Copy of Amsco 3.1-3.2 PDF

## 3.1 European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand What men call sovereignty is a worldly strife and constant war; Worship of God is the highest throne, the happiest of all estates. -Suleiman the Magnificent (1494-1566) **Essential Question:** How did certain land-based empires develop and...

## 3.1 European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand What men call sovereignty is a worldly strife and constant war; Worship of God is the highest throne, the happiest of all estates. -Suleiman the Magnificent (1494-1566) **Essential Question:** How did certain land-based empires develop and expand in the period from 1450-1750? From its origins in China, gunpowder spread via the trade routes and became a powerful source of change between 1450 and 1750. The term Gunpowder Empires refers to large, multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and South Asia that relied on firearms to conquer and control territories. In addition to Russia, the Gunpowder Empires included three in which Islam was strong: the Ottoman, the Safavid, and the Mughal Empires. Suleiman the Magnificent, quoted above, ruled the Ottoman Empire at its height. Although he declared religious worship the happiest of all practices, he also personally led Ottoman armies in conquering Christian strongholds in Belgrade, Rhodes, and Hungary in Southeastern Europe. The Gunpowder Empire societies tended to be militaristic, yet all three left splendid artistic and architectural legacies, created in part to reflect the legitimacy of their rulers. The Qing Empire of China also expanded, and although it experienced several invasions, it also prospered during long periods of stability. Europe's expansion involved an even wider exchange network than that which spread gunpowder: transoceanic connections with the Americas. (You will read more about this path to empire expansion in Unit 4.) Armed trade was common in expanding empires during this period. The different empires traded with one another. However, they kept troops and armaments at the ready in case another empire questioned their right to trade. This type of exchange differed from the free markets of later eras. ### Europe The year 1450 has traditionally signified the ending of the medieval period and the beginning of the early modern period. The mid-1400s saw the end of a wave of plagues, the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War between France and England (see Topic 1.6), and the invention of the Gutenberg printing press followed by an increase in literacy. After the slow political and economic development of the Middle Ages, several countries in Europe were becoming powerful, wealthy nations. New monarchies began to launch overseas explorations and establish colonies around the world. The nature of the new monarchies in Europe in the 1500s was the result of the desire of certain leaders to centralize power by controlling taxes, the army, and many aspects of religion. These new monarchs included the Tudors in England, the Valois in France, and Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand in Spain. In each area, bureaucracies increased and the power of the middle class grew at the expense of lords and the churches. For example, the new monarchies moved to curb the private armies of the nobility. ### Russia Western Europeans were long unsure what to think of Russia: Was Russia more European in its outlook and character, or was it more Asian? Russia was in a pivotal position for trade. It was able to exchange goods and services with other cultures farther east and west. However, Russia remained tightly linked to Europe. Its capital-whether Kiev, St. Petersburg, or Moscow-was located in Europe. Although a product of Mongol influence from Central Asia to the east, Russia was also a product of Europe as a result of Viking invasions and trading. When Ivan IV (ruled 1547–1584), called Ivan the Terrible, was crowned tsar in 1547, he immediately set about to expand the Russian border eastward, first by taking control of the khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia held by the descendants of the Golden Horde, the Mongolian conquerors. This expansion came to rely more and more upon the use of gunpowder. **Control of the Volga** Wanting to expand east to control the fur trade, Ivan IV allowed the Stroganovs, major Russian landowners, to hire bands of fierce peasant warriors known as Cossacks to fight the local tribes and the Siberian khan. The Stroganovs' forces were successful, gaining control of the Volga River, which flows into the Caspian Sea. Possessing this outlet to the sea, Moscow could trade directly with Persia and the Ottoman Empire without having to deal with the strong forces of the Crimean Tartars. **To the Pacific** Russia continued moving east into Siberia