HIST 1100 - American History Fall 2024 Class Notes PDF

HIST 1100 UNDERSTANDING HISTORICAL CHANGE AMERICAN HISTORY Lisa Betty Tues/Wed/Fri 11:30am - 12:20 pm Keating 214 Aug, 2024 - Dec, 2024 Office Hours HIST 1100 UNDERSTANDING HISTORICAL CHANGE AMERICAN HISTORY Introductions Syllabus Community Agreements Groups LINKS Course Chronology (example) “Writing the Who” (example) Office Hours African Burial Ground: Location: https://www.nps.gov/afbg/planyourvisit/maps.htm Northern boundary: Duane Street (north side of the street) Southern boundary: Chambers Street (south side of the street) Eastern boundary: Centre St/Lafayette Street (west side of the street) Western boundary: Broadway (east side of the street) US General Services Administration (GSA) built a $276 million, 34-story office building at 290 Broadway off Duane and Reade Streets African Burial Ground: Andrea Frohne asks: How is Africa represented in New York? What are the iterations of Africa in North America? New Amsterdam under Dutch control (1626–64) - Dutch colony of New Amsterdam was renamed New York City under the British (1664–1776) 1991 to 1993, 419 burials were removed from the ground (many unethically) African Burial Ground: Africa Burial Ground (1).pdf Please provide 6 quotes and 6 pieces of content (paraphrasing statistics, facts, important information) from each article Include page and paragraph numbers https://docs.google.com/document/d/12OZ6_dKlWmSBG70wp X_01HbhiU7OgcHmk7zN2ERbmgQ/edit Writing the “Who”: In writing and talking about continental Africa, the African Diaspora, Indigenous Nations, American History, we... 1. Name nations and ethnicities 2. Name regions of the continent and the Diaspora 3. We refrain from saying “tribes” or “tribal” 4. We say "indigenous" NOT “natives” 5. The "B" in "Black" is capitalized 6. We blank out profanity and discriminatory language when writing quoted materials Writing the “Who”: In writing and talking about continental Africa, the African Diaspora, Indigenous Nations, American History, we... 7. We don't say profane or discriminatory language when reading aloud or recounting text 8. We write chronologically relevant language within directly quoted materials but use current language (as deﬁned by the Africana ﬁeld) when describing that material 9. We call any kidnapping and bartering of human beings as "human trafficking" not slave trade - useless used as official legislative language 10. We say "enslaved people" not “slaves” 11. We say “captors” or “enslavers” not “masters” Writing the “Who”: Why: Please separate into your group and talk through the “Why” for each of these writing rules… https://docs.google.com/document/d/1mF2jpcJROTH-imKrRk bt0DEkWXsfKTJKycgN6Pm57Fg/edit Group A Group B Group C https://drive.google.com/ﬁle/d/1Xl3wrzjhTcMrtpoXjtywcxrmx 45VR6R-/view?usp=sharing - P. Gabrielle Foreman Hist 1100 ○ e 1619 Project was led by journalist and New York Times staff writer Nikole Hannah-Jones in collaboration with writers, poets, artists, and historians. The piece shifts focus from the US forefathers (Washington, Jefferson, Monroe, Madison...) as the leaders of the ﬁght for democracy in colonial America and then the United States. Speciﬁcally, it moves from the Declaration of Independence date of 1776 to 1619 as an integral start of practiced ideology of US/colonial American democracy. Hist 1100 ○ Father – Greenwood, MS – went to Iowa in 1940s (Great Migration) – Jim Crow did not end with Mason Dixon line (36,30 line – Missouri Compromise 1820) – Army, veteran – She was deeply embarrassed by the American ﬂag. ○ Why didn’t Nikole Hannah-Jones understand her father’s patriotism – why was she “deeply embarrassed”? ○ 1619, 12 years after Jamestown, 1 year before Plymouth Hist 1100 ○ 1619 Project https://docs.google.com/document/d/1c7YwkLGH_6GU61FZYuno5 P1i-OtBEEhgBlZl6gr2PhM/edit 1619 Project: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1c7YwkLGH_6GU61FZYuno5P1i-OtBEEhgBlZl6gr2PhM/edit Each group accumulate 5 quotations for the Introduction, 5 quotations (10 quotes) for each of your specific group assigned section, 6 paraphrasings-facts-statistics from your specific group assigned section for Wednesday/Friday’s classes - Reflection due Tuesday, September 17th (cite the page numbers) All groups Introduction, Nikole Hannah-Jones, pg.14-29 (includes Tiya Miles' "Chained Migration" and poetry by Clint Smith and Yuself Komunyakaa) Group A Matthew Desmond, pg. 30-40 (includes Mehrsa Baradaran's "Mortgaging the Future", "Good as Gold", "Fabric of Modernity" and Tiya Miles' "Municipal Bonds") Jeneen Interlandi and Kevin Kruse, pg. 41-47 (start with poetry by Eve L. Ewing and Reginald Dwayne Betts, includes sections by Barry Jenkins and Jesmyn Ward) Group B Jamelle Bouie and Linda Villarosa, pg. 48-59 (includes Tyembia Jess, Darryl Pinckney, ZZ Packer) Wesley Morris, pg. 60-69 (Yaa Gyasi and Jacqueline Woodson) Group C Khalil Gibran Muhammad, pg. 70-79 (includes Tiya Miles' "Pecan Pioneer", poetry by Rita Dove, Camille T. Dungy, Joshua Bennett) Bryan Stevenson, Trymaine Lee, Djeneba Aduayom, pg. 80-93 (includes Lynn Nottage, Kiese Laymon, Clint Smith) 1619 Project: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1c7YwkLGH_6GU61FZYuno5P1i-OtBE EhgBlZl6gr2PhM/edit The 1619 Project “The 1619 Project” (The New York Magazine) https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/23/podcasts/1619-podcast.html “The 1619 Project” (The New York Magazine) [Audio/Podcast] https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/12/historians-clash-1619-project/604093/ Debate, “The Fight Over the 1619 Project Is Not About the Facts,” Adam Serwer (The Atlantic) https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/13/learning/learning-about-slavery-with-primary-sources.html “Learning About Slavery With Primary Sources,” (The New York Times) https://pulitzercenter.org/lesson-plan-grouping/1619-project-curriculum Curriculum (The Pulitzer Center) Hist 1100 ○ 1619 was the arrival of African captives from Angola, a Portuguese slave ship intercepted by British pirate ships. The piece argues that these Africans and the thousands of ships that arrived after - and the enslaved descendants and their descendants - form an honest/authentic portrayal of the ﬁght for democracy in the British North American colonies and the USA. Intersecting pragmatic (experienced) ﬁght for democracy through the realities of slavery, as well as demonstrating how entrench slavery was in the US - especially in the 100 years that would document Jim Crow period (post-Civil War/Reconstruction, 1877 to Civil Rights Movement, 1968). Hist 1100 ○ “perfecters of this democracy” ○ “No people has a greater claim to that ﬂag than us” ○ 1/5 of population of 13 colonies ○ Chattel slavery heritable and permanent: “meaning generations of Black people were born into it and passed their enslaved status onto their children. Enslaved people were not recognized as human beings but as property that could be mortgaged, traded, bought, sold, used as collateral, given as a gift and disposed of violently. Jefferson’s fellow white colonists knew that Black people were human beings, but they created a network of laws and customs, astounding for both their precision and cruelty, that ensured that enslaved people would never be treated as such.” ○ slavery primary reason for Revolutionary War The 1619 Project ○ Let’s talk about language - what are they using and why? slave - enslaved slaveholder - enslaver slavery - chattel slavery fugitive - fugitive from slavery plantation - forced labor camp sanitized/simpliﬁed perspective (POV) power ○ Why is language important in the text? The 1619 Project ○ Why transform language use in historical interpretations? archaic (no longer in use by scholars, or leading scholars identiﬁed alternative) discriminatory, demonstrates bias and marginalization does not make sense or greatly simpliﬁes a context that is more complex and layered language is incorrect HIST 1100 ○ History is a pieced together narrative with speciﬁc time/space references. Historians reframe and interrogate history all the time - sometimes these are called “counter narratives” or “revisionist history”, but Hannah-Jones being a journalist and making the interrogation into public history and public narratives caused some controversy. ○ What do we think about Hannah-Jones’s 1619 narrative? ○ What do we think about the historical narratives presented about the founding of the United States? (Think about your highschool textbooks) ○ Where are the gaps? ○ Does #1619Project present a narrative you did not know? The 1619 Project Over the course of 350 years, 36,000 slave ships crossed the Atlantic Ocean. I walk over to the globe & move my ﬁnger back & forth between the fragile continents. I try to keep count how many times I drag my hand across the bristled hemispheres, but grow weary of chasing a history that swallowed me. For every hundred people who were captured & enslaved, forty died before they ever reached the New World. I pull my index ﬁnger from Angola to Brazil & feel the bodies jumping from the ship. I drag my thumb from Ghana to Jamaica & feel the weight of dysentery make an anvil of my touch. I slide my ring ﬁnger from Senegal to South Carolina & feel the ocean separate a million families. The soft hum of history spins on its tilted axis. A cavalcade of ghost ships wash their hands of all they carried. By Clint Smith The 1619 Project Versus Sean Wilentz (Victoria Bynum, James McPherson, James Oakes, and Gordon Wood): “Fact and objectivity are the foundation of both honest journalism and honest history. And so to dismiss it, to say, ‘No, I'm not really talking about whites’—well, she did, and then she takes it back in those tweets and then says it's about the inability of anybody to write objective history. That's objectionable too,” (But these 5 historians are white...) Nikole Hannah Jones: “I rely heavily on the scholarship of historians no matter what race, and I would never discount the work of any historian because that person is white or any other race...I did respond to someone who was saying white scholars were afraid, and I think my point was that history is not objective. And that people who write history are not simply objective arbiters of facts, and that white scholars are no more objective than any other scholars, and that they can object to the framing and we can object to their framing as well.” HIST 1100 ○ Respondents claim, Indigenous American missing as central to the narrative and Iroquois