BIO 11.1 Notes IV PDF

BIO 11.1 BIO 11.1 Reuben Matteo A. Letaba, BS Psychology Class Number: 13 EXERCISE 17: The Digestive System I.​ The Digestive System ➔​ Mechanically and chemically breaks down food into simpler...

BIO 11.1 BIO 11.1 Reuben Matteo A. Letaba, BS Psychology Class Number: 13 EXERCISE 17: The Digestive System I.​ The Digestive System ➔​ Mechanically and chemically breaks down food into simpler molecules ◆​ Can be absorbed and utilized by cells in the body ➔​ Process takes place along a digestive tract / canal ◆​ Mixes with secretions from various peripheral glandular organs ➔​ Food components not broken down are excreted as fecal waste A.​ The Incomplete Digestive System of the Fluke INCOMPLETE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF THE FLUKE > Mouth > Oral Sucker > Pharynx > Esophagus > Intestines SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Digestive Tract ends blindly ➔​ Oral Sucker is for attachment ➔​ Undigested waste material is egested through the mouth B.​ The Complete Digestive System of the Cockroach 1  BIO 11.1 COMPLETE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF THE COCKROACH > Foregut > Esophagus > Crop > Gizzard > Midgut > Gastric Caeca > Hindgut > Ileum > Colon > Rectum > Anus SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ C.​ The Complete Digestive System of the Toad COMPLETE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF THE TOAD BUCCAL CAVITY > Vomerine Teeth > Maxillary Teeth > Esophagus > Tongue SPECIAL NOTES: 2  BIO 11.1 ➔​ Vomerine and Maxillary Teeth are for holding prey ➔​ Esophagus is on the ventral side ➔​ Tongue is attached anteriorly for longer range in catching prey C.S. PERITONEAL CAVITY > Parietal Peritoneum > Pleuro-peritoneal Cavity > Mesenteries > Omentum > Visceral Peritoneum *PERITONEUM = LINING SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Parietal Peritoneum (Wall) ◆​ Lines the inner body wall ➔​ Pleuro-peritoneal Cavity (Space) ◆​ Part of the Coelom located at the chest and abdomen ➔​ Mesenteries (Strings) ◆​ Parietal Peritoneum derivative ◆​ Web-like strings from that hold / suspend organs in place ◆​ Attachments observed from the dorsal body wall ➔​ Omentum (Plastic Wrap) ◆​ Peritoneal derivative ◆​ Bridges / holds certain visceral organs together ➔​ Visceral Peritoneum (Lining) ◆​ Forms the surface of the organs TOAD DIGESTIVE SYSTEM > Esophagus > Liver > Ant. Left Lobe > Pos. Left Lobe > Right Lobe > Gallbladder > Pancreas > Stomach > Cardiac End (held by mesogaster) > Greater Curvature > Lesser Curvature > Pyloric End > Pyloric Sphincter > Small Intestines (held by 3  BIO 11.1 mesenterium) > Duodenum > Ileum > Large Intestine (held by mesorectum) > Cloaca > Cloacal Opening *Liver + Stomach + Duodenum held by LESSER OMENTUM SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Liver (Glandular Organ: Three Dark Things) ◆​ Produces and secretes bile: to emulsify fats ➔​ Gallbladder (Glandular Organ: Green and Small) ◆​ Stores bile ➔​ Pancreas (Glandular Organ: Long) ◆​ Secretes trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase for protein ➔​ Stomach ◆​ Suspended by mesogaster ◆​ Where the chyme is mixed ◆​ Pyloric Sphincter ​ Regulates the movement of chyme into small intestines ➔​ Small Intestine ◆​ Suspended by mesenterium ◆​ Chemical absorption, digestion of complexes ◆​ Duodenum ​ Major site for absorption ◆​ Ileum ➔​ Large Intestine ◆​ Suspended by mesorectum ◆​ Major site of reabsorption of water MICRO-ANATOMY: SMALL INTESTINE VALVES OF KERCKRING > Lumen > Villi > Mucosa 4  BIO 11.1 > Submucosa > Muscularis > Stratum Circulare > Stratum Longitudinale > Serosa SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Lumen (Highway for Food) ◆​ Where food passes through ➔​ Valves of Kerckring (Absorption Points) ◆​ Lined by villi: increase