after the reign of Ivan IV. Fur traders and militias defeated one indigenous tribe after another. Missionaries followed, converting many to the Eastern Orthodox faith, although the local shamans, or religious leaders, continued to have influence. By 1639, the Russians had advanced east as far as the Pacific Ocean. Explorations and fur trading expeditions continued across the Pacific to Alaska (1741) and down the coast of North America to California (1814). ### East Asia China's Yuan Dynasty, founded by Mongol invader Kublai Khan in 1271, was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368 after less than a century in power. Ming rulers managed to stabilize the East Asian region for nearly 300 years. During the Ming era, the Portuguese and other Europeans arrived, aiming to encroach on the Asian trade network. Then, in 1644, the powerful Manchu from neighboring Manchuria seized power and established the Qing Dynasty, which ruled until 1911. During both of these dynasties, Japan and Korea experienced parallel developments but with unique aspects. The Ming Dynasty also expanded the size of China, conquering lands in Mongolia and Central Asia. It did not hold them for long, however. In the 1440s, Mongol armies defeated Ming forces and even took the Ming emperor prisoner. In reaction to renewed Mongol power, China's leaders looked to the Great Wall of China for protection. The Wall had not been maintained under Mongol rule, but under the Ming Dynasty it was restored and expanded to help keep out invaders from the north. (Connect: Create a chart comparing the Ming and Yuan Dynasties. See Topic 2.2.) **Emperor Kangxi** One of China’s longest-reigning emperors, Kangxi (ruled 1661–1722) presided over a period of stability and expansion during the Qing Dynasty in China. Kangxi sent forces into Taiwan, Mongolia, and Central Asia, incorporating those areas into the empire. China also imposed a protectorate over Tibet, the mountainous land north of India, a policy reflected in China’s control of the region today. **Emperor Qianlong** Another important Qing ruler was Emperor Qianlong (ruled 1736–1796), a poet, who was also knowledgeable in art and calligraphy. At the beginning of his reign, the country was well administered and government tax collections were at an all-time high. Qianlong initiated military campaigns in lands west of China, which led to the annexation of Xinjiang accompanied by the mass killings of the local population. Even today, parts of Xinjiang remain troubled. The local Muslim population, called Uighurs, has never fully become incorporated into the rest of Chinese culture. Qianlong also sent armies into Tibet to install the Dalai Lama on the throne there. A campaign against the Nepalese was successful, forcing them to submit to Chinese rule. However, campaigns against Burma and Vietnam were unsuccessful and costly, resulting in the emptying of the empire's treasury. **Conflicts with the West** Needing funds, the Qing Dynasty sold limited trading privileges to the European powers but confined them to Guangzhou (also known as Canton). The British were not satisfied with these limited privileges, so they asked for more trading rights in 1793. Emperor Qianlong responded with a letter to King George III stating that the Chinese had no need for British manufactured goods. During the later part of Qianlong's reign, the traditionally efficient Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt, levying high taxes on the people. In response to these high taxes and a desire to restore the Ming Dynasty, a group of peasants organized the White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804). The Qing government suppressed the uprising brutally, killing around 100,000 peasants. ### Rise of the Islamic Gunpowder Empires The warrior leaders of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires shared many traits besides being Muslims: * They descended from Turkic nomads who once lived in Central Asia. * They spoke a Turkic language. * They took advantage of power vacuums left by the breakup of Mongol khanates. * They relied on gunpowder weapons, such as artillery and cannons. The initial success of the Gunpowder Empires was a result of their own military might along with the weakness and corruption of the regimes that they replaced. As European nations fought among themselves rather than uniting to topple the new powers growing in the east, the Gunpowder Empires further expanded. **The Rule of Tamerlane** The invasion of Central Asia and the Middle East by Tamerlane (Timur the Lame, a Mongol-Turkic ruler of the late 14th century) set the stage for the rise of the Turkic empires. Leading an army partly composed of nomadic invaders from the broad steppes of Eurasia, Tamerlane moved out from the trading city of Samarkand (in modern-day Uzbekistan) to make ruthless conquests