confederacy and nation’s democratic institutions; European led slavery in western hemisphere began in early 1500s with Spanish, etc - Britain was late, but aware of the movement of the Dutch, Portuguese in Africa, and their, along with Spanish enslavement of indigenous and African people in colonized and claimed lands in southern North America (Florida), the Caribbean and South America. The 1619 Project ○ Adam Serwer, The Fight Over the 1619 Project Is Not About the Facts, The Atlantic, Dec 2019 More than point of slavery as a deﬁning accusations of pessimism (multiracial aspect of progressive movements), “subjectivity” and emphasis of ideology (a system of ideas and ideals, especially one which forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy.) Dunning School (William Archibald Dunning (1857-1922), Columbia Professor) - Lost Cause/Reconstruction a failure narrative - countered by WEB DuBois (primarily Black Reconstruction in America (1935)) The 1619 Project In Writing Your Reﬂections, think through these questions: Who is the writer? Why are they writing this piece? What are the personal and anecdotal aspects of the piece? What are the empirical – qualitative or quantitative aspects of the piece? Does the writer openly express their subjectivity or are we to assume objectivity? What is subjectivity? What is objectivity? How is this historical narrative different from others you have read? What textual examples are there that demonstrate this difference? Why is language important? Hist 1100: Understanding Historical Change ○ 1619 Project What do we think about Hannah-Jones’s 1619 narrative? What do we think about the historical narratives presented about the founding of the United States? (Think about your highschool textbooks) Where are the gaps? Does #1619Project present a narrative you did not know ? The 1619 Project Reflection Assignment: Send as a google doc link via Blackboard Assignment (make sure you share with [email protected]) 2 page (double spacing) 12-point font Citation format, in text: (Section Author, page number, date, NYT Magazine) Two paragraphs (2 quotes, 1 from intro and 1 from the section) 1. Paragraph 1 - discuss introduction and context of 1619 Project, it’s editor, and contributing authors 2. Paragraph 2 and beyond - discussion of a specific section and contributing author 3. Concluding paragraph - what do you think? In Writing Your Reflections, think through these questions: Who is the writer? Why are they writing this piece? What are the personal and anecdotal aspects of the piece? What are the empirical – qualitative or quantitative aspects of the piece? Does the writer openly express their subjectivity or are we to assume objectivity? What is subjectivity? What is objectivity? How is this historical narrative different from others you have read? What textual examples are there that demonstrate this difference? Why is language important? What do we think about Hannah-Jones’s 1619 narrative? What do we think about the historical narratives presented about the founding of the United States? (Think about your highschool textbooks) Where are the gaps? Does #1619Project present a narrative you did not know? Revolution in Saint-Domingue as a Disaster - Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) 26 Haiti and the Era of Enlightenment Haitian anthropologist Michel-Rolph Trouillot asserts that western historiography’s silence of the Haitian Revolution is rooted in the “incapacity to express the unthinkable.”[i]The unthinkable being an organized Revolution successfully planned, executed and led by enslaved and formerly enslaved Africans and Afro-Creoles, as well as free people of color (gens de colour), in the French colony of Saint-Domingue –during a period of economic progress with the island serving as a model export oriented slave society. 27 Haiti and the Era of Enlightenment Other historians connect to this idea of Haiti’s existence standing outside of the bounds of rationality and modernity of the time, and out of tune with Enlightenment. In the historical narrative, information of and contributions by Haitian revolutionaries during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was very much concealed.[i] In the perspective of Enlightenment and western ideology, the Haitian Revolution was an unthinkable and irrational disaster. What makes this statement true? 28 Saint-Domingue At the end of the eighteenth century, Saint-Domingue was "the world's leading producer of both sugar and coffee." These commodities both depended on and drove the expansion of the emerging capitalist system of the Atlantic world which relied on enslaved African labor. In 1789, there were a half-million enslaved African and Afro-Creoles in the colony, as well as 31,000 whites and 28,000 free-coloreds. In 1685, the Code Noir was established to control the growing enslaved population. The Code Noir also controlled the lives of gens de coloeur or free-colored populations in Saint-Domingue (A 1764 royal decree forbade people of African descent to practice medicine, surgery, or pharmacy. 29 The next year another decree excluded them from working in legal professions or in the offices of notaries. A 1773 law made it illegal for them to take the names of their masters or white relatives... Unmarried women of color had to choose for their children names "drawn from the African idiom, their profession, or color." Saint-Domingue By the late eighteenth century, as a result of the high mortality rate, the majority of the enslaved populations in Saint-Domingue were African-born. Enslaved population of 500,000 highlights the brutality of enslavement. In addition to the death toll of the Middle Passage, … on average, half of the captives who arrived from Africa died within a few years with children dying at a rate of nearly ﬁfty percent on some plantations. 30 Haiti and the Era of Enlightenment At the onset of the Haitian Revolution, Jean-Pierre Brissot, a founding member of the Amis des Noirs and moderate French anti-colonialist, made three claims: “anyone who knew the Blacks had to realize that it was simply impossible for ﬁfty thousand of them to get together so fast and act in concert; slaves could not conceive of rebellion on their own, and mulattoes and whites were not so insane as to incite them to full-scale violence; even if the slaves had rebelled in such huge numbers, the superior French troops would have defeated them.” 31 Haiti and the Era of Enlightenment Comte de Buffon supported a monogenist viewpoint that people of African descent were not a different species, but “they were different enough to be destined to slavery.” While Voltaire disagreed; people of African descent did belong to a different species, “one culturally destined to be slaves.”[ii] … Thomas Jefferson…what did he say???? Trouillot states: “The Age of the Enlightenment was an age in which the slave drivers of Nantes bought titles of nobility to better parade with philosophers, an age in which a freedom ﬁghter such as Thomas Jefferson owned slaves without bursting under the weight of his intellectual and moral contradictions.” 32 Toussaint L’Ouverture (1743-1803) 33 Toussaint L’Ouverture (1743-1803) Revolutionary narrative beyond the largess figures of Dessalines and L’Ouverture, highlighting “the rebels in the mountains”: The Black Jacobins like Toussaint L’Ouverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Alexandre Pétion, Henry Christophe, Augustin Clervaux, were central to the narrative of the Haiti (free and enslaved), but the 34 African-born enslaved Revolutionaries, Bossale men with strange surnames, like Sans Souci, Makaya, Sylla, Mavougou, Lamour de la Rance, Petit-Noël Prieur (or Prière), Va-Malheureux, Macaque, Alaou, Coco, Sanglaou—… it is important to explore the “war within a war.” Haitian Revolution 35 The narrative of the Haitian Revolution and Haiti as a nation Following Louverture’s death in a Parisian prison (he was lured to Paris under the term of negotiation), Jean-Jacques Dessalines became the leading ﬁgure in the Revolution and Haiti’s ﬁrst president. Dessalines’ served in leadership during a crucial period between 1803 and 1806, a time of decisive military victories and alliances, the moment of Haitian independence, the creation of the constitution, the process of land distribution, and the naming of the nation. 36 The narrative of the Haitian Revolution and Haiti as a nation After a coup that led to Dessalines assassination, Haiti split in two: a northern monarchical structure lead by King Henry Christophe (representing Black Haiti) and southern republican government led by Alexandre Sabès Pétion (representing Haitian of mixed ancestry). Haiti was reunited in 1819 under Pierre Boyer who further codiﬁed Haitian economics and politics by race and color. Under his leadership, Haiti gained recognition on the world stage by paying an indemnity of 150 million francs to France (approximately $3 billion in today’s currency) to compensate enslavers for their losses – the most signiﬁcant damage as a result of the Revolution. 37 38 39 The Haitian Revolution and Louisiana Purchase After the Haitian Revolution, Napoleon sold the Louisiana territory, an expansive region that contained land that forms Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; the portion of Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, New Mexico, Texas; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and; Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (New Orleans); and land within the present Canadian provinces… to the United States for 15 million francs in 1803. 