” Is often strict, tightly monitor their children Expresses little warmth In the US, children raised with this parenting style can be… Anxious Withdrawn Unhappy kids Doesn’t teach them to follow rules, teaches them to lie better However, in some cultures this style can have positive outcomes ○ Authoritative  This parent Sets rules and explain the reasons behind them ○ Flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases Gives reasonable demands and consistent limits Expresses warmth and affection Listens to the child’s point of view In the US, children raised with this parenting style typically have… High self esteem Positive self image Strong social skills Most encouraged style in the US but is not necessarily best in all cultures ○ Permissive Opposite of what their parents did to them/opposite of authoritative This is for all the different parenting styles, you typically do the opposite of what your parent did to you The parent… puts the kid is in charge, anything goes makes few demands and rarely use punishment tends to be very nurturing and loving ○ Not actually setting up boundaries or making good behavior influences may play the role of friend rather than parent Instead of having rules and expectations, the kid does whatever they want ○ They have no expectations for their kids In the US, children raised with this parenting style may… Have high self-esteem and strong social skills ○ Like authoritative parenting Lack self discipline May engage in more risky or disruptive behaviors ○ Talking out of turn, interrupting their teacher Have lower grades ○ Uninvolved The parent… is indifferent and uninvolved makes relatively few demands may meet a child’s basic needs by little more. ○ Food, water, shelter This style could result from severe depression or substance use  The parent doesn’t have the energy to meet the needs of their children Not typically on purpose to act like this, but they don’t have control over it/they just can’t Rarely is a parent like this on purpose, but can happen In the US, children raised with this parenting style may be Emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious Perform poorly in school, At an increased risk of substance abuse Study Guide Know the stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Development theory Know how we develop Physically, socially, and cognitively at each stage during development What is attachment theory? What are the different types of attachment? How are they measured? What is object permanence? What are the four parenting styles? Know how to describe each and the impacts that they can have on child development? What is self-awareness? What are Kohlberg’s stages of moral development? Development II Development during middle childhood 6-11 years old Physical development ○ More advanced in… Fine motor skills Hands, mouth Gross motor skills Limbs, body Social Development ○ Still playing, building friendships, and learning ○ Developing self-confidence in skills “I like art, I am good at it” Can also be insecure in skills that are weak Cognitive development ○ Piaget’s Concrete operational stage Can use concrete logic Logic at its most generic form Candy:sweet, Lemon: ?  Understand conservation Developing During Adolescence 12-18 years Physical Development ○ Neuronal pruning ○ Also do this as a child Another round of refining connections in the brain Still needs lots of sleep If you don’t get all the sleep it will just take longer ○ Puberty Hormones change, duh Social Development ○ Develop an identity Experimenting with roles and relationships Do like this…or this…who do i like… Role within your household may change ○ Other chores, etc Exploring hobbies and interests Have many foundational experiences and memories that form our identity First time driving a car, homecoming, first relationship, first job, CORE MEMORIES ○ Develop cognitive identity The ability to take the perspective of others and feel cancer for others Important component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance Before cognitive identity would be hard to deal with these issues Cognitive Development ○ Piaget’s formal operational stage Develop Abstract logic ○ Take a principle and apply it to different places ○ Symbolic or hypothetical thought ○ Better at writing and reading bc we can think about language differently Moral reasoning Moral Development Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning (not perfect and does not always replicate, K also thought women were not capable of moral reasoning) ○ Preconventional morality 0-9 years old Think about what will get them in the least Amount of trouble ○ Conventional Morality Early adolescence Morality driven by peers ○ Post-conventional morality Only some will reach stage 6 in adulthood Don’t think past what is fair, think of People’s rights, rules of society, think of Their own morals Moral Dilemma Example ○ A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a pharmacist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the pharmacist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000, which is half of what it cost. He told the pharmacist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the pharmacist said: “No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So, the husband got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. ○ Should the husband have done that? ○ Kohberg’s Stages of moral reasoning Pre-conventional morality (infancy to adolescence) Rules are absolute Morality determined by personal interests ○ Avoid punishment ○ Seek reward “No, he should not steal the medicine” ○ Stealing is illegal. Conventional morality (Early adolesence) Morality guided by social norms ○ Decisions based on conformity  ○ Respecting authority/ Law and order ○ “I am sure that rule is there for a reason” “No, he should not steal the medicine” ○ I want people to think I am a good person, and stealing isn’t good, so I won’t steal. Post Conventional morality – (adulthood) Morality guided by universal principles ○ Weighing individual rights against social contracts ○ Not bound by laws and rules as factors “Yes, he should steal the medicine” ○ The wife’s life is more important than the pharmacist's right to make money Study Guide Know the stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Development theory Know how we develop Physically, socially, and cognitively at each stage during development What is attachment theory? What are the different types of attachment? How are they measured? What is object permanence? What are the four parenting styles? Know how to describe each and the impacts that they can have on child development? What is self-awareness? What are Kohlberg’s stages of moral development Autobiographical Memories Memory for the experiences that comprises a person’s life story Autobiographical memories versus Autobiographical Facts Memories have emotion and opinion vs facts Research on Autobiographical Memory Researchers do not control the context Events may have occurred long ago Accuracy often cannot be verified Focus on factors that can be assessed ○ Age of the recalled memories ○ vividness/detail ○ Emotional intensity ○ Differences across groups of people (r.g., gender, culture) So We’re Building our Life’s Story—Which Memories Do We Retain? Autobiographical Memory Retention Infantile Amnesia (childhood memories) ○ Few memories for early in life (0-3 years) ○ Usher & Neisser (1993) Method Use the Target Event Recall Method Completed many questionnaire about memories from childhood Focused on 4 events. Example Questions: 1. Where were you the first time you saw your new sibling? 2. Who took you to the hospital? 3. Do you recall an emotional reaction to moving? 4. Who told you about the death in the family? Results: What does this research suggest? Type of event matters Theoretical Explanations Distinctive memories Likely to be re-told ○ Explanations for why: Brain development Hippocampus ○ Formation of new episodic memories ○ Not fully developed in infants Can still form ○ Associations ○ Procedural memories  Language development Dramatic linguistic acquisition early in life (2-4 years) Begin verbally recounting experiences Coincides with development of autobiographical memory Development of self Young children do not realize that they are independent entities Autobiographical memory is about self, so sense of self is needed Cannot create a life narrative if all observed events are viewed/processed equally Social-cognitive development Incorporates importance of brain (biology), language & self concept No set “start point” for formation of Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical Memory gradually emerges Autobiographical Memory Retention Reminiscence Bump Lots of memories between the ages of 10 – 30 ○ Applies to “autobiographical preferences” ○ Applies to semantic memories For events between 30-50 yrs (and on), more likely to remember recent events Things we did more recent;y are better remembered Reminiscence Bump Differences between cultures? ○ Actually quite similar across cultures  ○ US showed slightly more memories from earlier years ○ But biggest differences were in the themes of memories recalled Personal vs social Explanations ○ Cognitive hypothesis Many events occur for the 1st time during this period, and are thus highly memorable First date, kiss, concert, car Distinctive Important Likely to be highly rehearsed ○ Maturation hypothesis cognitive/brain functions at their peak ○ Identity Information Events most likely to be incorporated into “life narrative”