Economic Zoology PDF

General Zoology - Finals IV I. ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY What is Economic Zoology? Economic Zoology is a sort of applied zoology, which involves the study of animals / living organisms that are of (1) benefit or those that cause (2) harm to humans...

General Zoology - Finals IV I. ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY What is Economic Zoology? Economic Zoology is a sort of applied zoology, which involves the study of animals / living organisms that are of (1) benefit or those that cause (2) harm to humans. But obviously, it is not just the study of animals from the standpoint of dollars and cents. Economic Zoology is this and more; for it includes the consideration of all the direct and indirect influences exerted by animals for the good and the ill of man, their reputed master. The object of science, perhaps it should be called the art, is the complete realization of our dominion over animals. So, it is a specialized branch of zoology that deals with the animal world and is associated with the economy, health, and welfare of humans. Actually, the animal world is related to the economy by all means that we can count. It's All About Values The economic value of an animal is generally accepted as the amount of money people are willing to pay for it. In this modern world, perhaps it is the most popular way to assign value to things. But, certainly, every animal has righteous values and causes to live on Mother Earth with dignity. The value of biodiversity can be separated into two categories i.e. Ethical value or intrinsic value and Extrinsic value or anthropocentric value. Ethical value or Intrinsic value is based on a respect for life, a reverence for the living world, a sense of intrinsic value in nature, and a concept of divine creation. It also defines the existence value of an animal being. Extrinsic value of an animal, which can be more clearly defined as Anthropocentric value, is comprised of direct and indirect economic benefits to humans. Biodiversity provides a range of goods, from agricultural crops to medicines and fibers, to which a direct value and cost can be assigned. This direct economic value of the natural environment can be divided into those associated with consumption and production i.e. Consumptive use and Productive use values. Consumptive use value is usually assigned to goods consumed locally that are neither sought nor sold and therefore do not contribute to the economy of a country. People “living off the land” obtain the goods that they need for survival from the environment. Should the environmental quality decline, for whatever reason, their standard of living would deteriorate. Productive use values are assigned to those goods harvested from the environment, which are bought and sold locally, nationally, or internationally. Major products include construction timber, fuel wood, fish and shellfish, fruits and vegetables, and seaweed, to name a few. The value of these products is determined not by the final retail cost of the product but by the amount paid at the first point of sale less the expenses to that point. The indirect value of biodiversity can be discussed under the following headings: ○ Aesthetic value (butterflies, nudibranchs, ornamental fishes, birds, mammals, all live in the wilderness, etc) ○ Cultural value (in various tribes, many animals are regarded as sacred creatures)  General Zoology - Finals IV ○ Ecological value (many organisms are considered bio-indicators, though every animal has more or less impacts on the environment.) Importance of Economic Zoology In a broad sense, according to economic importance, animals can be categorized under the following divisions: A. Animals for food and products a. Animals for food and products: b. Many animals are useful to man because of their value as food. Almost every phylum or animal group contains species that provide us with food or other important products. These animal groups include (shellfish lobsters, shrimps, edible oysters, fish, turtles, frogs, birds and mammals). Of course, we largely depend upon fish and domesticated birds and mammals for a supply of meat and protein food. However, many other animals are associated with the food chain of our food-supplying animals in the ecosystem. So, these animals indirectly help us in the production of food. c. Animal products that are more or less important, among these sponges, corals, shells of mollusks, pearls, honey, wax, silk, shellac, feathers, wool, leather, bones, etc are notable. B. Economically harmful animals a. Economically harmful animals: b. Numerous animals directly or indirectly affect our health, community, and other assets. They can be predators, parasites, or pests. Many predators attack or kill wildlife or our domestic animals. c. Many venomous animals can also be a threat to humans. However, these predators and venom bearers can be a threat only when they are provoked. d. The parasites not only attack our wild fauna and domesticated animals but also can infect man. Concisely, we can tell that