surface area for absorption ◆​ Mucosa: Columnar epithelial cells, interspersed are goblet cells that secrete mucus ◆​ Submucosa: LCT, contain lymph spaces and large blood vessels ➔​ Muscularis (2 Layers: Contracting Machine) ◆​ Causes muscle contraction for food to move along the small intestine ◆​ Stratum Circulare (THICK) (circular smooth muscle) ◆​ Stratum Longitudinale (THIN) (longitudinal smooth muscle) ➔​ Serosa / Visceral Peritoneum (a sort of epidermis) ◆​ Visceral peritoneum ◆​ Contain blood vessels, lymph spaces, and nerves MICRO-ANATOMY: FROG STOMACH LPO: > Rugae > Gastric Pits > Mucosa (Col. ET) > Muscularis Mucosa > Submucosa > Muscularis > Subserosa 5  BIO 11.1 HPO: > Lumen > Gastric Pits > Mucosa > Columnar ET > Lamina Propria > Gastric Glands > Muscularis Mucosa > Stratum Circulare > Stratum Longitudinale > Submucosa > Muscularis > Subserosa > Serosa 6  BIO 11.1 SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Rugae (Main Boi) ◆​ Invaginations ◆​ Increases volume of the stomach ➔​ Gastric Pits (Depressions) ◆​ Where gastric juice is secreted into ➔​ Mucosa ◆​ Columnar Epithelial Tissue ◆​ Lamina Propria (Factory; Lighter Blue) ​ Contain the gastric glands: secrete gastric juice ○​ Chief Cells ◆​ Pepsinogen ◆​ Gastric Lipase ○​ Neck Cells ◆​ Mucus ○​ Parietal Cells ◆​ Gastric Acid / HCl ➔​ Muscularis Mucosa (Squeezer) ◆​ Help squeeze gastric glands to secrete gastric juice into gastric pits ◆​ Stratum Circulare ◆​ Stratum Longitudinale ➔​ Submucosa (Messy Buffer Zone) ◆​ Light-colored LCT ​ Fibrocytes ➔​ Muscularis (Smooth Outer Zone) ◆​ Peristalsis movement of the chyle ◆​ Circular smooth muscle cells ➔​ Subserosa (Outer Village) 7  BIO 11.1 ◆​ Contain connective tissue, blood vessels, and longitudinal muscle strands ➔​ Serosa (Epidermis) MICRO-ANATOMY: FROG LIVER LPO: > Central Vein > Portal Triad > Pigment Granules HPO: > Pigment Granules (Dark) > Hepatocytes (Pink) > Sinusoids > Portal Triad > Bile Ducts > Arteriole > Venule 8  BIO 11.1 SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Central Vein ◆​ Located at the middle of each lobule ➔​ Pigment Granules ➔​ Hepatocytes ◆​ Contain nuclei and are arranged in irregular clusters ◆​ Liver cells ➔​ Sinusoids ◆​ Blood flows here for blood filtration ➔​ Portal Triad ◆​ Bile Ducts (Thickest Wall) ​ Lined with simple cuboidal epithelial cells ​ Goblet Cells; Bile ​ May contain greenish-gray tainted bile in their lumen ◆​ Venule (Thinner Wall) ​ Contain RBCs ◆​ Arteriole (Thicker Wall) ​ Thicker smooth muscle compared to venules ​ Simple Squamous Epithelial Cells ​ Contain RBCs EXERCISE 18: The Respiratory System I.​ The Respiratory System ➔​ O2 influx and CO2 efflux is important for the continuation of aerobic cell respiration in animals ◆​ Possible through Respiration ➔​ Done through various types of respiratory organs ◆​ Lungs ◆​ Tracheary Systems ◆​ Gills ◆​ Integument ➔​ Four conditions for organs to be efficient in gas exchange 1)​ High surface area 2)​ High permeability 3)​ Contact with Oxygen rich medium 4)​ Exposure to blood circulation or tissues ➔​ Animals with thin, permeable, or highly vascularized integuments, and high body volume-to-surface area ratio ◆​ Respiration occurs as simple gas diffusion through the integument A.​ The Tracheal System 9  BIO 11.1 THE TRACHEAL SYSTEM > Spiracles > Trachea > Tracheal Trunks > Tracheoles SPECIAL NOTES: Pathway of Air from the Environment to the Tissues: Environment ⇒ Spiracles ⇒ Trachea ⇒ Tracheal Trunks ⇒ Tracheoles ⇒ Tissues B.