40 The Haitian Revolution and Louisiana Purchase Once a Spanish territory, but taken over by France through the Napoleonic wars, the 828,000 sq mi territory to the United States in 1803. [France controlled the territory from 1699 to 1762 and then it was ceded to Spain (connection to the 7 years war ). In 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte regained ownership of Louisiana. Losses in Saint Domingue and war in Europe moved France to sell the territory. The treaty that acquired the territory was signed by Thomas Jefferson. Half of the the non-indigenous population were enslaved Black people. The institution of slavery expanded exponentially at the turn of the 19th century… why/how? 41 42 Missouri Compromise, 1820 Passed in 1820 admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. With the exception of Missouri, prohibited slavery in the Louisiana Territory north of the 36° 30´ latitude line. 1854, the Missouri Compromise was repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and in 1857 declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott 43 decision (Congress did not have the authority to prohibit slavery in the territories.) https://guides.loc.gov/missouri-compromise James Monroe President ⅗ Compromise of 1787; Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 Atlantic Revolutions: Nationalistic (Nation-State)/Republicanism Rebellions against European monarchical control (also included indigenous, enslaved, maroon...) Concepts of Nationalism and Republicanism Rooted in the Age of Enlightenment in appeal for colonial sovereignty and rational governance in metropole ( John Locke, Voltaire, Thomas Jefferson, Gen de Colour - 1700s [18th century]). In era of Atlantic Revolutions (colonial sovereignty - as well as to gain popular support in metropole), nationalism through national symbols, anthems, myths, ﬂags and narratives gained prominence. Why is nationalism controversial? What is wrong with nationalism as a concept rooted in this era? How does it relate to citizenship? *Notions of sovereignty and empire* American Revolutionary War, 1775-1783 (Patriots) French Revolution, 1789-1799 ( Jacobins) Haitian Revolution, 1791-1804 (Black Jacobins? CLR James) 44 Amistad Case - 1839 45 Joseph Cinqué (c. 1814 – c. 1879), also known as Sengbe Pieh Amistad Case - 1839 In February of 1839, Portuguese abducted a large group of Africans from Sierra Leone and shipped them to Havana, Cuba --- Pedro Montes and Jose Ruiz (Spanish), purchased 53 Africans and put them aboard the Cuban schooner Amistad to ship them to a Caribbean plantation. On July 1, 1839, the Africans seized the ship, killed the captain and the cook, and ordered Montes and Ruiz to sail to Africa. Montes and Ruiz actually steered the ship north; and on August 24, 1839, the Amistad was seized off Long Island, NY, by the U.S. brig Washington. The schooner, its cargo, and all on board were taken to New London, CT. The plantation owners were freed and the Africans were imprisoned on charges of murder. Although the murder charges were dismissed, the Africans continued to be held in conﬁnement and the case went to trial in the Federal District Court in Connecticut. The plantation owners, government of Spain, and captain of the Washington each claimed rights to the Africans or compensation. 46 47 48 Amistad Case - 1839 President Van Buren was in favor of extraditing the Africans to Cuba. However, abolitionists in the North opposed extradition and raised money to defend the Africans. Had it not been for the actions of abolitionists in the United States, the issues related to the Amistad might have ended quietly in an admiralty court. But they used the incident as a way to expose the evils of slavery and generate signiﬁcant opposition to the practice. 49 Amistad Case - 1839 Abolitionists hired Roger S. Baldwin, a lawyer from New Haven, and two New York attorneys, Seth Staples and Theodore Sedgwick, to serve as proctors, or legal representatives, for the Africans. The proctors submitted to the district court an answer to the libels of Lt. Gedney, Pedro Montes, and Jose Ruiz. It conveys the position of the Africans: "...each of them are natives of Africa and were born free, and ever since have been and still of right are and ought to be free and not slaves..." It states that they were not a part of a Spanish domestic slave trade and instead had been forcibly kidnapped from the African coast. And further that, while suffering “great cruelty and oppression” on board the Amistad, they were “incited by the love of liberty natural to all men” to take possession of the ship by force and seek asylum somewhere. 50 Amistad Case - 1839 The district court ruled that the case fell within Federal jurisdiction and that the claims to the Africans as property were not legitimate because they were illegally held as “slaves”. The U.S. District Attorney ﬁled an appeal to the Supreme Court. In the trial before the Supreme Court, the Africans were represented by former U.S. President, and descendant of American revolutionaries, John Quincy Adams. Preparing for his appearance before the Court, Adams requested papers from the lower courts one month before the proceedings opened. For 8 ½ hours, the 73-year-old Adams passionately and eloquently defended the Africans' right to freedom on both legal and moral grounds, referring to treaties prohibiting the slave trade and to the Declaration of Independence. 51 Amistad Case - 1839 The Supreme Court decided in favor of the Africans, stating that they were free individuals. Kidnapped and transported illegally, they had never been :”slaves”. Senior Justice Joseph Story wrote and read the decision: "...it was the ultimate right of all human beings in extreme cases to resist oppression, and to apply force against ruinous injustice." The opinion asserted the Africans' right to resist "unlawful" slavery. The Court ordered the immediate release of the Amistad Africans. Thirty ﬁve of the survivors were returned to their homeland (the others died at sea or in prison while awaiting trial). 52 Expansion/Abolition/Containment of Slavery - Before 1812 Slave states Year Free states Year Delaware 1787 New Jersey 1787 (Slave until 1804) Georgia 1788 Pennsylvania 1787 Maryland 1788 Connecticut 1788 South Carolina 1788 Massachusetts 1788 Virginia 1788 New Hampshire 1788 North Carolina 1789 New York 1788 53 (Slave until 1799) Kentucky 1792 Rhode Island 1790 Tennessee 1796 Vermont 1791 Louisiana 1812 Ohio 1803 Expansion/Abolition/Containment of Slavery - After 1812, and until 1850…. Slave states Year Free states Year Mississippi 1817 Indiana 1816 Alabama 1819 Illinois 1818 Missouri 1821 Maine 1820 Arkansas 1836 Michigan 1837 54 Florida 1845 Iowa 1846 Texas 1845 Wisconsin 1848 Expansion/Abolition/Containment of Slavery - The balance was maintained until 1850: Slave states Year Free states Year California 1850 (One pro-slavery Senator) Minnesota 1858 Oregon 1859 55 Kansas 1861 Expansion/Abolition/Containment of Slavery - The Civil War (1861-1865) disrupted and eventually ended slavery: Slave state Year Free Year state West Virginia 1863 Nevad 1864 (gradual a abolition plan) 56 Indian Removal Act, 1830 (Signed into law by Andrew Jackson) The law allowed the President to negotiate and order the removal of indigenous nations from southern U.S territories to west of the Mississippi river. 57 Indian Removal Act, 1830 (Signed into law by Andrew Jackson) 58 Indian Removal Act, 1830 (Signed into law by Andrew Jackson) Random Jeopardy fact from 1st episode of Season 5 (or 6?) --- the Cherokee nation held 1277 Black people in bondage in 1825. These people also experienced forced removal through The Trail of Tears. (See the work of Tiya Miles for information on “Black Natives” or “Afro-Indigenous people” in the United States) 59 Indian Removal Act, 1830 (Signed into law by Andrew Jackson) Trail of Tears (1838-1839 during presidency of Martin Van Buren), forced removal of indigenous American nations by U.S. government from southern states to west of Mississippi river 1,000 mile trek “Five Civilized Nations” (Held treaties with US government, Christianity, held African descended people in bondage [womb law]): Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole 60 61 Although the twenty Africans who landed in Jamestown in 1619 as indentured servants are cited as the ﬁrst to step foot in North America, scholars contend that as early as 1526 a group of African captives was brought to South Carolina by the Spanish. ○ the Jamestown Twenty are classiﬁed as indentured servants by many scholars, but there are also those that state there were early differences between the treatment of European indentured servants and African captives - slavery for life for African captives being one of them ○ 40 years later in the second half of the seventeenth century that we see codiﬁed association between African ancestry and slavery through legislative. Virginia colony, 1705 official Slave Code - mimicked by colonies and then 15 slave states by 1860 (19 free states, held restrictions on Black people that resides in those states) By the mid 1700s the African population had increased dramatically, with 120,156 Black people and nearly matching the 62 white population of 173,316 --- Virginia, South Carolina, Maryland, Georgia, and Louisiana. British Caribbean and North America did not developed a single system of laws governing slavery. Instead it was colgelmeration of rules and regulations developed in each of the slaveholding states and colonies known as the Slave Codes. Replaced with Black Codes! “The enslaved were considered to be chattel, property to be bought and sold like cows and horses. As property, the enslaved could not participate in legal proceedings (unless those deliberations involved other Black people), make a contract, defend themselves against whites, buy or sell, and so on. Punishments included the infamous whip.” 1807, US and British “Abolition in Slave Trade” 1833, British Abolition of Slavery (what British colonies were affected by abolishing slavery?) 63 1865, US Abolition of Slavery New England Slavery existed in New England and northern states ○ commercial enterprise with a number of slavetraders were established in the region and the trade in African captives a major economic engine for New England until 1776. ○ Triangular Trade: “traders in captives and enslaved Black people exchanged ﬁsh and rum for Africans, molasses and sugar, and while some Africans remained in New England to help build its ports, many were shipped elsewhere, including the Caribbean.” ○ Leading universities such as Brown, Harvard, and Yale were the beneﬁciaries of the enterprise. 