parasitic creatures largely belong to Protozoa, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, and Arthropoda (particularly the insects and the arachnids). C. Animals of aesthetic importance a. Animals of aesthetic importance: b. Many animals and animal products are valuable to us in different ways. They are a source of our recreation, decoration, and other forms of joy and pleasure. Ornamental fishes, birds, reptiles, and mammals are always at the center of attraction to humans. c. Life in the wilderness always offers heavenly beauty. Tropical rain forests, swamp forests, tropical wetlands/back swamps, forests of tundra biome, deserts, prairies, coral reefs, and deep blue seas are the real heavens of Earth and they can hardly be described in words. d. Besides, communities of hobbyists are built all over the world. Because of their enthusiasm, through selective breeding, many color variants/morphs of organisms become very popular in the hobby world. To describe a few, the astounding and jaw-dropping beauty, the striking coloration of several morphs of Dwarf python (Python regius), glowing feathers (seems like they are painted by an artist) of tiny little budgies (Melopsittacus undulatus) or aristocrat movement of male Siamese Fighter (Betta splendens) are enough to make a person love and get tangled with this colorful world. e. Public aquariums, zoos, and safari parks are very important nowadays to make the youth concerned and feel about the wildlife that always remains entangled with mankind in silence.  General Zoology - Finals IV D. Animals in scientific research a. Animals in scientific research: b. Many animals have been used and still be used for scientific research. Our knowledge in heredity and genetics is largely based on research on Drosophilasp. Or fruit flies. Experiments in animals have always been helpful in understanding, most of the most of the physiological processes. In medical science, surgery, and drug effects are first observed on several animals such as rats, monkeys, etc. Generally, the effectiveness of anti-venom serum is examined on horses. c. Besides, certain vaccines have been developed from animal serum. In present space research monkeys, dogs, toads, spiders, etc have been used to assess the effects of long space journeys. Terminologies Economic (adj.) Of or relating to the production, development, and management of material wealth, as of a country, household, or business enterprise. Economical (adj.) Intended to save money, as by efficient operation or elimination of unnecessary features Economics i.e. the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services Intrinsic value i.e. an ethical and philosophic property. It is the ethical or philosophic value that an object has “in itself” or “for its own sake”, as an intrinsic property. An object with intrinsic value may be regarded as an end or end-in-itself. Extrinsic value i.e. the value of objects, both physical objects and abstract objects, not as ends-in-themselves but as a means of achieving something else. It is often contrasted with items of intrinsic value. II. VERMICULTURE AND VERMICOMPOSTING Introduction to Vermiculture and Vermicomposting: Vermiculture is the cultivation and utilization of earthworms for various purposes, primarily focused on improving soil health and nutrient cycling. Vermicomposting is the process of using earthworms to decompose organic waste into nutrient-rich compost. ○ Ancient Agricultural Practices: The use of earthworms in agriculture can be traced back thousands of years. Ancient civilizations, such as the Greeks and Romans, recognized the importance of earthworms in improving soil fertility. ○ Asian Agricultural Traditions: In various Asian cultures, particularly in China, vermiculture has been practiced for centuries. Chinese farmers recognized the benefits of earthworms in soil health and nutrient cycling. Soil Structure Improvement: 1. Aeration: ★ Earthworms create channels and burrows as they move through the soil. These channels improve soil aeration, allowing for better oxygen penetration to plant roots and soil microorganisms. Improved aeration prevents soil compaction and promotes root growth. 2. Aggregation:  General Zoology - Finals IV ★ Vermicompost contains organic matter that helps to bind soil particles together, forming aggregates. These aggregates create pore spaces in the soil, improving water infiltration and drainage. Enhanced soil structure facilitates root development and nutrient uptake by plants. 3. Water Retention: ★ The organic matter in vermicompost acts as a sponge, increasing the soil's water-holding capacity. This is beneficial during both dry and wet periods. It helps prevent water runoff, reduces water stress on plants, and ensures a more consistent water supply for optimal plant growth. 