Contemporary Social Issues and Social Work PDF

protect and extend themselves. Historically, community organizing and social work were responses to the many forces that created inequality in our society. They remain as necessary effective as ever today. Aging: Social workers link older adults with services that help them live independently and di...

protect and extend themselves. Historically, community organizing and social work were responses to the many forces that created inequality in our society. They remain as necessary effective as ever today. Aging: Social workers link older adults with services that help them live independently and dignity, thereby maximizing their quality of life and participation in society. Social work older adults focuses on the physical, psychological, social, and economic aspects of daily Child Welfare: Child welfare social workers serve some of the most vulnerable children, and families. Social workers specialize in building on the strengths of families and helping to provide a safe and nurturing environment for children and youths. However, when families are unable to do this, social workers must intervene to protect the from harm. Child welfare social workers ensure that children and youths who have abuse or neglect are supported through a range of services. Developmental Disabilities: Social workers also help parents of children with disabilities understand their legal rights. They help parents learn to be advocates and find services that enable their children to be as independent as possible. Health Care: Since the early 1900s, professionally trained social workers have helped people with personal and social factors that affect health and wellness. Some health care social are in direct services and concentrate on individuals, families, and small groups. Others work in settings where the focus is on planning, administration, and policy. In the care setting, social workers may conduct research, develop programs, and administer social and other departments. International Social Work: The functions of social work in international development diverse. They include direct services in communities, refugee camps, orphanages, hospitals, schools, as well as supporting the efforts of national governments, intergovernmental organizations, and non-governmental organizations to enhance social well- Justice and Corrections: Social workers who work in justice and corrections can be found courts, rape crisis centers, police departments, and correctional facilities. Mental Health and Clinical Social Work: Clinical social workers are one of the nation‘s groups of providers of mental health services. They provide mental health services in both and rural settings, where they may be the only licensed provider of mental health available. Mental Health and Substance Abuse Social Work: Social workers help individuals, families, and communities find ways to recover from use. They provide a much-needed ecological perspective to treatment that focuses on the client relation to family and neighborhood environments, community support systems, cultural and policies. 37 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU  Chapter Three: Application of Social work in different settings 3.1 Community organization and mental health 3.2 Criminal justice and Gerontological settings 3.3 School Social Work and Family settings 3.4 Child Protection and occupational social work 3.5 Health Care Settings Application of Social work in different settings Social work grew out of humanitarian and democratic ideals, and its values are based on for the equality, worth, and dignity of all the people. Since its beginnings over a century ago, work practice has focused on meeting human needs and developing human potential. The work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance wellbeing. MEANING AND TYPES OF SETTINGS Intervention of Social work by applying methods will be more meaningful only when the professional social workers understand identify the specific places, time and people. The specific places where professional social provide services can be called settings. The settings of social work profession can be divided into two types. i) Institutional (E.g. Schools, Hospitals) andii) Non-Institutional Slums, Villages). Social workers are found in every facet of community life, including schools, hospitals, health clinics, senior centers, elected office, private practices, prisons, military, corporations, in numerous public and private agencies. Some social workers help clients who face a disability or a life-threatening disease or a problem, such as inadequate housing, unemployment, or substance abuse. Social workers assist families that have serious domestic conflicts, sometimes involving child or spousal Some social workers conduct research, advocate for improved services, engage in systems or are involved in planning or policy development. Many social workers specialize in serving particular population or working in a specific setting. Administration and Management Social work administrators are proactive leaders in public and private agencies that services to clients. Many elements of this area of social work practice are common to administration in other organizations. However, administration and management also knowledge about social policy and the delivery of social services, vision for future planning, understanding of human behavior, and commitment to social work ethics and Advocacy and Community Organization Advocacy is one of the keystones of social work practice. Social work advocates champion rights of individuals and communities with the goal of achieving social justice. organizing and advocacy work with the power of numbers—many people thinking, working, acting together—to counterbalance wealthy and powerful groups and the means they have 36 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Consequently, social workers trained in treating alcohol, tobacco, and other drug addictions be found doing case management, group and individual therapy, family counseling, advocacy jobs and housing needs, community resource development, education, and policy Occupational and Employee Assistance Program (EAP) Social Work: Occupational workers help organizations re-engineer their structure and methods to improve efficiency, creativity, productivity, and morale. They may also work for a union and be involved in counseling or organizing. Policy and Planning: Social workers analyze policies, programs, and regulations to see what most effective. They identify social problems, study needs and related issues, conduct propose legislation, and suggest alternative approaches or new programs. They may coalitions of groups with similar interests and develop organizational networks. Politics: There is a natural progression in the careers of many social workers from activism leadership. Increasingly social workers are holding elective offices from school boards to city county governments, from state legislatures all the way to the U.S. House of Representatives the Senate. Social workers also play leadership roles in local, state and federal Public Welfare: Social work in public welfare entails planning, administering, and programs, training and supervising staff, and setting and evaluating standards and criteria service delivery. Public welfare offers many challenges that require creative thinking and leadership from professional social workers. Research: Social workers in research typically tend to be academics with postgraduate degrees social work. Research provides the framework for effective practice. Although considered an by some, social work is also a science based on evidence. School Social Work: School social workers act as the connection for school, home, community services to help children with emotional, developmental, and educational needs. school social workers practice in public and private schools, although a small percentage may in social services agencies or other service sites such as a preschool program or treatment center for children who are emotionally disturbed. DIRECT PRACTICE Direct practice is when the social worker works directly with an individual, family, or group people. The first direct meeting can occur in a variety of ways such as a crisis, voluntary, involuntary. The first meeting is a critical point in establishing a good helping relationship. social worker should prepare for any type of first contact, so that they may set up the relationship possible with the client (Sheafor & Horejsi, 2008). INDIRECT PRACTICE Indirect practice is generally when the social worker is involved in activities that consist facilitating change through programs and policies. This type of practice is more of behind scenes and is aimed to help prevent problems from developing. Also, the social worker participate in this type of practice by advocating through agency administrators, legislators, other powerful people to effect a change (Sheafor & Horejsi, 2008). 