in Persia (modern-day Iran) and India. The Eurasian steppes were also the birthplace of the ghazi ideal—a model for warrior life that blended the cooperative values of nomadic culture with the willingness to serve as a holy fighter for Islam. According to some historians, the ghazi ideal served as the model for warriors who participated in the rise of the Gunpowder Empires, and it was a model that fit Tamerlane well. Some historians believe that Tamerlane's violent takeover of areas of Central Asia included the massacre of some 100,000 Hindus before the gates of Delhi in India. The pattern of conquest was marked by violence that resulted in new dynasties: the Ottomans, the Safavids, and the Mughals. Nonetheless, Tamerlane's rule in Samarkand encouraged learning and the arts-a trend also typical of these later empires. For example, Tamerlane championed literature, and he himself corresponded with European rulers and wrote his own memoirs. Buildings still standing in the city of Samarkand are lasting reminders of his interest in architecture and decorative arts. While the empire he created largely fell apart (except for the area that his descendant Babur would take over to create India's Mughal Dynasty), Tamerlane's invasions were a testament to the significance of gunpowder. He used it to build a government dependent upon his military and the use of heavy artillery. He also used it to protect land routes on the Silk Roads. However, he failed to leave an effective political structure in many of the areas he conquered. Without effective government, the expenses of the wars eventually ravaged the empire's economy. Tamerlane's rule casts light on two major forces that had battled each other continually from the late 10th century to the 14th century-Mongols from the northeast versus Islamic forces from Arabia and the areas around the Mediterranean Sea. These forces would clash continuously with the rise and fall of the three Asian Gunpowder Empires that are the focus of the rest of this chapter. ### The Ottoman Empire By the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire was already becoming a major power. Extending into modern-day Turkey as well as to the Balkan areas of Europe and parts of North Africa and Southeast Asia, the Ottoman Empire was the largest and most enduring of the great Islamic empires of this period. Founded by the Osman Dynasty in the 1300s, the empire lasted until its defeat in 1918 by the Allies in World War I. Thus a single dynasty controlled the empire for more than 600 years. **Mehmed II** Called the Conqueror, Mehmed II (ruled 1451–1481) firmly established the empire's capital after his forces besieged Constantinople (once the center of the Byzantine Empire) in 1453. Despite its triple fortifications, the city fell as its walls crumbled under the bombardment of Ottoman cannons. The Ottomans used a 26-foot bronze cannon and several other cannons from 15 to 22 feet in length. Under Mehmed II's rule, the city-its name changed to Istanbul-prospered because of its location. A nexus for trade, the city controlled the Bosporus Strait, the only waterway linking the Aegean Sea with the Black Sea. The armies of Mehmed II next seized lands around the western edge of the Black Sea. Then they moved into the Balkans in Southeast Europe. To counter the power of Venice, an expanding state on the Adriatic Sea with a robust maritime trade, Mehmed strengthened the Ottoman navy and attacked various areas of Italy. Although he did not conquer Venice, he forced the city to pay him a yearly tax. In the early 16th century, the Ottomans added to their empire lands in present-day Syria, Israel, Egypt, and Algeria. When the Mamluk Dynasty's power declined, Istanbul became a center of Islam. (For more on the Mamluk Empire, see Topic 1.2.) **Suleiman I** The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman I (ruled 1520-1566). His armies overran Hungary in 1526 and, by 1529, were hammering at the gates of Vienna, the main city in Austria. Their attempt to take Vienna failed twice, but the ability of the Ottomans to send troops so far into Christian Europe caused great fear there. In 1522, Suleiman's navy captured the island of Rhodes (now part of Greece) in the eastern Mediterranean, which had long been a stronghold of Christian knights. In the 1550s, the Ottoman navy took control of Tripoli in North Africa. The Ottoman Empire would experience a transformation as the state adapted to new internal and external pressures. A period of reform would follow by the 18th century. Challenges in defending Ottoman territory against foreign invasion and occupation led to the Ottoman defeat and dissolution by 1922. ### The Safavids The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safavid order of Sufism, established in the northern Azerbaijan region (Iran). An early Safavid military