64 New England and Northern states Slavery was dying out in New England - 3,700 out of 13,000 Black people were enslaved by 1790. ○ New York City 3,252 (of whom 2,184 were enslaved) ○ Philadelphia 1,630 ( 210 were enslaved) 65 Total North American Black population of 750,000 in 1790 Southern states The legal importation of captive Africans ended in 1808 - clandestine trade directly from Africa, together with transhipments from the Caribbean (especially Cuba), continued until the outbreak of the Civil War (the Amistad Case). Instead, North American planters created conditions in which the enslaved could sustain and grow their numbers, by 1860 an importation of 750,000 captive had produced a population of 4.5 million people, more than 10 percent of whom were not formally enslaved. This means that by 1860, there were almost 500,000 free Black people in the US (gradual emancipation in the North, self-emancipation and migration, natural population increase of free Black communities). The domestic trade in enslaved Black people became very important, facilitating the westward expansion of white settlers and enslaved laborforce by 1815. Planters relocated to Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and then on to Texas. (Missouri Compromise) 66 67 The Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves of 1807 “Abolition of the transatlantic slave trade” by the US govt - Abolition in the trade in African captives “The Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves of 1807”, US federal law enacted March 2, 1807 and took effect 1808. Promoted by President Thomas Jefferson. 68 69 War of 1812 War between the United States and the United Kingdom, 1812 to 1815 Napoleonic Wars; Impressment of US merchant marines by British Royal Navy; 1812, US President James Madison signed the American declaration of war into law Treaty of Ghent 1815 70 James Monroe and the Monroe Doctrine James Monroe (1817 to 1825), The "Monroe Doctrine" (1823) prohibited and opposed further European colonization of the Americas and that the US would inversely not interfere in European colonies or continental affairs At a deﬁning point in history of Latin American independence movements from Spain and Portugal. 71 Missouri Compromise of 1820 Balance of power in Congress between slave and free states Missouri admitted into union as slave state and Maine as a free state. With the exception of Missouri, slavery was prohibited north of the 36° 30´ latitude line. 72 73 Mexican Independence from Spain, 1821 Juan O'Donojú and Agustín I 74 American immigration to Mexico, 1820s Mexico became a republic and under its 1824 constitution, was established as the United Mexico States. Coahuila and Texas became one of those states. Colonization Law of August 18, 1824 was a Mexican statute allowing foreigners to immigrate to the country - these foreigners were Anglo-American or white-American immigrants. The Mexican government hoped that an inﬂux of immigrants could control conﬂict with indigenous groups and nations (Great Basin and Southwest). In an effort to control Apache and Comanche nations that controlled the space….this will prove true with the “Indian Wars” of the 1860s to 1880s. The state of Coahuila and Texas passed its own colonization law in 1825. 75 American immigration to Mexico, 1820s In 1823, Mexico forbade the sale or purchase of enslaved people and African captives, and required that the children of enslaved people to be freed when they reached fourteen. Many of the white American immigrants in Texas, however, had already held Black people in bondage and brought them to the new territory when they arrived from the United States. 76 Mexico’s Turbulent and Interesting History after independence…similar to France after the French Revolution Vicente Guerrero 2nd President of Mexico In office April 1, 1829 – December 17, 1829 He was of Afro-Mestizo descent 77 78 Mexico and the Texas Revolution In 1827, the legislature of Coahuila y Tejas banned the admission of additional enslaved people into the state and granted freedom at birth to all children born to an enslaved person. The new laws also stated that any enslaved person brought into Texas should be freed within six months. In 1829, slavery was officially abolished in Mexico under the short presidential term of Vicente Ramón Guerrero. With the support of Coahuila and Texas governor Jose Maria Viesca and reality of white-American revolt, Texas was temporarily exempted from the slavery prohibition rule. In 1830, they were ordered to comply in full with the emancipation law prompting immigrants to claim enslaved Black people as indentured servants with 99-year terms, which the state also banned in 1832. 79 Republic of Texas Republic of Texas: 1836–1845 Mexican Texas: 1821–1836 Spanish Texas: 1690–1821 80 Antonio López de Santa Anna (8th President of United Mexico States ) Texas Republic A change in constitution in 1835, move the states into departments gave the Mexican control over Texas. President Antonio López de Santa Anna's attempts to centralize the government. Texas eventually became the independent Republic of Texas in 1836 after the Texas Revolution, supported clandestinely by the United States government. From 1836 to 1845 Texas was sovereign nation, but never officially recognized by the Mexican government. 81 Republic of Texas Republic of Texas: 1836–1845 Mexican Texas: 1821–1836 Spanish Texas: 1690–1821 Stephen F. Austin Sam Houston 82 Mexican American War, 1846-1848 Antonio López de Santa Anna 83 James Polk, 11th President (1845-1849) 84 Mexican American War, 1846-1848 In 1845 the Texas government ratiﬁed annexation to the US. Before the declaration of war from the US, expansionist minded US president James Polk sent diplomats to Mexico city to purchase New Mexico and California but this was rejected by Mexico. The Mexican American war took place between 1846 and 1848. It ended in 1848 with Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico ceded 55 percent of its territory, including parts of present-day Arizona, California, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado, Nevada, and Utah, to the United States. 6 years later in 1854 an additional portion of the Southwest was purchased by the US. In return for the northern third of Mexico, the United States agreed to pay $15 million and to assume up to $3.25 million in claims by its citizens against the Mexican government. 85 Mexican American War, 1846-1848 Six years later, the Gadsden Purchase of 1854 extended the US border by a 29,670-square-mile region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. Texas and Mexican cession is important because of the expansion of and increased conﬂict about slavery. It lead directly to the Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. 86 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 87 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ARTICLE X [Stricken out] Article XI Considering that a great part of the territories, which, by the present treaty, are to be comprehended for the future within the limits of the United States, is now occupied by savage tribes, who will hereafter be under the exclusive control of the Government of the United States, and whose incursions within the territory of Mexico would be prejudicial in the extreme, it is solemnly agreed that all such incursions shall be forcibly restrained by the Government of the United States whensoever this may be necessary; and that when they cannot be prevented, they shall be punished by the said Government, and satisfaction for the same shall be exactedall in the same way, and with equal diligence and energy, as if the same incursions were meditated or committed within its own territory, against its own citizens. It shall not be lawful, under any pretext whatever, for any inhabitant of the United States to purchase or acquire any Mexican, or any foreigner residing in Mexico, who may have been captured by Indians inhabiting the territory of either of the two republics; nor to purchase or acquire horses, mules, cattle, or property of any kind, stolen within Mexican territory by such Indians. 88 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo And in the event of any person or persons, captured within Mexican territory by Indians, being carried into the territory of the United States, the Government of the latter engages and binds itself, in the most solemn manner, so soon as it shall know of such captives being within its territory, and shall be able so to do, through the faithful exercise of its inﬂuence and power, to rescue them and return them to their country. or deliver them to the agent or representative of the Mexican Government. The Mexican authorities will, as far as practicable, give to the Government of the United States notice of such captures; and its agents shall pay the expenses incurred in the maintenance and transmission of the rescued captives; who, in the mean time, shall be treated with the utmost hospitality by the American authorities at the place where they may be. But if the Government of the United States, before receiving such notice from Mexico, should obtain intelligence, through any other channel, of the existence of Mexican captives within its territory, it will proceed forthwith to effect their release and delivery to the Mexican agent, as above stipulated. 89 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo For the purpose of giving to these stipulations the fullest possible efficacy, thereby affording the security and redress demanded by their true spirit and intent, the Government of the United States will now and hereafter pass, without unnecessary delay, and always vigilantly enforce, such laws as the nature of the subject may require. And, ﬁnally, the sacredness of this obligation shall never be lost sight of by the said Government, when providing for the removal of the Indians from any portion of the said territories, or for its being settled by citizens of the United States; but, on the contrary, special care shall then be taken not to place its Indian occupants under the necessity of seeking new homes, by committing those invasions which the United States have solemnly obliged themselves to restrain. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=1141 90 Indigenous Americans: Great Basin 91 Indigenous Americans: Southwest 92 Indigenous Americans 93 Texas Republic and State of Texas Texas Republic: 1836, enslaved Black population 5,000 out of 38,470 State of Texas: 1845, 30,000 enslaved Black population (after annexation jump in population) 1850, 58,161 enslaved Black population 1860, 182,566 enslaved Black population (30% of the Texas population) In addition to ranching {google Black cowboys}, tobacco and sugar, cotton became an important commodity and crop during this period. 94 Black Cowboys Bass Reeves was the ﬁrst Black deputy U.S. marshal west of the Mississippi River. He worked mostly in Arkansas and the Oklahoma Territory. During his long career, he was credited with arresting more than 3,000 “outlaws”. 95 He shot and killed 14 outlaws in self-defense. Domestic trade in enslaved Black people 96 Gold in California What is interesting about these images???? 