​ The Gill System THE GILL SYSTEM > Operculum > Gill Chamber > Gill Rakers > Gill Arches > Pharyngeal Clefts > Gill Filaments 10  BIO 11.1 SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ There are four (4) pairs of arches in bony fishes ➔​ Efficient gas exchange is ensured through COUNTERCURRENT FLOW ◆​ Blood flow is OPPOSITE to Water flow ​ Results in extraction of O2 from Water ◆​ O2 diffuses out of Water and into BLOOD ​ Ensures constantly changing concentration and continuous diffusion of O2 ◆​ Highly folded blood vessels increase surface area for gas exchange ➔​ Mouth and Operculum Conjunction ◆​ The mouth opens to take in water, while the operculum stays closed ◆​ When the mouth closes, the operculum opens to let water into the gill rakers, and then to the gill filaments to facilitate gas exchange ➔​ Operculum (Gate) ◆​ Protects the Gill Chamber ➔​ Gill Rakers (Filter) ◆​ Protect the Gill Filaments from debris ➔​ Gill Arches ◆​ Pharyngeal Clefts ➔​ Gill Filaments (Main Facility) ◆​ Main facilitator of gas exchange ◆​ Contain the blood vessels C.​ The Lung System THE LUNG SYSTEM BUCCAL CAVITY > External Nares > Internal Nares > Cricoid > Arytenoids > Glottis > Openings: Eustachian Tube > Openings: Vocal Sacs (in Males) // VENTRAL CRICOID 11  BIO 11.1 > Larynx > Vocal Cords > Lungs > Bronchioles > Alveoli SPECIAL NOTES: Pathway of Air from the Environment to the Tissues: Environment ⇒ External Nares ⇒ Internal Nares ⇒ Buccal Cavity ⇒ Glottis ⇒ Larynx ⇒ Trachea ⇒ Bronchial Tubes ⇒ Lungs ⇒ Bronchioles ⇒ Alveoli ⇒ Tissues TOAD LUNG SYSTEM VS. MAMMALIAN LUNG SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS TOAD MAMMALIAN Lungs Located Pleuro-peritoneal Pleural Cavity Cavity Pressure Positive Pressure Negative Pressure of which air is forced down Structure Mylohyoid Diaphragm that forces air down EXERCISE 19: The Circulatory System I.​ The Circulatory System ➔​ Transport of gasses, nutrients, and other substances to different parts of the body TYPES OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS OPEN CLOSED ➔​ Blood is referred to as ➔​ Vertebrates, annelids, hemolymph cephalopods ➔​ Arthropods and most mollusks 12 BIO 11.1 13 BIO 11.1 14  BIO 11.1 *Flatworms and Sponges do not have a circulatory system* ➔​ Blood is transported between cells and tissues by body movements 15  BIO 11.1 A.​ The Open Circulatory System of the Cockroach OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM OF THE COCKROACH 16  BIO 11.1 > Pericardial Cavity > Dorsal Aort > Heart > Ostia > Dorsal Diaphragm > Ventral Diaphragm > Nerve Cord SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Function of the Ostia (In and Out) ◆​ Allow the inflow of hemolymph to the heart while its valves prevent backflow ➔​ Blood is kept in circulation through alary muscles ◆​ Causes peristalsis in the heart to move hemolymph up to the dorsal aorta, then to all the organs B.​ The Closed Circulatory System of Tetrapods ANATOMY OF THE TOAD HEART EXTERNAL Found in the PERICARDIAL CAVITY: lined by Parietal Pericardium Heart is lined by the Visceral Pericardium VENTRAL > Right Atria > Conus Arteriosus > Left Atria > Ventricle THREE CHAMBERED DORSAL > Sinus Venosus Singular: Atrium > Ventricle Plural: Atria SPECIAL NOTES: 17  BIO 11.1 ➔​ Pericardial Cavity (2 Layers) ◆​ Parietal Pericardium / Parietal Sac ◆​ Visceral Pericardium (LINES HEART) ➔​ Ventricle (Mixer) ◆​ Mixes blood ➔​ SInus Venosus ◆​ Receives deoxygenated blood INTERNAL > Right Atria > Sinoatrial Aperture > Conus Arteriosus > Semilunar Valve > Spiral Valve > Interatrial Septum > Left Atria > Ventricle SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Right Atrium ◆​ Receives deoxygenated blood from the tissues and organs ◆​ Contains the Sinoatrial Aperture ​ Entrance of the blood from the sinus venosus ➔​ Conus Arteriosus ◆​ Semilunar Valve: prevents backflow of blood from arteries to the ventricle ◆​ Spiral Valve: minimizes mixing of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood ➔​ Interatrial Septum ◆​ Separates the Right Atrium and Left Atrium ➔​ Left Atria ◆​ Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs ➔​ Ventricle