hero named Ismail conquered most of Persia and pushed into Iraq. Although only 14 or 15 years old, he soon conquered all of Iran and was proclaimed shah (equivalent to king or emperor) in 1501. The Safavid Empire had two problems. First, despite being on the Arabian Sea (part of the Indian Ocean), the empire did not have a real navy. Second, the Safavids lacked natural defenses. Nevertheless, the Safavids rose to power in the 1500s due to their land-based military might and strong leadership. Called Abbas the Great, Shah Abbas I (ruled 1588–1629) presided over the Safavid Empire at its height. His troops included soldiers often Christian boys pressed into service from as far northwest as Georgia in Russia. Abbas imported weaponry from Europe and also relied on Europeans to advise his troops about this newly acquired military technology. Slowly, the shahs came to control religion as well as politics. Using Shi'a Islam as a unifying force, Shah Ismail built a power base that supported his rule and denied legitimacy to any Sunni. This strict adherence to Shi'a Islam caused frequent hostilities with the Ottoman Empire, a stronghold of Sunni Islam. In 1541, Safavid forces were stopped by the Ottomans at Tabriz, a city in Persia that became part of the border between Sunni and Shi'a societies. The hostility between the two groups lives on in present-day Iraq and Iran. Conflicts between Ottomans and Safavids were not entirely religious, however. Another conflict arose over control of overland trade routes. The Ottomans used trade embargoes, official bans on trade, consistently against the Safavid silk traders as a way to assert dominance over their eastern rival. **Women in the Safavid Empire** Women are rarely mentioned in local Safavid histories; however, Safavid women were permitted to participate in their societies. While Safavid women were still veiled and restricted in their movements, as was traditional in the region, they had access to rights provided by Islamic law for inheritance and, in extreme cases, divorce. ### Mughal India In the 1520s, Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane (see Topic 2.2), founded a 300-year dynasty during a time when India was in disarray. He completed conquests in northern India and, under the new Mughal name, formed a central government similar to that of Suleiman in Turkey. Akbar, Babur's grandson, achieved grand religious and political goals. The Mughal Empire under Akbar was one of the richest and best-governed states in the world. Overseas trade flourished during the relatively peaceful period; Arab traders conducted most of the commerce. Traded goods included textiles, tropical foods, spices, and precious stones, all of which were often exchanged for gold and silver. Trade within the borders of the empire was carried on by merchant castes. Members of the merchant castes were allowed to participate in banking and the production of handicrafts. **Castes, or jatis,** are strict social groupings designated at birth. The caste system divides Hindu people into four categories: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and the Shudras. Outside of the system are the achhoots, or the Dalits, the untouchables. The Indian caste system is the basis of educational and vocational opportunities for Indian society. Mughal India flourished from Babur's time through the early 18th century. Magnificent architectural accomplishments are remaining testaments to the wealth and sophistication of the Mughal empire. ### Decline of the Gunpowder Empires The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires declined as Western Europe grew in strength economically and militarily—particularly in terms of sea power. Unlike these three Islamic empires, Russia modernized and reorganized its army, modeling it after the armies of England, France, and the Netherlands. The Islamic empires did not modernize and, as a result, Russia remained powerful enough to survive as an independent nation-state, while the other Gunpowder Empires fell. **Decline of the Ottoman Empire** In 1571, after Suleiman's death, a European force made up mostly of Spaniards and Venetians defeated the Ottomans in a great naval conflict known as the Battle of Lepanto. After the reign of Suleiman, the Ottomans fell victim to weak sultans and strong European neighbors. In time, the empire became known as the Sick Man of Europe. Successors to Suleiman were often held hostage to "harem politics," the efforts of wives and concubines of the sultan to promote their own children as likely heirs to the throne. In this way, some women became powerful behind the scenes. The failed Siege of Vienna in 1683 marked a turning point in Ottoman domination in Eastern Europe. British and French involvement in the Ottoman territories, Greece's independence in 1821, and the Russian expansion in the 