97 Gold in California Soon after the Mexican cession, the California Gold Rush takes place from 1848–1855. Approximately 300,000 people went to California from abroad and other parts of the United States. The contributions to the US economy and increase in population moved efforts to statehood with the Compromise of 1850. 98 Gold in California Population diversity Early residents of California - white Americans and immigrants from Europe, as well as Californios (Spanish-speaking Californians) along with Indigenous Americans. A diversity of women were involved as well, with many arriving as families working to ﬁnd gold, as well as sex-workers, wealthy entrepreneurs, etc… Of the 300,000, people from the United States were the largest group (with enslaved Black people and even a small portion of free African Americans involved as well - some of these Black people were able to buy their freedom {if enslaved} or the freedom of their family), but tens of thousands diverse immigrants participated: Mexicans, Chinese, Britons, Spanish (Spain), Australians,Filipinos, French, South Americans, and Turks - also immigrants of African descent from the Caribbean and Brazil. 99 Gold in California With time the Gold Rush negatively affected indigenous Californians with population decline from disease, genocide and starvation. Other important signiﬁcances are the changing dynamics of immigration, particularly Chinese immigration leading to a sequence of anti-chinese immigration laws beginning in the 1850s (notably the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act), as well as the Compromise of 1850. 100 Compromise of 1850 101 Compromise of 1850 Prompted by the 1849 requested admission of California to enter the union as a free state - disrupting the balance of free and slave states. Kentucky Senator Henry Clay introduced the resolutions that became the Compromise of 1850. The Compromise comprised of ﬁve laws passed in September of 1850 that dealt with the issue of slavery. Kentucky Senator Henry Clay 102 Compromise of 1850 Prompted by the 1849 requested admission of California to enter the union as a free state - disrupting the balance of free and slave states. Kentucky Senator Henry Clay introduced the resolutions that became the Compromise of 1850. 103 The Compromise comprised of ﬁve laws passed in September of 1850 that dealt Zachary Taylor with the issue of slavery. Millard Fillmore (1849-1850) (July 9, 1850 – March 4, 12th president 1853) 13th president Compromise of 1850 - The Fugitive Slave Act Important features of the Compromise included: ○ The South prevented the adoption of the Wilmot Proviso, which would have outlawed slavery in the new territories, particularly in the south west. The use of popular sovereignty voting to decide the status of Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory which opposed slavery. ○ Although unsuccessfully included in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848 that ended the Mexican American war, the Wilmot Proviso demonstrated the political conﬂict between antislavery and proslavery contingents. ○ California was admitted as a free state ○ The trade in enslaved Black people was banned in the District of Columbia. ○ A stronger version of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 was enacted with the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, requiring law enforcement and everyday citizens in free states to support the capture and return of self-emancipated Black people, and penalizing those who evaded the law. ○ In general, the compromise demonstrate the growing divide, and greater movement into sectional politics. 104 Compromise of 1850 - California By the time it ended, California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory, to having one of its ﬁrst two U.S. Senators, John C. Frémont, selected to be the ﬁrst presidential nominee for the new Republican Party, in 1856. 105 Compromise of 1850 - The Fugitive Slave Act The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 buttressed the system of searching for, detaining, retrieving and returning self-emancipated Black people — from free states to slave states. “Runaways” were undocumented, as they did not have the coveted “freedom papers” or were not manumitted with legal channels. The Act also provided ﬁnancial resources to state and local actors, the police, and made the public culpable for harboring fugitives of slavery or not physically helping in the pursuit of fugitives of slavery. 106 Compromise of 1850 - The Fugitive Slave Act Additionally, the law attempted to dismantle the interracial network of antislavery advocates and abolitionist activists of the Underground Railroad — which provide resources once self-emancipated and clandestine routes to free states. Black and abolitionist communities in northern free states were outrages and protested the law. They worked to create safe spaces for self-emancipated exiled communities — sanctuary cities, towns, neighborhoods, and/or block. These networks disempower U.S. Marshals, citizen “slave catchers,” and the police. 107 108 109 HARRIET TUBMAN “THE MOSES OF HER PEOPLE” 110 HARRIET TUBMAN, QUESTIONS TO THE CLASS: Harriet Tubman’s story represents the personal and communal toll the act took on Black communities. What do you know about Harriet Tubman? Her contributions to the Underground Railroad? Her role as an Abolitionist? Her contributions during the Civil War? And her life after the Civil War? Is Tubman the “Black Joan of Arc,” the “Moses of her People,” “General Tubman,” or the “Great Emancipator”? 111 112 HARRIET TUBMAN Araminta “Minty” Ross was born enslaved around 1822 in Dorchester County, Maryland in the eastern shore. She and her family were enslaved by the white Pattisons, the 113 Thompsons, the Stewarts, and the Brodesses. Harriet’s father Ben Ross was manumitted by will in 1840 while her mother Harriet and siblings remained enslaved. Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) As a teen, while helping a fellow enslaved Black man, Tubman was “inadvertently” knock down by a white enslaver and fell into a coma. From that time, she suffered seizures, visions and Blackouts, now diagnosed as temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). These episodes became a part of the mysticism of Tubman as a ﬁgure comparable to Joan of Arc. She connected these occurrences to her relationship with God and spirituality. Harriet married John Tubman, a free Black man in the 1844. In 1849, Harriet attempted to run away with her two brothers, but they were not successful. She ran away alone later that same year and successfully made it Philadelphia with the help the Underground Railroad network of free Black Solomon Northup, Twelve Years a Slave (1853) It was a common practice for enslavers to legally and illegally sell Black people down south – kidnappings were also a common occurrence in the North and South. 114 115 116 117 Upon hearing that she may be sold down South, in September 1849, Harriet attempted to escape with her two brothers, but they were not successful. Eliza Ann Brodess arranged a 300.00 dollar (equivalent of 9,000.00 dollars) reward for their capture. 118 119 120 121 ARAMINTA “MINTY” ROSS --- HARRIET TUBMAN I grew up like a neglected weed,--ignorant of liberty, having no experience of it. Then I was not happy or contented: every time I saw a white man I was afraid of being carried away. I had two sisters carried away in a chain-gang,--one of them left two children. We were always uneasy. Now I've been free, I know what a dreadful condition slavery is. I have seen hundreds of escaped slaves, but I never saw one who was willing to go back and be a slave. I have no opportunity to see my friends in my native land. We would rather stay in our native land, if we could be as free there as we are here. I think slavery is the next thing to hell. If a person would send another into bondage, he would, it appears to me, be bad enough to send him into hell, if he could. 122 Harriet Tubman, Moses of her People As the local enactment of the Fugitive Slave Law, passed in 1850, increased, self-emancipated Black people looked to Underground Railroad (UGRR) organizations for support - Fugitive Aid Society supported the immediate transition of self-emancipated Black people from slavery to freedom. Although illiterate which was a disadvantage, as a conductor Tubman was notorious for her disguises, omniscient spirituality, knowledge of swamp and backwoods terrain, and outright bravery. 123 Harriet Tubman, Moses of her People Prior to the Civil War, Tubman conducted about thirteen trips with seventy to eighty enslaved Black people, additionally ﬁfty or sixty more that she gave detailed instructions, nearly all from Dorchester and Caroline Counties in Maryland. She gain a great reputation as an emancipator known as “Moses” by the Black communities, in addition to working as a domestic, she began to fundraise giving speeches on the abolitionists circuits for her trips south. Although her parents, Ben and Rit Ross, were manumitted, Harriet’s activities in the UGRR put them at risk under the Fugitive Slave Law. She rescued her parents from Maryland to Canada. 124 Harriet Tubman, Moses of her People Among enslavers Tubman also held a reputation, and an accumulation of $12,000 reward was given for the capture of Tubman. At a women’s suffrage meeting in Rochester, NY in the 1880s, she stated in a speech “I was conductor of the Underground Railroad for eight years, and I can say what most conductors can't say – I never ran my train off the track and I never lost a passenger.” 