FLOW OF BLOOD post-cava and pre-cava ⇒ sinus venosus ⇒ right atrium ⇒ ventricle ⇒ conus arteriosus ⇒ truncus arteriosus ⇒ pulmocutaneous artery ⇒ pulmonary artery ⇒ lungs ⇒ pulmonary vein ⇒ left atrium ⇒ ventricle ⇒ conus arteriosus ⇒ truncus arteriosus ⇒ brain or body 18  BIO 11.1 ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART Base: Larger, anterior end Apex: Narrow, posterior end Heart is covered by coronary veins and arteries > Atrium > Right Atrium > Pre-cava (Vein) > Post-cava (Vein) > Interatrial Septum > Left Atrium > Pulmonary Veins > Sino-atrial Node > ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE > Tricuspid Valve > Chordae Tendinae > Papillary Muscles > Bicuspid Valve > Chordae Tendinae > Papillary Muscles FOUR CHAMBERED > Ventricles > Right Ventricle > Pulmonary Artery > Semilunar Valve > Trabeculae Carnae > Interventricular Septum > Left Ventricle > Aorta > Trabeculae Carnae SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Coronary Veins ◆​ Drain the cardiac muscles (Trabeculae Carnae) ➔​ Coronary Arteries ◆​ Supply the cardiac muscles (Trabeculae Carnae) ➔​ Atrium 19  BIO 11.1 ◆​ Right Atrium ​ Pre-cava Vein ​ Post-cava Vein ◆​ Interatrial Septum ​ Divide the two atria ◆​ Left Atrium ​ Pulmonary Veins ○​ Receives blood from lungs ​ Sino-atrial Node ○​ Pacemaker of the heart ➔​ ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE (Aperture is the entrance) ◆​ Tricuspid Valve (prevent backflow) ​ Three membranous flaps ​ Chordae Tendinae ○​ Papillary Muscles (aid in opening of the valves) ◆​ Bicuspid Valve (prevent backflow) ​ Two membranous flaps ​ Chordae Tendinae ○​ Papillary Muscles (aid in opening of the valves) ➔​ Ventricles ◆​ Right Ventricle ​ Pulmonary Artery ○​ Supply blood to lungs ○​ Semilunar Valve ◆​ Prevents backflow from the arteries into the ventricles ◆​ Interventricular Septum ​ Divide the two ventricles ◆​ Left Ventricle ​ Aorta ○​ Tunnel for sending blood to the body ​ Thicker than the right ventricle because it needs to generate more force to supply blood to the systemic arch ◆​ Trabeculae Carnae ​ Ridges found on the walls of the ventricles ​ Prevents the collapse of the heart FLOW OF BLOOD ALSO CORONARY VEIN precava and postcava ⇒ right atrium ⇒ tricuspid valve ⇒ right ventricle ⇒ pulmonary artery ⇒ lungs ⇒ pulmonary vein ⇒ left atrium ⇒ bicuspid valve ⇒ left ventricle ⇒AORTIC ARCH⇒ aorta ⇒ rest of body ALSO CORONARY ARTERY C.​ Toad Venous and Arterial System 20  BIO 11.1 TOAD VENOUS SYSTEM (DRAINS ORGANS) > Sinus Venosus (END POINT) > Pulmonary Veins PRECAVA: > External Jugular > Maxillary Vein > Lingual Vein > Middle Innominate > Internal Jugular V. > Subscapular V. > Subclavian Veins > Brachial V. > Musculocutaneous V. POSTCAVA: > Hepatic Veins > Hepatic Portal Vein > Gastric V. *CARRIES DEOXYGENATED BLOOD EXCEPT > Pancreatic V. FOR PULMONARY VEINS* > Splenic V. > Intestinal V. > Ventral Abdominal V. > Pelvic V. > Renal Veins > Renal Portal Vein > Femoral V. > Sciatic V. SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Sinus Venosus ◆​ Endpoint for all veins ➔​ Three kinds of Veins (branches are called tributaries) ◆​ Pulmonary Veins ​ Drain oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium ◆​ Systemic (Precava and Postcava) ​ Carry deoxygenated blood to the Sinus Venosus ◆​ Portal (Hepatic Portal Vein & Renal Portal Vein) ​ Carry deoxygenated blood into a filtering organ ➔​ PRECAVA ◆​ External Jugular Vein ​ Maxillary Vein ○​ Drain the Lower Jaw ​ Lingual Vein ○​ Drain the tongue 21  BIO 11.1 ◆​ Middle Innominate Vein ​ Internal Jugular V. ○​ Drains the brain ​ Subscapular V. ○​ Drains the shoulders and back ◆​ Subclavian Vein ​ Brachial V. ○​ Drains the arm ​ Musculocutaneous V. ○​ Drains the skin and chest muscles ➔​ POSTCAVA ◆​ Hepatic Veins (drains the liver) ​ HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN (supplies filtering organ: liver) ○​ Gastric V. ◆​ Drains the stomach ○​ Pancreatic V. ◆​ Drains the pancreas ○​ Splenic V. ◆​ Drains the spleen ○​ Intestinal V. ◆​ Drains the intestines ○​ Ventral Abdominal Vein (drains Abdomen) ◆​ Pelvic Vein ​ Drains the pelvis ​ Can pass through the Ventral Abdominal Vein OR the Femoral Vein ◆​ Renal Veins (drain the kidney) ​ RENAL PORTAL VEIN (supplies filtering organ: kidney) ○​ Femoral Vein ◆​ Drain the thigh ○​ Sciatic Vein ◆​ Drain the shank and pes TOAD ARTERIAL SYSTEM (SUPPLIES ORGANS) 22  BIO 11.1 > Ventricle (STARTING POINT) > Conus Arteriosus TRUNCUS ARTERIOSUS: > Common Carotid Artery > External Carotid Artery > Internal Carotid Artery > Systemic Arch > Subclavian Artery > Brachial Artery > Pulmocutaneous Artery > Pulmonary Artery > Cutaneous Artery DORSAL AORTA: *CARRIES OXYGENATED BLOOD EXCEPT FOR > Coeliacomesenteric Artery > Coeliac Artery PULMOCUTANEOUS ARTERY* > Gastric Ar. > Pancreatic Ar. > Hepatic Ar. > Anterior Mesenteric Artery > Intestinal Ar. > Splenic Ar. > Renal Arteries > Posterior Mesenteric Artery > Common Iliac Arteries > Femoral Ar. > Sciatic Ar. SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Ventricle ◆​ Starting point for blood going out ➔​ Conus Arteriosus (gives way to the TRUNCUS ARTERIOSUS) ➔​ TRUNCUS ARTERIOSUS ◆​ Common Carotid Artery ​ External Carotid Artery ○​ Supplies tongue and face ​ Internal Carotid Artery (Brain, eye, and mouth) ○​ Has Carotid Body for Brain ◆​ Regulates O2, CO2, pH levels, and pressure of blood to the BRAIN ◆​ Systemic Arch ​ Sends arteries to larynx, esophagus, orbit, nose, and vertebral column 23  BIO 11.1 ​ Subclavian Artery ○​ Brachial Artery (forelimb) ​ DORSAL AORTA ○​ Coeliacomesenteric Artery ◆​ Coeliac Artery ​ Gastric Art. (Stomach) ​ Hepatic Art. (Liver) ​ Pancreatic Art. (Pancreas) ◆​ Anterior Mesenteric Artery ​ Intestinal Art. (Small Intestines) ​ Splenic Art. (Spleen) ○​ Renal Artery (Kidney) ○​ Posterior Mesenteric Artery (Large Intestine) ○​ Common Iliac Arteries ◆​ Femoral Artery (Thigh) ◆​ Sciatic Artery (Shank and Pes) ◆​ Pulmocutaneous Artery (deoxygenated blood) ​ Pulmonary Artery ○​ Supplies lungs to convert ​ Cutaneous Artery ○​ Supplies skin to convert Spleen (Rebuilder) ➔​ Removes old / damaged cells EXERCISE 20: The Excretory System I.​ The Excretory System ➔​ Excretion: process of removal of nitrogenous metabolic wastes via organs of filtration 24  BIO 11.1 ➔​ Organs serve as osmoregulators, removing excess fluids and salts EXCRETORY ORGANS PROTONEPHR METANEPHRI ANTENNAL MALPIGHIAN KIDNEYS IDIA DIA GLANDS TUBULES (Mesonephric and Metanephric) Snail Fish Flatworm Crab Cockroach Human > Metazoans > Mollusks > Crustaceans > Terrestrial > Vertebrates such as > Annelids > coxal gland arthropods flatworms > - arachnids > Flame Cells Nephridiopor > Excretory es Pores SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ In unicellular animals and some invertebrates, there are no specialized organs for excretion ◆​ Wastes are removed via diffusion at the cell membrane or epithelium NITROGENOUS WASTES AMMONIA UREA URIC ACID ➔​ Most toxic ➔​ Medium toxic ➔​ Least toxic ➔​ Least ➔​ Medium ➔​ Most metabolically metabolically metabolically taxing taxing taxing A.​ Malpighian Tubules of the Cockroach 25  BIO 11.1 MALPIGHIAN TUBULES OF THE COCKROACH > Malpighian Tubules SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ At the border of the midgut and hindgut ➔​ Produces crystalline uric acid, which is excreted together with the feces via the anus B.