19th century further weakened the Ottoman Empire. **Safavid Decline** The ineffectual leaders who followed Shah Abbas combined lavish lifestyles and military spending with falling revenues, resulting in a weakened economy. In 1722, Safavid forces were not able to quell a rebellion by the heavily oppressed Sunni Pashtuns in present-day Afghanistan. The Afghan forces went on to sack Isfahan, and their leader, Mahmud, declared himself Shah of Persia. While the Safavid Dynasty remained nominally in control, the resulting chaos was an impediment to centralization and tax collection. Taking advantage of the weakened Safavids, the Ottomans and the Russians were able to seize territories. The Safavid Dynasty declined rapidly until it was replaced by the Zand Dynasty in 1760. **Mughal Decline** Shah Jahan's son and successor, Aurangzeb (ruled 1658–1707), inherited an empire weakened by corruption and the failure to keep up with the military innovations of external enemies. Nevertheless, Aurangzeb hoped to increase the size of the empire and bring all of India under Muslim rule. Additionally, he wanted to rid the empire of its Hindu influences. In expanding the empire to the south, he drained the empire's treasury and was unable to put down peasant uprisings. Some of these uprisings were sparked by Aurangzeb's insistence on an austere and pious Islamic lifestyle and an intolerance of minority religions—Sikhs, Hindus, and others. His policies led to frequent conflicts and rebellions. There were revolts as well among the Hindu and Islamic princes. The empire grew increasingly unstable after his death, which allowed the British and French to gain more and more economic power in India. The British would take political power away from the Mughals in the 19th century. ## 3.2 Empires: Administrations The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth: for kings are not only God's lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. -King James I (1566-1625) **Essential Question:** How did rulers in land-based empires legitimize and consolidate their power from 1450 to 1750? By the end of the 16th century, centralization of power by controlling taxes, the army, and some aspects of religion coalesced into a system of government that led to a powerful monarch in England and absolute monarchy in France. In other states, different methods were used to solidify authority: building temples, as with the Inca; paying the military elite a salary, as with the samurai in Japan; and forcibly establishing a captive governmental bureaucracy, as with the Ottoman devshirme system. Rulers of empires in the years 1450 to 1750 developed methods for assuring they maintained control of all the regions of their empires. Some of the successful methods included using bureaucratic elites to oversee sections of the empire and developing a professional military. ### Centralizing Control in Europe England's King James I believed in the divine right of kings, a common claim from the Middle Ages that the right to rule was given to a king by God. Under this belief, a king was a political and religious authority. As seen in the quote above, James believed himself outside of the law and any earthly authority and saw any challenge toward him as a challenge to God. **England's Gentry Officials** In England, the Tudors (ruled 1485–1603) relied on justices of the peace, officials selected by the landed gentry to "swear that as Justices of the Peace ... in all articles in the King's Commission to you directed, ye shall do equal right to the poor and to the rich after your cunning wit, and power, and after the laws and customs of the realm and statutes thereof made," according to their oath of office. In other words, their job was to maintain peace in the counties of England, even settling some legal matters, and to carry out the monarch's laws. The number and responsibilities of the justices of the peace increased through the years of Tudor rule, and they became among the most important and powerful groups in the kingdom. Under Tudor rule, the power of feudal lords weakened. Many seats in the House of Commons in Parliament were occupied by justices of the peace. The justices of the peace as well as the Parliament, which had been established in 1265, gave legitimacy to the monarch's claim to authority. Parliament also checked the monarch's powers. In 1689, England's rulers William and Mary signed the English Bill of Rights, which assured individual civil liberties. For example, legal process was required before someone could be arrested and detained. The Bill of Rights also guaranteed protection against tyranny of the monarchy by requiring the agreement of Parliament on matters of taxation and raising an army. **Absolutism in France** In contrast to developments in England, the French government became more absolute-directed by one