4. pH Regulation: ★ Vermicompost has a neutral pH, and its use can help buffer and regulate soil pH. This is important for creating a favorable environment for plants, as many nutrient availability issues are linked to soil pH. 5. Reduced Erosion: ★ Improved soil structure minimizes the risk of erosion. The stable aggregates formed with the help of vermicompost reduce the likelihood of soil particles being washed away by rainfall or irrigation. Nutrient Content Enhancement: 1. Nutrient-Rich Composition: ★ Vermicompost is a concentrated source of essential plant nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and trace elements. These nutrients are present in forms readily available for plant uptake. 2. Microbial Activity Enhancement: ★ Vermicompost supports the growth and activity of beneficial soil microorganisms. These microorganisms play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, breaking down organic matter into forms that plants can absorb. The increased microbial activity contributes to the release of nutrients in an available form. 3. Humic Substances: ★ Vermicompost contains humic substances, such as fulvic acid and humic acid. These substances enhance nutrient absorption by plant roots, improve nutrient transport within plants, and stimulate root development. 4. Slow Release of Nutrients: ★ The organic matter in vermicompost releases nutrients slowly over time, providing a sustained supply to plants. This contrasts with synthetic fertilizers that may release nutrients quickly, leading to potential leaching and environmental concerns. 5. Chelation of Nutrients: ★ Organic acids produced during vermicomposting can chelate or bind essential nutrients, making them more available to plants. Chelated nutrients are in a form that is easily absorbed by plant roots. Worm Species: “African nightcrawler” typically refers to Eudrilus eugeniae, a species of earthworm native to tropical regions in West Africa. African nightcrawlers are commonly used in vermiculture and vermicomposting due to their voracious appetite, rapid reproduction, and ability to process organic waste efficiently. Here are some key features and characteristics of the African nightcrawler:  General Zoology - Finals IV ○ Size: African nightcrawlers are generally larger than red wigglers (Eisenia fetida), which makes them suitable for larger-scale composting. ○ Feeding Habits: They are known for their ability to consume a wide variety of organic materials, including kitchen scraps, garden waste, and other decomposable materials. ○ Reproduction: African nightcrawlers reproduce rapidly, which can contribute to the sustainability of a vermiculture system. They can double their population in a relatively short period under optimal conditions. ○ Adaptability: These worms are well-adapted to warmer temperatures, making them suitable for tropical and subtropical climates. They can thrive in environments with temperatures ranging from 68°F to 95°F (20°C to 35°C). ○ Vermicomposting Efficiency: African nightcrawlers are effective in breaking down organic matter and producing nutrient-rich vermicompost. Their castings (excrement) are valued as an excellent soil conditioner. Worms in vermiculture and vermicomposting thrive on a diverse range of organic materials. The key is to provide a balanced and varied diet that includes both green (nitrogen-rich) and brown (carbon-rich) materials. Here's a list of suitable feedstocks for worms: Green Materials (Nitrogen-Rich): 1. Fruit and vegetable scraps 2. Coffee grounds and filters 3. Tea leaves and tea bags (remove staples if present) 4. Green plant trimmings 5. Expired flowers 6. Manure from herbivores (e.g., horse, cow, rabbit) in small amounts 7. Seaweed (rinsed to remove excess salt) Brown Materials (Carbon-Rich): 1. Shredded newspaper (avoid colored or glossy paper) 2. Cardboard (shredded or torn into small pieces) 3. Dry leaves 4. Straw or hay 5. Sawdust (from untreated wood) 6. Egg cartons (shredded) 7. Corn cobs (chopped into small pieces) 8. Paper towels and napkins 3. Other Materials: 1. Crushed eggshells (provide calcium and help with grit for worm digestion) 2. Small amounts of crushed oyster shells (for calcium) 3. Small amounts of wood ash (neutralizes acidity) 4. Avoid or Use Sparingly: 1. Citrus peels (in moderation, as they can be acidic) 2. Onions and garlic (in moderation) 3. Spicy or strongly flavored foods 4. Dairy products 5. Meat, fish, and oily foods (can attract pests and create odor) 6. Pet waste (unless using a specialized system for this) The African night crawler (Eudrilus eugeniae) is a species of earthworm commonly used in vermiculture, which is the cultivation of earthworms for various purposes, such as composting  General Zoology - Finals IV and as a protein source for animals. Here is a general overview of the life cycle of the African night crawler: ○ 1. Cocoon Formation: The life cycle begins with the formation of a cocoon. Adult worms secrete a mucous ring and deposit eggs inside it. This ring eventually hardens to form a protective cocoon. Each cocoon may contain multiple eggs. The cocoon is then deposited in the bedding material. ○ 2. Incubation: The cocoon incubates in the soil or bedding material for a certain period, typically ranging from 14 to 21 days, depending on environmental conditions such as temperature and moisture ○ 3. Hatching: After the incubation period, baby worms (juveniles) hatch from the cocoon. These juveniles are miniature versions of the adult worm. ○ 4. Juvenile Stage: The juveniles grow and develop over time, consuming organic matter in the bedding material. They go through several molting stages as they increase in size. ○ 5. Maturity: As the worms mature, they become sexually mature and are capable of reproducing. The time it takes for a worm to reach maturity depends on factors such as temperature, food availability, and overall environmental conditions. ○ 6. Reproduction: Mature worms engage in copulation, where they exchange sperm with each other. The clitellum, a thickened band near the front of the worm, plays a role in this process. ○ 7. Cocoon Production: After copulation, the worms produce new cocoons containing eggs, and the life cycle repeats. 1. Light Sorting: ★ Worms are sensitive to light and tend to move away from it. Spread the finished compost in a thin layer on a surface and expose it to light. The worms will burrow down to avoid the light, making it easier to scrape off the top layer of compost without many worms. 2. Migration to One Side: ★ Create a mound or pile of finished compost on one side of the bin or container. As worms migrate towards the fresh food source, you can scoop out the finished compost from the other side. 3. Use of Screens or Sieves: ★ Build or purchase screens or sieves with mesh sizes that allow the compost to pass through but retain the worms. Shake or agitate the compost over the screen, and the worms will remain on top while the compost falls through. 4. Harvesting in Batches: ★ Divide the compost bin into sections and only add fresh food to one section at a time. The worms will migrate to the section with fresh food, allowing you to harvest the compost from the other sections. 5. Water Separation: ★ Worms can survive for a short time underwater, while many other compost materials will float. Submerge the compost in water, and the worms will rise to the surface. You can then scoop them out and return them to the worm bin. 6. Harvesting at Night: ★ Worms are more active at night. You can harvest the compost in the evening or at night, and the worms will likely be closer to the surface. 7. Hand Sorting:  General Zoology - Finals IV ★ While it may be a bit time-consuming, you can manually pick out the worms from the compost. This method is practical for small-scale vermicomposting systems. 8. Use of Compost Worm Traps: ★ Commercially available traps or sorting trays with small holes allow worms to pass through while retaining the compost. These can be inserted into the compost bin for a period, and then the trap can be lifted out with separated worms. How to Use Vermicompost: 1. Top Dressing: a. Sprinkle a layer of vermicompost on the surface of the soil around plants. This helps improve soil structure and provides a slow-release source of nutrients. 2. Soil Amendment: a. Mix vermicompost with the existing soil when planting or transplanting. This improves soil fertility, water retention, and aeration. 3. Seed Starting Mix: a. Create a seed starting mix by blending vermicompost with other soilless mediums like perlite or coconut coir. This provides young plants with a gentle introduction to nutrients. 4. Compost Tea: a. Steep vermicompost in water to create a nutrient-rich compost tea. Use this liquid to water plants, providing them with a quick boost of nutrients. 5. Mulching: a. Apply vermicompost as a mulch around plants. Mulching helps retain soil moisture, suppress weeds, and gradually releases nutrients into the soil as it breaks down. 6. Potting Mix: a. Include vermicompost in homemade or commercial potting mixes. The organic matter enhances the mix's fertility and structure. 7. Foliar Spray: a. Dilute vermicompost in water and use it as a foliar spray. This can provide nutrients directly to the plant leaves and stimulate growth. III. BLACK SOLDIER FLY BSF stands for Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens), a fascinating and beneficial insect known for its role in waste management and sustainable agriculture. Egg Stage: The life cycle begins with the adult female BSF laying eggs. The female typically lays her eggs in decaying organic matter, such as compost, manure, or other decomposing materials. The eggs are tiny, white, and elongated, resembling grains of rice. The eggs are laid in clusters and are quite small, usually measuring around 1-2 millimeters in length. Larval Stage (Grub): After an incubation period of a few days, the eggs hatch into larvae, commonly known as grubs. The larval stage is the most active feeding stage in the life cycle. The grubs are voracious feeders and are highly efficient at consuming organic waste. They have a distinctive appearance with a tapered, elongated body, and their color can range from cream to dark brown. The larvae undergo multiple molts as they grow, shedding their exoskeleton to accommodate their increasing size.  