125 Harriet Tubman - Brief Historiography Brief Historiography (pieces and books published before death) A North-Side View of Slavery (Benjamin Drew, 1855) ○ Tubman’s narrative was ﬁrst published as a part of an accumulation of edited interviews by Benjamin Drew in “ e Refugee: or North-Side View of Slavery”. Published in 1856, Drew’s piece countered George Fitzhugh's Sociology for the South; or, the Failure of Free Society and Reverend Nehemiah Adams's A Southside View of Slavery. In vogue with Samuel Cartwright’s “drapetomania” logic, Fitzhugh and Adams both argued that slavery was beneﬁcial and less oppressive than the northern wage labor system. Both claimed that enslaved Black people were content in the South, directly challenging Harriet Beecher Stowe's description of slavery in Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852). Fitzhugh and Adams challenge northern abolitionists' claims about the horrors of slavery as only emotional and without merit. Through interviews with Canadian refugees, such 126 as Tubman and her family members, Drew sought to buttress the ﬁctive narrative of slavery by Stowe and autobiographic slave narratives with anecdotes from an entire self-emancipated community. Samuel Cartwright’s “drapetomania” logic Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) “Harriet Tubman,” Commonwealth (Franklin B. Sanborn,1863) Antislavery activism Antislavery activism John Jay’s New York antislavery organization and the Quaker Second Great Awakening between 1820s and 1830s expanded this space Ideological diversity in antislavery and abolition movements in the United States and across the world ○ “Men like Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln were convinced that Africans could never become the equal of whites, and that repatriation to Africa, or deportation to the Caribbean, was the best solution for resolving “the freedman question.” (Historian, Michael Gomez) 127 Antislavery activism Antislavery activism Ideological diversity in antislavery and abolition movements in the United States and across the world ○ American Colonization Society which during the John Monroe’s administration organized the transport of free Black people to Liberia - the capital became Monrovia. ○ There was also support for gradual emancipation (which took place in Northern states, as people were stilled enslaved until the 1830s in some Northern states) and enslaver compensation. ○ Antislavery and abolitionist did not necessary relate to support for Black humanity and anti-racism. 128 Antislavery activism Antislavery activism In addition to Black women like Harriet Tubman and Sojourner Truth, white women also found a political voice in the abolition movement. ○ Suzanne B. Anthony ○ Sarah and Angelina Grimke ○ Lydia Maria Child ○ Lucretia Mott ○ Elizabeth Cady Stanton Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton become important figures in the women’s rights movement, and organize a Seneca Fall Meeting for 129 women’s rights in 1848. Antislavery activism: Literature Antislavery activism: Literature 1789 - Olaudah Equiano’s The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa 1827 - first Black newspaper, Freedom’s Journal, published in 1827 by John Russwurm and Samuel Cornish 1831 - William Lloyd Garrison’s Liberator 1834 - 1837 - religious works such as James G. Barney’s Letter to the Ministers and Elders in 1834 and Theodore Weld’s The Bible Against Slavery in 1837 1845 - Frederick Douglass’ slave narrative 1847 - National Watchman, published by Henry Highland Garnet and William G. Allen, and the North Star, begun by Frederick Douglass in 1847 1852 - Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (300,000 copies in its first year of publication) 130 1861 - Harriet Jacobs, Incident of the life of a Slave Girl Antislavery activism: Abolition Antislavery activism: Abolition In Great Britain, Emancipation Act of 1833, ratified the following year - Apprenticeship period in the English-speaking Caribbean (children under six years of age became free, while all others were to work for their former enslavers for another four years, after which all would be emancipated in 1838). Enslavers received significant compensation for their losses. Canada - Slavery in Canada, a modest institution in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Lower Canada, was also ended by Parliament’s 1833 Act. French and Danish-held Caribbean - Slavery abolished in 1848 Dutch Caribbean - Slavery abolished in Aruba, Bonair, Curaçao, St. Maarten, St. Eustatius, and Saba in 1863 131 United States - Slavery abolished with 13th amendment in 1865 Kansas Nebraska Act of 1854 and “Bleeding Kansas” The Kansas Nebraska Act of 1854, nullified the Compromise of 1850 by allowing newly admitted states to vote if they would be “Free” or “Slave” by popular sovereignty or popular vote. With proslavery"Border Ruffians" and anti-slavery "Free-Staters" at tensions in the state - leading to a war like (paramilitary activity) atmosphere between 1854 and 1861 that was characterised as Bleeding Kansas. John Brown and his sons became involved in the activities in Kansas, which increasing his resolve that slavery would only be ended by war. 132 Kansas Nebraska Act of 1854 and “Bleeding Kansas” John Brown and his sons became involved in the activities in Kansas, which increasing his resolve that slavery would only be ended by war. John Brown, Radical Abolition 133 “General Tubman”: Civil War “General Tubman”: Civil War In early 1858, John Brown travelled to St. Catherines, Canada from Boston to meet with Harriet Tubman and Black community members about his plan to lead an insurrection in the South and establish a new free state for emancipated Black people in the mountains of Virginia and western Maryland. Prominent abolitionists and Underground Railroad operators Frederick Douglass, Gerrit Smith, and Jermain W. Loguen advised Brown to connect with Tubman, who had just left Boston after fundraising and speaking engagements. Brown anticipated that her authority on the134communication and transport lines on the Underground Railroad would provide an advantage for the assault on Harpers Ferry. In addition to sharing his plans and consulting on draft constitution for a provisional government with Douglass, Brown visited with his core group of activists - the Secret Six (Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Samuel Gridley Howe, Theodore Parker, Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, Gerrit Smith, and George Luther Stearns) – who knew about Brown’s plans for an armed raid and provided funds and connections. “General Tubman”: Civil War In a letter to his son the next day, Brown described that his meeting with Tubman went beyond his expectations. Referring to her as “General,” he wrote that she was “the most of a man…that I ever met with.” With the raid in planning, Tubman returned to Boston where she met with Franklin B. Sanborn, a well-known abolitionist who was a supporter and confidant of Brown and a member of Brown's Secret Six. Sanborn would become one of Tubman’s most staunch and reliable supporters, writing the first, and – what recent biographer Catherine Clinton notes as perhaps the most accurate biography of Tubman's early life. 135 “General Tubman”: Civil War Incapacitated by illness in New Bedford, Massachusetts in the fall of 1859, Tubman was unable to join Brown in his attack at Harpers Ferry. Brown commenced his attack on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry with a small group of twenty-one men on Sunday night, October 16, 1859. By Tuesday, Robert E. Lee and a party of U.S. Marines had forced them to retreat and the raid was suppressed. Sanborn, Douglass and other abolitionists fled to Canada in fear of being arrested and carried off to Virginia for trial. Tubman was devastated by the loss of Brown, who she admired for his valiant battle against the Slave Power. Among many moments of conflict, Brown’s assault on Harper’s Ferry made him a martyr and added to the clash that soon officiate into South Carolinian secession and U.S. Civil War. 136 “General Tubman”: Civil War John Brown and “General Tubman”: Civil War 1791–1804 Haitian Revolution (victorious) 1800 Gabriel's Rebellion 1803 Igbo Landing 1805 Chatham Manor 1811 German Coast Uprising 1815 George Boxley 1816 Bussa's Rebellion (Barbados) 1822 Denmark Vesey 1831 Nat Turner's rebellion 1831–1832 Baptist War (Jamaica) 1839 Amistad, ship rebellion (victorious) 1841 Creole case, ship rebellion (victorious) 1842 Revolt of Enslaved Black people in the Cherokee Nation (Indian Territory, suppressed) 1859 John Brown's Raid 137 Forming the Confederacy: Secession 138 Forming the Confederacy: Secession Caning of Charles Sumner (Republican) by Representative Preston Brooks (Democrat) in 1856 around the time of Bleeding Kansas 139 South Carolina Senator representative, Charles Preston Brooks Sumner Forming the Confederacy: Secession Dred Scott Decision (Supreme Court) Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court made in March 1857. The Supreme Court issued a 7–2 decision against Dred Scott, an enslaved Black man that sued for freedom on the grounds that he was in taken into free territory. In an opinion written by Chief Justice Roger Taney, the Court ruled that Black people "are not included, and were not intended to be included, under the word 'citizens' in the Constitution, and can therefore claim none of the rights and privileges which that instrument provides for and secures to citizens of the United States." 140 Forming the Confederacy: Secession Dred Scott Decision (Supreme Court) The Court held that the U.S. Constitution was not meant to include American citizenship for Black people, regardless of whether they were enslaved or free, and therefore the rights and privileges it confers upon American citizens could never apply to them. The 1857 Dred Scott v. Sandford decision increased opposition to slavery in the North, where many Know Nothings joined the Republicans. 141 Forming the Confederacy: Secession Election of 1860: Republican Abraham Lincoln Vs. Southern Democrat John C. Breckinridge, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, and 142 Constitutional Union John Bell Forming the Confederacy: Secession The eleven states of the CSA South Carolina (December 20, 1860) Mississippi (January 9, 1861) Florida (January 10, 1861) Alabama (January 11, 1861) Georgia (January 19, 1861) Louisiana (January 26, 1861) Texas (February 1, 1861) Virginia (April 17, 1861) Arkansas (May 6, 1861) North Carolina (May 20, 1861) Tennessee (June 8, 1861) 143 Missouri and Kentucky (supported secession but political opposition within state). Forming the Confederacy: Secession The US Civil War began with the Battle of Fort Sumter (Charleston, South Carolina) April 12–13, 1861 where the United States Army surrendered by the confederacy. What is 144 interesting about the US army surrendering? U.S. Civil War Alexander H. Stephens, CSA Vice President; author of 'Cornerstone Speech' Was slavery about states rights? Where did this historical narrative come from? Redeemers... 