source of power, the king, with complete authority in the 17th and 18th centuries. Henry IV (ruled 1589-1610) of the House of Valois listened to his advisor Jean Bodin, who advocated the divine right of the monarchy. Building on these ideas, Louis XIII (ruled 1610–1643) and his minister Cardinal Richelieu moved to even greater centralization of the government and development of the system of intendants. These intendants were royal officials-bureaucratic elites—sent out to the provinces to execute the orders of the central government. The intendants themselves were sometimes called tax farmers because they oversaw the collection of various taxes in support of the royal governments. The Sun King, Louis XIV (ruled 1643-1715), espoused a theory of divine right and was a virtual dictator. His aims were twofold, just as those of Richelieu had been: He wanted to hold absolute power and expand French borders. Louis declared that he was the state: "L'etat, c'est moi." He combined the lawmaking and the justice system in his own person he was absolute. He kept nobles close to him in his palace at Versailles, making it difficult for them to act independently or plot against him. Louis and his successors' refusal to share power eventually weakened the French government. ### Emperor Kangxi and Louis XIV | | Both | Kangxi | Louis XIV | |---|---|---|---| | | Became ruler during childhood | Ruled Qing Dynasty China for 61 years | Ruled France for 72 years | | | Spoke multiple languages | Encouraged introduction of Western education | Known as the Sun King or Louis the Great | | | Supported the arts | Opened ports to foreign trade | Built palace at Versailles | | | Promoted study of sciences | Extended control over Tibet | Extended France's eastern borders | | | Loved landscape gardens | | Known as a symbol of absolute monarchy | | | Ruled during golden age of their empire | | | ### Reigning in Control of the Russian Empire Social hierarchy in Moscow was almost static-much as it had been in Kievan Russia earlier. The noble landowning class, the boyars, stood at the top of the social pyramid. Below them were the merchants. Last and most numerous were the peasants, who would gradually sink more and more deeply into debt and, as a result, into serfdom. Serfs were peasants who received a plot of land and protection from a noble. In return, the serfs were bound to that land and had little personal freedom. Transfers of land ownership to another noble included control over the serfs on that land. **The Efforts of Ivan IV** The boyar class experienced tensions with the rulers similar to the tensions between nobles and rulers in Western Europe. Boyars of Novgorod had opposed the expansionist policies of Ivan IV, so Ivan punished them after his forces defeated Novgorod. Ivan IV confiscated the lands of his boyar opponents and forced them and their families to move to Moscow. Like Louis XIV, he wanted to keep an eye on the nobility. To further control the boyars, Ivan established a paramilitary force loyal to him called the oprichnina. Dressed in black and traveling quickly on horseback, the members showed fierce loyalty to Ivan. They were drawn from lower-level bureaucrats and merchants to assure their loyalty to Ivan rather than to the boyars. The oprichnina's methods would be reflected later in the development of the Russian secret police. (Connect: Create a table comparing Ivan IV and Sundiata. See Topic 2.4.) ### Peter the Great The Romanov Dynasty took control of Russia in 1613 after a period of turmoil following Ivan’s death in 1584. Under the autocratic control of the Romanovs, three main groups in Russia had conflicting desires and agendas: the Church, bent on conserving traditional values and beliefs; the boyars, desiring to gain and hold power; and members of the tsar's royal family. The rise to power of Peter I, also known as Peter the Great (ruled 1682–1725), illustrates these conflicting ambitions. First, to gain full control of the throne, Peter had to defeat his half-sister Sophia and her supporters, a boyar-led elite military corps called the Streltsy. He consolidated power by forcing Sophia into a convent. Later, the Streltsy rebelled against Peter's reign, so he temporarily disbanded them and then integrated them into Russia's regular army. Peter the Great was known as the Defender of Orthodoxy, participating closely in ecclesiastical [church] affairs. However, Peter would eventually lose the support of the Russian clergy over his reforms. Later in his reign, Peter reorganized the Russian government by creating provinces (first 8 and later 50 administrative divisions). Provincial officials received a salary, replacing the old system of local officials "feeding off the land" (getting money through bribes, fees, and taxes). Another government reform was the creation of a senate, a council to