General Zoology - Finals IV Pupal Stage: As the larvae reach maturity, they enter the pupal stage. The larvae cease feeding and seek a dry, sheltered area to pupate. During pupation, the larval body undergoes a transformation into the adult fly. The pupa is inactive and enclosed within a protective shell, known as the puparium, which is formed from the last larval skin. The pupal stage lasts for about 6 - 14 days, depending on environmental conditions such as temperature. Adult Stage: After completing the pupal stage, the adult BSF emerges from the puparium. The adult flies are characterized by a shiny black exoskeleton, large reddish-brown eyes, and membranous wings. Unlike other fly species, adult BSF do not feed on organic matter; their primary purpose is reproduction. They have a relatively short lifespan, typically ranging from a few days to a few weeks. During this time, adult BSF engage in mating, and the females lay eggs to initiate a new generation. Efficient Organic Waste Consumption: BSF larvae are voracious feeders and can consume a wide variety of organic waste materials. This includes kitchen scraps, food waste, agricultural residues, manure, and other decomposing organic matter. They efficiently convert this waste into biomass, reducing the overall volume of the waste. Rapid Decomposition: Black Soldier Fly larvae have powerful digestive enzymes that aid in the rapid breakdown of organic materials. Their feeding activity accelerates the decomposition process, turning complex organic compounds into simpler forms. Nutrient Recycling: As BSF larvae feed, they extract nutrients from the organic waste and accumulate them in their bodies. The resulting biomass is rich in protein and fat, making it a valuable nutrient source. When the larvae are harvested, these nutrients can be recycled for use in animal feed or other applications Reduction of Odors and Pathogens: The feeding activity of BSF larvae helps reduce unpleasant odors associated with decomposing organic waste. Additionally, the high temperatures generated during the larval digestion process can create conditions unsuitable for the survival of many pathogenic microorganisms, contributing to the sanitation of the waste material. Frass Production: The excrement produced by black soldier fly larvae, known as frass, is a nutrient-rich organic fertilizer. Frass contains valuable nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, making it an excellent soil conditioner and plant fertilizer. When the frass is used in agriculture, it helps enhance soil fertility and promotes plant growth. Versatility in Waste Types: Black Soldier Fly larvae can thrive on a wide range of organic waste types. This adaptability allows them to be utilized in diverse settings, from household composting to large-scale agricultural operations and industrial waste management. Promotion of Circular Economy: The use of BSF in organic waste management aligns with the principles of the circular economy by converting waste into valuable resources. The larvae's biomass and frass can be recycled as feed, fertilizer, or other products, contributing to a more sustainable and closed-loop system. Nutritional Composition of Larvae: Examine the nutritional content of black soldier fly larvae and their potential as a sustainable protein source for animals, including livestock and aquaculture. Protein Content: BSF larvae are exceptionally rich in protein. The protein content can range from 35% to 60% of their dry weight, depending on factors such as the feeding substrate and conditions. This high protein content makes them a suitable replacement or supplement for traditional protein sources in animal diets.  General Zoology - Finals IV Amino Acid Profile: The amino acid profile of BSF larvae is well-balanced and includes essential amino acids that animals require for growth and development. Essential amino acids are those that animals cannot synthesize on their own and must obtain from their diet. Fat Content: BSF larvae also contain a significant amount of fat, typically ranging from 20% to 40% of their dry weight. This fat content includes essential fatty acids that are important for the overall health of animals. Minerals and Vitamins: BSF larvae are a good source of minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron. They also contain vitamins, including B vitamins like B1, B2, B3, B5, and B6. The nutrient profile contributes to the overall nutritional value of BSF larvae as a feed ingredient. Digestibility: The composition of BSF larvae makes them highly digestible for animals. Their soft body texture and nutrient content enhance their digestibility, ensuring efficient nutrient utilization by the animals that consume them. Sustainability: The use of BSF larvae as a protein source is considered sustainable due to their ability to convert organic waste into valuable biomass. This aligns with the principles of the circular economy by repurposing waste materials into a valuable resource for animal nutrition. Reduced Environmental Impact: Compared to traditional protein sources such as soy or fishmeal, the production of BSF larvae has a lower environmental impact. BSF larvae can be cultivated