​ Mesonephric Kidneys of the Toad (Amphibians) MESONEPHRIC KIDNEYS OF THE TOAD CISTERNA MAGNA > Mesonephric Kidneys > Adrenal Glands > Wolffian / Mesonephric Duct > Urinary Bladder > Cloaca Fresh Specimen SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ CISTERNA MAGNA / RETROPERITONEAL SPACE ◆​ Houses the Mesonephric Kidneys ➔​ Mesonephric Kidneys 26  BIO 11.1 ◆​ Pair of dark colored and ovoid organs ◆​ Adrenal Glands ​ Produce corticosteroids, adrenaline ➔​ Wolffian / Mesonephric Duct (White color) ➔​ Urinary Bladder ◆​ Temporarily stores urea ➔​ Cloaca ◆​ Contents of the urinary bladder exit here VENTRAL SIDE > Renal Vein > Adrenal Gland > Renal Corpuscles > Bowman’s Capsule > Glomerulus > Mesonephric Duct DORSAL SIDE > Uriniferous Tubules > Collecting Tubules > Renal Artery > Renal Portal Vein FROG KIDNEY X.S. SPECIAL NOTES: 27  BIO 11.1 VENTRAL ➔​ Renal Vein ◆​ Consistent with Adrenal Glands (small mass of cells) ➔​ Renal Corpuscles ◆​ Primary filtration sites of blood in the kidney ​ Bowman’s Capsule ○​ Immediate, very thin crest of squamous epithelia ​ Glomerulus ○​ Dark, round mass of capillaries ➔​ Mesonephric Duct ◆​ Consistent with the Renal Portal Vein ◆​ Where uriniferous and collecting tubules converge DORSAL ➔​ Uriniferous Tubules ◆​ Located next to renal corpuscles and have elongated lumen ◆​ Converge at the Mesonephric Duct ➔​ Collecting Tubules ◆​ Wider, circular lumen ◆​ Lined with cuboidal epithelia ◆​ Converge at the Mesonephric Duct ➔​ Renal Artery ➔​ Renal Portal Vein ◆​ Consistent with the Mesonephric Duct PATH OF URINE: Renal Portal Vein and Renal Artery ⇒ Renal Corpuscles ⇒ Uriniferous Tubules ⇒ Collecting Tubules ⇒ Mesonephric Duct ⇒ Urinary Bladder ⇒ Cloaca ⇒ Cloacal Opening C.​ Metanephric Kidneys of Mammals (Pig) METANEPHRIC KIDNEYS OF MAMMALS 28  BIO 11.1 CORTEX (OUTER) > Renal Corpuscles > Distal and Proximal Tubules MEDULLA (INNER) > Loop of Henle > Collecting Tubules > Renal Papilla (Flaps) > Renal Pelvis > Metanephric Duct / Ureter > Hilus SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ CORTEX (OUTER) ◆​ Renal Corpuscles ◆​ Distal and Proximal Tubules ➔​ MEDULLA (INNER) ◆​ Loop of Henle ◆​ Collecting Tubules ➔​ Renal Papilla (Flaps) ◆​ Where collecting tubules terminate ◆​ 6 in the pig, 1 in the cat ➔​ Renal Pelvis ◆​ Where renal papillae converge ➔​ Metanephric Duct / Ureter ◆​ Continues towards the urinary bladder ➔​ Hilus (The Curve) ◆​ Concavity of the kidney where the ureter emerges ◆​ Where the renal artery and renal vein enter the kidney The Mesonephric Duct becomes the vas deferens in male mammals, but disappears for female mammals PATH OF URINE: Renal artery->Renal Corpuscles ⇒ Cortex ⇒ Proximal Tubule ⇒ Descending limb of the Loop of Henle ⇒ Ascending limb of the Loop of Henle ⇒ Distal Tubule ⇒ Collecting Tubules ⇒ Renal Papilla ⇒ Renal Pelvis ⇒ Ureter ⇒ Urinary Bladder ⇒ Urethra 29  BIO 11.1 D.​ Further Readings on the Excretory System ANIMAL GROUP EXCRETORY ORGAN MAIN NITROGENOUS WASTE FLATWORMS Protonephridia Ammonia MOLLUSKS Metanephridia Ammonia CRUSTACEANS Antennal Glands Ammonia TERRESTRIAL Malpighian Tubules Uric Acid ARTHROPODS FISHES Mesonephric Kidneys Ammonia AMPHIBIANS Mesonephric Kidneys Urea REPTILES Metanephric Kidneys Uric Acid BIRDS Metanephric Kidneys Uric Acid MAMMALS Metanephric Kidneys Urea ARACHNIDS Coxal Gland Uric Acid EXERCISE 21: The Nervous System I.​ The Nervous System ➔​ Perception of stimuli, transmission of sensory signals or impulses to the Central Nervous System (CNS) ◆​ Induction by the CNS for action of muscles and glands ➔​ Coordinates and integrates various bodily functions ◆​ Complex, multicellular animals function as a single unit ◆​ In smaller organisms and less complex animals, like sponges, coordination of various functions is done in the cellular or organelle level NERVOUS SYSTEMS IN INVERTEBRATES DIFFUSE LADDER GANGLIONIC 30  BIO 11.1 Hydra Flatworms Earthworms ➔​ Radially ➔​ Nerve cords are ➔​ Dorsal and symmetrical organized in a anterior Cerebral animals, except ladder-like Ganglion or Brain echinoderms (Ring