advise government officials when Peter was away. ### Centralizing Control in the Ottoman Empire To ensure their control over large areas, the Ottoman sultans used a selection system called devshirme to staff their military and their government. This system began in the late 14th century and expanded in the 15th and 16th centuries. Through this system, Christian boys who were subjects of the empire were recruited by force to serve in the Ottoman government. Boys ages 8 to 20 were taken each year from conquered Christian lands in Europe. The system of devshirme developed from an earlier system of slavery in the Ottoman Empire. In both systems, slaves were considered tribute owed to the empire after conquest, which was typically one-fifth of the conquered land’s wealth. Since Islamic law prohibited enslavement of "people of the book"-Muslims and Jews-Christian boys were forcibly removed from their families, especially from Balkan territories. The Christian boys were taught various skills in politics, the arts, and the military and received a very high level of education. The most famous group, called Janissaries, formed elite forces in the Ottoman army. Other boys were groomed to become administrators of the newly conquered territories; some were scribes, tax collectors, and even diplomats. They were indoctrinated to be fiercely loyal to the sultan-some served as bodyguards. In some ways, becoming a Janissary provided a path of upward mobility in the Ottoman Empire, even though the Janissaries continued to be called "slaves of the state." Some parents even wanted their sons to be recruited into the service. ### Centralizing Control in East and South Asia Following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, the Ming ruled in China from 1368–1644. The Ming Dynasty in China wanted to erase the influence of Mongol rulers of the Yuan Dynasty. To help accomplish this goal, the Ming brought back the traditional civil service exam, improved education by establishing a national school system, and reestablished the bureaucracy, which had fallen into disuse under the Mongols. (See Topic 2.2.) During the Qing Dynasty, in the later part of Qianlong's reign, the traditionally efficient Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt, levying high taxes on the people. The Qing government used harsh military control to put down a rebellion against these developments and maintain its authority. **Consolidating Power in Japan** Military leaders called shoguns ruled Japan in the emperor's name from the 12th to the 15th centuries. Yet conflict between landholding aristocrats called daimyo left Japan in disarray. Each daimyo had an army of warriors (known as samurai); ambition to conquer more territory; and power to rule his fiefdoms as he saw fit. The samurai were salaried, paid first in rice and later in gold, which gave them significant economic power. Finally, just as gunpowder weapons enabled the rise of new empires in Turkey, Persia, and India, gunpowder weapons helped a series of three powerful daimyo to gradually unify Japan. (Connect: Write a paragraph connecting shogun rule with the rule of the daimyo. See Topic 1.1.) The first of these powerful daimyo was Oda Nobunaga. Armed with muskets purchased from Portuguese traders, Nobunaga and his samurai took over Kyoto in 1568. He then began to extend his power, forcing daimyo in the lands around Kyoto to submit. Nobunaga had unified about one-third of what is today Japan when he was assassinated in 1582. Nobunaga's successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, continued expanding the territory until most of what we now know as Japan was under his control. After his death in 1598, the center of power shifted to the city of Edo (Tokyo), controlled by the daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu (ruled 1600–1616), who was declared shogun in 1603. His successors would continue to rule Japan into the mid-19th century, in an era known as the Period of Great Peace. The Tokugawa shogunate set about reorganizing the governance of Japan in order to centralize control over what was essentially a feudal system. Japan was divided into 250 hans, or territories, each of which was controlled by a daimyo who had his own army and was fairly independent. However, the Tokugawa government required that daimyo maintain residences both in their home territory and also in the capital; if the daimyo himself was visiting his home territory, his family had to stay in Tokyo, essentially as hostages. This kept the daimyo under the control of the shogunate, reducing them to landlords who managed the hans, rather than independent leaders. **Consolidating Mughal Power in South Asia** Ruling from 1556 to 1605, Akbar proved to be the most capable of the Mughal rulers. For the first 40 years of his rule, he defeated Hindu armies and extended