145 Harriet Tubman and the US Civil War At the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, with the support of Massachusetts Governor John Andrew and Secretary of State William Seward (who sold Tubman a house and land in Auburn, New York in 1859), Tubman became a part of the war effort as a nurse in Monroe and Port Royal, South Carolina. There she supported communities of formerly enslaved Black people that flocked to Union lines becoming contraband. Although laced with controversy, the Militia Act of 1862 initiated the recruitment of Black soldiers by the Union army. Before the official formation of the Massachusetts 54th regiment, the soldiers and military personnel were banded into informal auxiliaries and regiments. These bands were organized by the Bureau of Colored Troops in the spring of 1863 after the enactment of the Emancipation Proclamation (freedom to enslaved Black people in Confederate south - did not grant freedom to enslaved Black southern union controlled states). 146 Harriet Tubman and the US Civil War Emancipation Proclamation, put into effect January 1, 1863 - Lincoln wanted to deny the Confederacy its labor base and main economic/infrastructure support for the war. The Proclamation only applied to those in the Confederacy, and it did not emancipate the enslaved in states loyal to the Union or in territory under Union occupation: Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky. 147 Harriet Tubman and the US Civil War With the arrival of Thomas Wentworth Higginson (in the fall of 1862) and James Montgomery (in the spring of 1863) to the Department of the South – both Union colonels in charge of Black regiments and abolitionists allied with Brown in the Harper’s Ferry Raid and Kansas actions respectively – Tubman had inﬂuential advocates among the Union army and began work as a military scout and spy by early 1863. Extremely clandestine and sensitive, Tubman’s espionage operation was under the direction of the secretary of war, Edwin M. Stanton. 148 Harriet Tubman and the US Civil War Under the leadership of Colonel James Montgomery and Tubman, a band of 150 Black soldiers from the 2nd Regiment Volunteer South Carolina Infantry (African descent) executed the famed Combahee River Raid in June 1863. In addition to securing the support of enslaved communities, Tubman’s plans provided the location of Rebel torpedoes guiding the Union gunboats to avoid them. But by the time Confederate headquarters became abreast of the incursion, more than 750 enslaved Black people self-emancipated onto Union gunboats with the help of Tubman and 150 Black soldiers. With the success of Tubman’s plan, the estates of the Heywards, the Middletons, the Lowndes, and other Carolina dynasties were left ruined and disgraced. In addition to a Union win, the Combahee River Raid demonstrated the intelligence, organization and bravery of Black soldiers. 149 Harriet Tubman and the US Civil War This set the stage for the incoming Massachusetts 54th Regiment: Second African-American regiment commanded by Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, the son of Boston abolitionists. Frederick Douglass and other abolitionists were apart of recruitment efforts, and two sons were among the ﬁrst to enlist. The military action also initiated an aggressive strategy directed as the Slave Power economy. Combahee River Raid served as strategic precedent to Sherman’s March of 1864: Sherman's March to the Sea was a military campaign conducted through Georgia from November 15 until December 21, 1864, by Major General William Tecumseh Sherman of the Union Army. Sherman's troops leaving the captured city of Atlanta on November 15 and, targeting Confederate infrastructure, plantation economy, transportation network and industry (scorched earth policy), the campaign ended with the capture of the port of Savannah on December 21. 150 Harriet Tubman and the US Civil War 186,000 Black people enlisted in the Union Army, 93,000 of whom came from seceding states, and over 38,000 died in the war. ….The enslaved also advanced their own liberation by crossing Union Army lines and offering to work for wages. The Confederacy used enslaved Black people for much of the vital infrastructural work, such as repairing railroads and bridges, manufacturing ﬁrearms and powder, and constructing fortiﬁcations....A few Black people also fought with the South, a last-ditch effort resulting from an act of desperation on the part of the Confederate government, enacted in March of 1865, by which time all was lost; the Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox the following month. 151 Harriet Tubman and the US Civil War Kevin Levin, debunks myth https://slate.com/human-interest/2019/08/Black-confederate-myth-history-book.html “‘Over the past few decades, claims to the existence of anywhere between 500 and 100,000 Black Confederate soldiers, fighting in racially integrated units, have become increasingly common,’ writes historian Kevin Levin in his new book, Searching for Black Confederates: The Civil War’s Most Persistent Myth. ‘Proponents assert that entire companies and regiments served under Robert E. Lee’s command, as well as in other theaters of war.’ The Confederacy can’t have been so bad for Black people. Otherwise, why would they have defended it?” 152 The US Civil War Civil War Facts from National Park Service, Department of the Interior: 1861-1865 The Union included the states of Maine, New York, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, California, Nevada, and Oregon. Abraham Lincoln was their President. The Confederacy included the states of Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia. Jefferson Davis was their President. Maryland, Delaware, West Virginia, Kentucky and Missouri were called Border States. 153 The US Civil War 1. First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas) - 1861; Confederate Victory; First major battle of US Civil War 2. Battle of Antietam (Sharpsburg) - 1862; Robert E. Lee as Confederate General come to prominence; Not a decisive victory but Confederate retreat; Confederate attempt to break through Union border - Army of North VA; Lincoln announced Emancipation Proclamation in Fall of 1862 to be initiated January, 1st 1863. 3. Battle of Gettysburg - July 1863; Union Victory; Army of North VA’s full retreat from union border and attempt to break through; Nov 1863 President Lincoln’s Gettysburg address - outwardly change purpose of the war, keep Union together and end slavery. 4. Siege of Vicksburg - July 1863; Union Victory; Control of Vicksburg, MS (MS river and artillery); Union General Ulysses S. Grant important figure 154 The US Civil War MILITARY Enlistment Strength Enlistment strength for the Union Army is 2,672,341 which can be broken down as: · 2,489,836 white soldiers (43% immigrants and the sons of immigrants) · 178,975 African American soldiers · 3,530 Native American troops Enlistment strength for the Confederate Army ranges from 750,000 to 1,227,890. Soldier demographics for the Confederate Army are not available due to incomplete and destroyed enlistment records. 155 The US Civil War “In 1860, about 13% of the U.S. population was born overseas—roughly what it is today. One in every four members of the Union armed forces was an immigrant, some 543,000 of the more than 2 million Union soldiers by recent estimates. Another 18% had at least one foreign-born parent. Together, immigrants and the sons of immigrants made up about 43% of the U.S. armed forces.” https://time.com/3940428/civil-war-immigrant-soldiers/ 156 The US Civil War: New York Draft Riots, July, 1863 (Five Days) The New York City Draft Riots of 1863 An excerpt from In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626-1863 by Leslie M. Harris https://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/317749.html&title=T he+New+York+City+Draft+Riots+of+1863&desc= 157 The US Civil War New York Draft Riots The enactment of the Emancipation Proclamation in January 1863 capped two years of increasing support for emancipation in New York City. Although Republicans attempted to keep abolitionists from taking a leading role in New York's antislavery politics during the early years of the war, by 1862 abolitionist speakers drew huge audiences, Black and white, in the city. Increasing support for the abolitionists and for emancipation led to anxiety among New York's white proslavery supporters of the Democratic Party, particularly the Irish. 158 The US Civil War New York Draft Riots From the time of Lincoln's election in 1860, the Democratic Party had warned New York's Irish and German residents to prepare for the emancipation of enslaved people and the resultant labor competition when southern Black people would supposedly ﬂee north. To these New Yorkers, the Emancipation Proclamation was conﬁrmation of their worst fears. In March 1863, fuel was added to the ﬁre in the form of a stricter federal draft law. All male citizens between twenty and thirty-ﬁve and all unmarried men between thirty-ﬁve and forty-ﬁve years of age were subject to military duty. The federal government entered all eligible men into a lottery. Those who could afford to hire a substitute or pay the government three hundred dollars might avoid enlistment. Black people, who were not considered citizens, were exempt from the draft. 159 The US Civil War Black men and Black women were attacked, but the rioters singled out the men for special violence. On the waterfront, they hanged William Jones and then burned his body…..A white laborer, George Glass, rousted Black coachman Abraham Franklin from his apartment and dragged him through the streets. A crowd gathered and hanged Franklin from a lamppost as they cheered for Jefferson Davis, the Confederate president. After the mob pulled Franklin's body from the lamppost, a sixteen-year-old Irish man, Patrick Butler, dragged the body through the streets by its genitals. Black men who tried to defend themselves fared no better. The crowds were pitiless. After James Costello shot at and fled from a white attacker, six white men beat, stomped, kicked, and stoned him before hanging him from a lamppost. 160 The US Civil War The rioters' actions also indicate the degree to which the sensational journalists and reformers of the 1840s and 1850s had achieved their goals of convincing whites, and particularly the Irish, that interracial socializing and marriage were evil and degrading practices. The riots unequivocally divided white workers from Black people. The act of rioting may itself have released guilt and shame over former interracial pleasures. Finally, and most simply, white workers asserted their superiority over Black people through the riots. The Civil War and the rise of the Republican Party and Lincoln to power indicated to New York's largely Democratic white workers a reversal of power in the nation; Black labor competition indicated a reversal of fortunes in New York City itself. White workers sought to remedy their upside-down world through mob violence. 