manner, which ➔​ Ventral nerve Type) runs along the cords extend ➔​ Network of nerve anterior-posterior posteriorly from cells almost evenly axis the cerebral spread across the ➔​ Located in the ganglion body of the animal head region is a ➔​ Along the nerve pair of Ganglia cord, the ganglia ◆​ Functional forms a chain clusters of ➔​ Each pair of neurons ganglia in each segment is connected by nerve strands TUBULAR NERVOUS SYSTEM (Vertebrates) ➔​ “Tubular” Presence of internal spaces in the brain and spinal cord ​ In the brain, these spaces are called ventricles ​ Continue as a the central canal in the spinal cord ○​ Located dorsally A.​ Ganglionic Nervous System of the Cockroach GANGLIONIC NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE COCKROACH 31  BIO 11.1 > Antennae > Compound Eyes > Cerebral Ganglion > Ventral Nerve Cord > Ganglia > Nerve Strands SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Antennae ◆​ Sensory function for chemicals and vibration ➔​ Compound Eyes ➔​ Cerebral Ganglion ➔​ Ventral Nerve Cord ◆​ Nerve Strands connect Ganglia B.​ Tubular Nervous System of the Toad TUBULAR NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE TOAD ➔​ Central Nervous System (CNS) ◆​ Brain ◆​ Spinal Cord ➔​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) ◆​ Somatic Nervous System ◆​ Autonomic / Visceral Nervous System ​ Parasympathetic ​ Sympathetic ◆​ Includes the motor and sensory nerves that emerge from the brain (cranial nerves) and spinal cord (spinal nerves) ​ Motor: Ventral ​ Sensory: Dorsal ◆​ Allows for the relay of sensory information and also for the signals for voluntary and involuntary movements 32  BIO 11.1 B.1 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE TOAD (Spinal Nerves) ❖​ CNS ​ Brachial Enlargement ​ Lumbar Enlargement ​ Cauda Equina ❖​ BRACHIAL PLEXUS ​ BRACHIAL NERVE ❖​ SAME FUNCTION (Muscles & Skin of the Body Wall) ❖​ SCIATIC PLEXUS ​ SCIATIC NERVE SPINAL NERVES INNERVATED BODY PART AND ORGAN 1st Tongue, jaw, and hyoid (Hypoglossal nerve) 2nd Forelimb 3rd Shoulder 4th Muscles & Skin of the Body Wall 33  BIO 11.1 5th Muscles & Skin of the Body Wall 6th Muscles & Skin of the Body Wall 7th Large Intestine, Bladder, Oviducts (in Females) 8th Hindlimb 9th Hindlimb 10th Cloaca, Bladder, Oviducts (in Females) The arms and legs still react after single pithing because it only destroys the brain and NOT the spinal cord. B.2 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE TOAD ➔​ Brain is closely covered by the meninges: the inner pia mater and the outer dura mater ➔​ Ventricles are the inner cavities / spaces of the brain ◆​ Continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord ➔​ Both the brain and spinal cord contain cerebrospinal fluid ◆​ Cerebrospinal Fluid: ​ Cushions the brain and spinal cord to prevent injury and shock ​ Substitutes blood B.2.1 BRAIN OF THE TOAD 34  BIO 11.1 > Olfactory Nerve > Olfactory Bulb / Tract > Rhinocoele > Telencephalon / Cerebral Hemispheres > Lateral Ventricles > Foramen of Monro > Diencephalon (Covered by Anterior Choroid Plexus; Ependymal Cells) > 3rd Ventricle > Pineal Body / Epiphysis (Dorsal) > Mesencephalon > Optic Ventricles > Optic Lobes > VENTRAL: > Optic Nerves > Optic Chiasma > Infundibulum > Small Pituitary Body / Hypophysis > Metencephalon / Cerebellum TOAD BRAIN > Aqueduct of Sylvius > Myelencephalon > Dorsal triangular opening to 4th Ventricle (covered by Posterior Choroid Plexus) SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Olfactory Nerves emerge from the Olfactory Bulb​ ◆​ VENTRICLE: Rhinocoele ➔​ Telencephalon / Cerebral Hemispheres ◆​ VENTRICLE: Lateral Ventricles ◆​ Foramen of Monro ➔​ Diencephalon ◆​ VENTRICLE: 3rd Ventricle ◆​ Covered by Anterior Choroid Plexus ​ Consist of cerebrospinal fluid producing ependymal cells ◆​ Pineal Body / Epiphysis (located dorsally) ➔​ Mesencephalon ◆​ VENTRICLE: Optic Ventricles 35  BIO 11.1 ◆​ Optic Lobes ◆​ Optic Nerves ​ Converge at the Optic Chiasma (located ventrally) ◆​ Infundibulum ◆​ Small Pituitary Body / Hypophysis ​ Regulate hormones: testosterone / estrogen levels ➔​ Metencephalon / Cerebellum ◆​ VENTRICLE: Aqueduct of Sylvius ​ Connects the optic ventricles with the 4th Ventricle ➔​ Myelencephalon / Medulla Oblongata ◆​ VENTRICLE: 4th Ventricle ◆​ Dorsal triangular opening to the 4th Ventricle ​ Covered by Posterior Choroid Plexus REGIONS OF THE TOAD BRAIN BRAIN REGION VENTRICLE FUNCTION TELENCEPHALON Lateral Ventricles ➔​ Memory formation ➔​ Cognition DIENCEPHALON 3rd Ventricle ➔​ Regulates Visceral Activities ➔​ Metabolic homeostasis MESENCEPHALON Optic Ventricles ➔​ Vision ➔​ Auditory Reflex Center METENCEPHALON Aqueduct of Sylvius ➔​ Muscle coordination MYELENCEPHALON 4th Ventricle ➔​ Involuntary Control Center ➔​ Controls Autonomic Activities B.2.2 SPINAL CORD OF THE TOAD 36  BIO 11.1 > Filum Terminale > Dorsal Median Sulcus > Ventral Median Sulcus > Brachial Enlargement > Lumbar Enlargement > Cauda Equina BRACHIAL ENLARGEMENT: 1-5th LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT: 6-10th SPINAL CORD SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Ventricles of the brain are continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord ➔​ Filum Terminale ◆​ Tapered posterior end after the myelencephalon ➔​ Dorsal Median Sulcus (Fissure) ➔​ Ventral Median Sulcus (Fissure) ➔​ Brachial Enlargement ◆​ Emergence of spinal nerves for the forelimbs ➔​ Lumbar Enlargement ◆​ Emergence of spinal nerves for the hindlimbs ➔​ Cauda Equina ◆​ Elongated roots of posterior spinal nerves ◆​ Hard to preserve during extraction (may not be observable) > Dura Mater (Outer Line, Loose) > Subdural Space > Pia Mater (Inner Line, Fibrous) > Veins and Adipose Tissue > White Matter (Outer) > Neuroglia > Grey Matter (Inner) > Neuroglia SPINAL CORD X.S. > Neurons > Dorsal Median Fissure (Narrower) 37  BIO 11.1 > Dorsal Cornu > Axons > Aff. Nerves > Central Canal > Ependymal Cells > Ventral Median Fissure (Wider) > Ventral Spinal Artery > Ventral Cornu > Axons > Eff. Nerves SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Dura Mater (Loose Connective Tissue; Fibrocytes) ➔​ Subdural Space ➔​ Pia Mater (Fibrous Connective Tissue; Fibrocytes) ◆​ Has veins and adipose tissue ➔​ White Matter (Outer) ◆​ Consists of Neuroglia ➔​ Grey Matter (Inner) ◆​ Consists of Neuroglia ◆​ Consists of Neurons ➔​ Dorsal Fissure / Dorsal Median Sulcus ◆​ Dorsal Cornu (Lateral) ​ Projects into white matter ​ Has axons; afferent nerves ➔​ Central Canal ◆​ Lined with ependymal cells: produce cerebrospinal fluid ➔​ Ventral Median Fissure ◆​ Ventral Spinal Artery (Adjacent) ◆​ Ventral Cornu (Lateral) ​ Projects into white matter ​ Connected to Spinal Cord: motor function ​ Has axons; efferent nerves B.3 SENSE ORGANS: EYES OF THE TOAD 38  BIO 11.1 > Eyelids > Conjunctiva > Cornea > Sclera > Retractor Bulbi > Pupil > Lens > Optic Nerve EYES SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Eyelids ➔​ Conjunctiva (continuous with inner surface of the Eyelids) ➔​ Sclera ◆​ Maintains the shape of the eye ➔​ Retractor Bulbi (Muscles around the optic nerve; attached to the sclera) ◆​ Pull the eye in place within the orbit ➔​ Lens ◆​ Opaque, spherical ➔​ Optic Nerve SENSE ORGANS: MIDDLE EAR OF THE TOAD > Tympanum > Columella > Eustachian Tube MIDDLE EAR 39  BIO 11.1 SPECIAL NOTES: ➔​ Tympanum (Plural: Tympana / Tympanic Membranes) ◆​ Vibration from sound waves occurs here ➔​ Columella ◆​ Very thin, elongated bone ◆​ Extends to the interior of the ear ➔​ Eustachian Tube (in the Buccal Cavity) ◆​ Continuous with the space interior to the tympanic membrane ◆​ Equalizes pressure in the inner ear 40