his empire southward and westward. From his capital in Delhi, Akbar established an efficient government and a system of fairly administered laws. For example, all his people had the right to appeal to him for final judgment in any lawsuit. As Akbar's fame spread, capable men from many parts of Central Asia came to serve him. They helped Akbar create a strong, centralized government and an effective civil service. Paid government officials called zamindars were in charge of specific duties, such as taxation, construction, and the water supply. Later, they were given grants of land rather than salaries but were permitted to keep a portion of the taxes paid by local peasants, who contributed one-third of their produce to the government. The system worked well under Akbar. Under the rulers who came after him, though, the zamindars began to keep more of the taxes that they collected. With this money, they built personal armies of soldiers and civilians loyal to them. ### Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art European governments sought to legitimize the authority of the monarch through the divine right of monarchy. (For more information about the divine right of monarchy, see Topic 3.3.) They also built impressive structures, such as the Palace of Versailles in France, to demonstrate their power and glory. Governments in other parts of the world followed similar patterns to consolidate and legitimize their authority. (See Topic 1.4 for links among religion, grand temples and pyramids, human sacrifice, and political power in the Mexica and Incan cultures.) **Peter and St. Petersburg** When Peter the Great seized lands on the Baltic Sea from Sweden, the conquest gave Russia its own warm-water port on the Baltic-St. Petersburg. Peter moved the Russian capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg so he could keep watch on the boyars there, who were doing their required state service by working in his government. The new city became a testament to Peter’s determination to have his own capital. Architects laid out streets in a rectangular grid, unlike the irregular pattern of Moscow and other cities. Peasants and Swedish prisoners of war were forced to work, draining marshes and building streets and government structures. In the mid-18th century, workers built the famous Winter Palace. It was designed in a European rather than a Byzantine style to show Peter’s admiration of Europe and its rulers. **Askia the Great of Songhai** Askia Mohammad I, or Askia the Great, came to power in 1493. He claimed his predecessor, Sunni Ali, was not a faithful Muslim. Like Mansa Musa of Mali, Askia the Great promoted Islam throughout his kingdom and made an elaborate pilgrimage to Mecca. Under his leadership, Songhai became the largest kingdom in its day in West Africa. Askia made Islam Songhai’s official religion in an attempt to unite his empire. In addition to legitimizing his rule through promoting Islam, he also supported an efficient bureaucracy to bring the empire together. **Shah Jahan** Mughal India produced a number of magnificent architectural accomplishments, including the Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan (ruled 1628-1658) as a tomb for his wife. Mughal rulers also beautified Delhi and had forts built. The craftspeople and builders of Mughal India combined the arts of Islam (calligraphy, illumination of manuscripts, and ceramics) with local arts to create magnificent, airy structures with decorative geometric designs. All these accomplishments showed the power of the rulers. **Ottoman Architectural and Artistic Achievements** Tremendous changes in government and religion took place in Ottoman territory. However, the arts, the culture, and the economy showed continuities, though they now legitimized the rule of the Ottomans. Constantinople, renamed Istanbul, remained the western end of the overland Silk Roads, and the Grand Bazaar there continued to be full of foreign imports. Coffeehouses, although banned by Islamic law, continued to do a thriving business throughout the towns of the empire. Istanbul grew more beautiful and expanded across both sides of the Strait of Bosporus. One famous landmark is the royal residence of the sultans, Topkapi Palace. Mehmed II (lived 1432–1481) began construction on this landmark. Suleiman I (lived 1494–1566) ordered many mosques, forts, and other great buildings constructed in the cities under his control. For example, he ordered the construction in Istanbul of the magnificent Suleymaniye Mosque. Istanbul remained a center of arts and learning. Poets and scholars from across Asia met in coffeehouses and gardens. They discussed works by Aristotle and other Greek writers, as well as the works of many Arabic scholars. Cultural contributions of the Ottomans included the restoration of some of the glorious buildings of