on various organic waste substrates, reducing the need for resource-intensive feed inputs. Environmental impact: BSF larvae can be cultivated on various organic waste substrates, reducing the need for resource-intensive feed inputs. ○ Aquaculture Applications: BSF larvae are particularly valuable in aquaculture, where protein-rich feeds are essential for fish and shrimp growth. The nutrient profile of BSF larvae makes them a suitable ingredient in aquafeed formulations, providing essential amino acids and promoting healthy fish development. Livestock Feeding: BSF larvae can be incorporated into livestock diets, including poultry, swine, and other animals. Their high protein content makes them a potential substitute or supplement for conventional protein sources, contributing to the nutritional needs of livestock. NPK Content: ○ Nitrogen (N): Black soldier fly frass typically contains a significant amount of nitrogen, a vital nutrient for plant growth. Nitrogen is crucial for the development of leaves, stems, and overall vegetative growth. ○ Phosphorus (P): Frass is also a good source of phosphorus, which is essential for root development, flower and fruit production, and overall energy transfer within the plant. ○ Potassium (K): Frass contains potassium, promoting disease resistance, water uptake, and various physiological processes in plants. Micronutrients: In addition to the primary macronutrients (N, P, K), black soldier fly frass contains essential micronutrients such as calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, zinc, copper, and manganese. These micronutrients play vital roles in enzyme activation, photosynthesis, and overall plant health. Organic Matter: Frass contributes organic matter to the soil, improving its structure, water retention, and microbial activity. Increased organic matter enhances soil fertility over the long term.  General Zoology - Finals IV Beneficial Microorganisms: Black soldier fly frass contains beneficial microorganisms that can enhance the soil's microbial community. These microorganisms contribute to nutrient cycling, disease suppression, and overall soil health. Benefits for Soil Health and Plant Growth: ○ Improved Soil Structure: The organic matter in frass improves soil structure, making it more conducive to root growth and water retention. This can be particularly beneficial in sandy soils. ○ Enhanced Nutrient Availability: The slow-release nature of nutrients in frass provides a sustained supply to plants, promoting steady and healthy growth. This can reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers and minimize nutrient leaching. ○ Microbial Activity: The presence of beneficial microorganisms in frass can enhance the soil's microbial activity. This contributes to nutrient cycling, disease suppression, and improved overall soil fertility. ○ Stress Resistance: Plants treated with black soldier fly frass have shown increased resistance to environmental stressors, such as drought and disease. This could be attributed to the diverse array of nutrients and beneficial compounds present in the frass. ○ Environmentally Friendly: Utilizing black soldier fly frass as a fertilizer is environmentally friendly, as it involves recycling organic waste and reducing the reliance on synthetic fertilizers, which can have negative environmental impacts. Biological Control: Black soldier fly larvae are voracious feeders on organic waste, including kitchen scraps and agricultural residues. By utilizing black soldier fly larvae to consume organic matter, there is a reduction in potential breeding sites for other pests, such as flies and beetles. This can help in controlling the populations of nuisance pests in and around agricultural and urban areas. Competition for Resources: The presence of black soldier fly larvae in an environment can create competition for resources with other pest larvae. By outcompeting other pests for food resources, black soldier fly larvae can help limit the populations of potential agricultural and household pests. Odor Reduction: Black soldier fly larvae efficiently break down organic matter, reducing the potential for foul odors associated with decomposing waste. This can be particularly beneficial in managing pests that are attracted to odors, such as certain species of flies. Commercial Applications: Discuss the commercial applications of black soldier flies, including their use in animal feed, pet food, and aquaculture. Explore emerging markets and business opportunities. ○ Poultry Feed: Black soldier fly larvae and their pupae are rich in protein and essential nutrients. ○ Aquaculture: Black soldier fly larvae are used as a high-quality protein source in aquaculture feeds. ○ Biodiesel Production: Black soldier fly larvae contain fats and oils, and these can be extracted and processed into biodiesel. ○ Human Consumption: While less common, there is interest in utilizing black soldier fly larvae for direct human consumption. ○ Bioremediation and Soil Improvement: Black soldier fly larvae contribute to bioremediation by breaking down organic waste.