161 The US Civil War In all, rioters lynched eleven Black men over the five days of mayhem. The riots forced hundreds of Black people out of the city. As Iver Bernstein states, "For months after the riots the public life of the city became a more noticeably white domain." During the riots, landlords drove Black people from their residences, fearing the destruction of their property. After the riots, when the Colored Orphan Asylum attempted to rebuild on the site of its old building, neighboring property owners asked them to leave. The orphanage relocated to 51st Street for four years before moving into a new residence at 143rd Street between Amsterdam and Broadway, in the midst of what would become New York's predominantly Black neighborhood in the twentieth century, Harlem. 162 The US Civil War Battle of Appomattox Court House in Virginia was one of the last battles of the Civil War fought April 9, 1865. Union Army General-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant accepting Confederate General-in-Chief Robert E. Lee's surrender on April 9th, 1865…. 163 The US Civil War Colonel Ely Parker (Seneca), aide to General U. S. Grant, and was present at Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House. 164 Harriet Tubman and Reconstruction Reconstruction A few months after the Civil War ended in October 1865, Tubman travelled by train from Philadelphia to New York with a half-fare ticket. The conductor ordered her to the smoking car. When Tubman refused, the conductor and male passengers violently threw her into the smoking car breaking her arm, shoulder and ribs. These type of racist abuses occurred often, and Tubman’s experience demonstrates growing postbellum animosity of the social and political placing of Black people in the United States. Adding insult to physical injury, the United States government ignored and denied Tubman’s requests for military pension as a nurse and Union aide. The government only provided ﬁnancial assistance by approving the pension of her veteran husband, Nelson Davis. In need of funds to support her aging parents and pay her mortgage for the Seward property in Auburn, Tubman acquired the help of Sarah Bradford to pen her biography as a manuscript – early biographies were published as articles. 165 Reconstruction (1863 – Emancipation Proclamation) 1865 to 1877 Reconstruction (1863 – Emancipation Proclamation) 1865 to 1877 1865: Special Field Order 15; Freedmen’s Bureau established; Lincoln assassinated; Andrew Johnson becomes president 1865– 1867: Presidential Reconstruction; Black Codes 1866: Civil Rights Bill; Ku Klux Klan established 1867: Reconstruction Act of 1867; Tenure of Office Act 1867–1877: Radical Reconstruction of 1867; 1868 Impeachment and trial of President Johnson; Fourteenth Amendment ratiﬁed 1869: Inauguration of Ulysses S. Grant; Women’s rights organization splits into two groups 1870: Hiram Revels, ﬁrst Black U.S. senator; Fifteenth Amendment ratiﬁed 1870– 1871: Enforcement Acts 1872: Liberal Republicans established 1873: Colfax Massacre; Slaughterhouse Cases; National economic depression begins 1876: United States v. Cruikshank 1877: Bargain of 1877 166 Reconstruction Reconstruction (1863 – Emancipation Proclamation) 1865 to 1877 Three periods: Presidential Reconstruction directed by President Andrew Johnson, Radical Reconstruction led by radical leaning members of US Congress, Liberal Reconstruction reconciliatory direction – was to transition the postbellum south from war to peace, economic progression and transition formerly enslaved Black people to a free wage-labor system 167 Reconstruction Presidential Reconstruction 1865– 1867 1865: Special Field Order 15 ( Jan); Freedmen’s Bureau established (Mar); Lincoln assassinated (Apr); Andrew Johnson becomes president (Apr) 1865-1866: Black Codes; 13th Amendment; Civil Rights Bill; Ku Klux Klan established 1867: Reconstruction Acts (Mar); Tenure of Office Act (Mar) 168 Presidential Reconstruction 1865-1867 Presidential Reconstruction 1865-1867 In January 16, 1865, William T. Sherman issued his Special Field Orders No. 15, which conﬁscated as Union property a strip of coastline stretching from Charleston, South Carolina, to the St. John's River in Florida, including Georgia's Sea Islands and the mainland thirty miles in from the coast. Many of these lands were already being operated by the formerly enslaved. March, 1865, The Freedmen’s Bureau established with a one-year charter, it helped newly freed Black people and poor whites in a transitioning south. 169 Presidential Reconstruction 1865-1867 Presidential Reconstruction 1865-1867 Andrew Johnson took post as President April 1865 after Lincoln’s assassination (April 14th 1865). In Reconstruction plan was ﬁrst headed by Johnson as Congress was not to convene until Dec 1865 - one of his ﬁrst commands was to dismantled the Special Field order through newly formed Freedmen’s Bureau headed by O.O. Howard. Andrew Johnson (War Democrat, secession was treason and war necessary evil– TN Yeoman, only congressman from the seceding South that stayed in Washington) became Abraham Lincoln Vice President in the 1864 through the National Union Party. Apart of a new party system, but many came to realize Johnson’s political leanings to former Confederates and Democrats. 170 171 Thirteenth Amendment in December 6, 1865 When Congress convened they ratiﬁed the Thirteenth Amendment in December 6, 1865. This amendment abolished slavery “within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” Confederate states were required to ratify amendment as a condition of regaining federal representation in Congress. Johnson’s form of Reconstruction was very lenient to returning Confederate politicians and statesmen (antebellum elite) and allowed them to return to their political posts. Congress (many Northern Republicans) refused to confer many of these representatives, as they supported conditional reinstatement and were against the Black Codes that were being enacted by state Southern state legislators. 172 Thirteenth Amendment in December 6, 1865 The clause in the 13th amendment "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction" – buttressed newly state formed Black Codes supported by Johnson, and instituted a convict leasing system sanctioning a new formed of debt slavery based on arbitrary ﬁnes and court systems intertwined with railroad and coal mining industries, and large scale plantation work --- example chain gangs. Between 1865 and 1866 Southern states passed Black Codes to control the lives of newly freed Black people, vagrant laws were similar theme throughout the laws. 173 174 Black Codes and KKK In addition to the Black Codes, the newly freed Black people were terrorized by the KKK formed in Tennessee in December of 1865 by former Confederate officers and soldiers. Members ran the gamut of the elite to poor whites. KKK members also terrorized carpetbaggers (Northern politicians, industrialists, etc) and Scalawags (Southern politicians with pro-Republican leaning). The passage of the Civil Rights Act enacted April 9th 1866, was a deﬁning moment in the transition from Johnson’s presidential Reconstruction to Radical Republicans’ control of Reconstruction efforts. The act deﬁned citizenship rights as all individuals born in the United States and made Black Codes illegal. Johnson vetoed the act, but for the ﬁrst time in US History Congress enacted the legislation in spite of a veto. With radicals in control of Congress by the end of 1866, the moved to impeach Johnson and create an amendment version of Civil Rights act. 175 Radical/Congressional Reconstruction Radical/Congressional Reconstruction 1867–1877: 1868 Impeachment and trial of President Johnson (May); Fourteenth Amendment ratiﬁed (1868) 1869: Inauguration of Ulysses S. Grant; Women’s rights organization splits into two groups 1870: Hiram Revels, ﬁrst Black U.S. senator; Fifteenth Amendment ratiﬁed (Feb) 1870– 1871: Enforcement Acts 176 Radical/Congressional Reconstruction In March, 1867 Congress enacted the Tenure of Office Act over Johnson’s veto, which restricted the power of the president, especially in the dismissal of cabinet members. Congress used this act to immediately move forward with Impeachment proceedings making Johnson the ﬁrst US president to be impeached (impeachment is the trial). In May 1868, the Senate failed to convict Johnson. 177 14th Amendment ratiﬁed on July 9, 1868 Along with the Tenure of Office Act, Congress passed the ﬁrst of four Reconstruction Acts in March 1867. Over Johnson’s veto, the acts (March 1867 to March 1868) split the south into ﬁve military districts; required Congressional approval of new state constitutions; and the 14th amendment ratiﬁed for full re-admittance into the Union. The 14th Amendment to the Constitution was passed by the House and Senate June 1866 and ratiﬁed on July 9, 1868, and granted citizenship to “all persons born or naturalized in the United States,” which included recently freed Black. The Amendment buttressed the Civil Rights Act and reversed the Dred Scott decision of 1857 that claimed that Black people were not citizens of the United States and enslaved or free – they had “no rights which the white man was bound to respect” (Chief Judge Taney). 178 Radical/Congressional Reconstruction Ulysses S. Grant was elected President in 1868, and won by a large margin against NY Democratic governor Horatio Seymour. Johnson did not receive the democratic nomination, but Seymour supported his policies. Grant was a successful Union general and supporter of early Radical Reconstruction. With African American protected by the 13th and 14th amendments and the Civil Rights Bill, voting rights became an important next step for full citizenship. 179 Su ragists and the 15th Amendment Debates Women’s rights leadership once allied with antislavery and abolitionist organization, began to change and exalt anti-Black and anti-immigrant rhetoric in their advocacy for white women’s voting rights. Activists like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony appealed to racial and ethnic prejudices, arguing that native-born white women deserved the vote more than People of Color and immigrants. But other abolitionist feminists, like Abby Kelley and Lucy Stone, insisted the Reconstruction amendments represented steps in the d

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