38 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION: Community organization is the process of people coming together to address issues that matter them. Community members developing plans for how the city can be a place where all its do well. Neighbors joining in protests to stop drugs and violence in their community. Members faith communities working together to build affordable housing. These are all examples community organization efforts. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF COMMUNITIES THAT ORGANIZE? Community organization can happen in the variety of contexts that define 1. SHARED PLACE People come together who share a common geographic place such as a neighborhood, city, town. For example, local residents might come together to address neighborhood concerns such safety, housing, or basic services. 2. SHARED WORK SITUATION OR WORKPLACE Community organizing also occurs among people who share a work situation or workplace. example, union organizing among industrial or farm laborers brings together those about working conditions, job security, wages, and benefits. 3. SHARED EXPERIENCES OR CONCERNS It's a good opportunity for community organization when people share a common experience concern. For example, organizing might happen among people who are poor about jobs, education, and other contributors to financial security. SOME MODELS OF PRACTICE IN COMMUNITY Should community organization be about collaboration among people sharing common or confrontation with those in power? This is a false dichotomy that ignores the context of work. Several models of practice emerged in various contexts of community organization (Rothman, 1995). 1. SOCIAL PLANNING Social planning uses information and analysis to address substantive community issues such education, child development, or environmental health. For example, planning councils or forces engage (usually) professionals in setting goals and objectives, coordinating efforts, reviewing goal attainment. Social planning might occur in a context of either consensus or conflict about goals and For example, information about high rates of adolescent pregnancy, and factors that contribute it, may help communities focus on the goal of preventing teen pregnancy, and even decisions using controversial means such as sexuality education and enhanced access to contraceptives. of social planning helps build agreement on common results. 39 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU 2. SOCIAL ACTION Social action involves efforts to increase the power and resources of low-income or powerless or marginalized people. For example, advocacy organizations, such as those disability rights or tobacco control, often use social action approaches. They might disruptive events -- including lawsuits, sit-ins, or boycotts -- to draw attention and focus to concerns by those in power. 3. LOCALITY DEVELOPMENT Locality development is another way to get people to work together. It is the process of group consensus about common concerns and collaborating in problem solving. For example, residents in urban neighborhoods or rural communities may cooperate in defining local such as access to job opportunities or better education, and in taking action to address the 4. COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS OR COALITIONS There are many hybrid models that combine elements of the three approaches. For community partnerships or coalitions combine elements of social planning and locality development when people who share common concerns, such as child well -being or abuse, come together to address them. The goal of many coalitions is to change conditions -- specific programs, policies, and practices -- that protect against or reduce risk these concerns. These models, and their variations, may be implemented at local, state, and even broader levels. Mental Health: Mental health refers to cognitive, behavioral, and emotional well-being. It is all about how think, feel, and behave. People sometimes use the term ―mental health‖ to mean the absence of mental disorder. According to WHO ―Mental health is a state of well-being in which an individual realizes his her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively, and is able make a contribution to his or her community.‖ Why is mental health important for overall health? Mental and physical health are equally important components of overall health. For depression increases the risk for many types of physical health problems, particularly long- conditions like diabetes, heart disease, and stroke. Similarly, the presence of chronic can increase the risk for mental illness The three primary types of treatment settings for receiving mental health care or services are hospital inpatient, 2) residential and 3) outpatient. In addition, some mental health care are delivered via online and telecommunications technologies. Hospital inpatient settings involve an overnight or longer stay in a psychiatric hospital psychiatric unit of a general hospital. The facility can be privately owned or public operated). Inpatient hospitals provide treatment to more severely ill mental health patients, 40 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU for less than 30 days. A person admitted to an inpatient setting might be in the acute phase of mental illness and need help around the clock. Typically, a person who requires long-term would be transferred to another facility or a different setting within a psychiatric hospital after days of inpatient treatment. Residential mental health treatment environments generally provide longer-term care individuals. Most residential treatment settings provide medical care but are designed to be comfortable and less like a hospital ward than inpatient hospitals. Examples: Psychiatric residential centers are tailored to people with a chronic psychiatric disorder, such schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, or who have a dual diagnosis (i.e., a mental disorder substance abuse problems), which impairs their ability to function Alcohol and drug rehabilitation facilities are inpatient centers that treat addictions and provide detoxification services. Patients typically reside in this type of facility for 30 days but may be individualized according to each facility‘s policy. Outpatient Settings – While there is wide variety in the types of outpatient settings, they involve office visits with no overnight stay. Some are based in community mental health others are located in general hospitals where individuals visit an outpatient clinic for an appointment. In addition, many individuals in need of mental health counseling or treatment go private offices to see a mental health clinician who is in solo or group private Criminal justice and Gerontological settings Any form of crime undermines the rule of law. Preventing crime involves taking measures that seek to reduce the risk of crimes occurring, and their potential harmful effects on individuals and society, including fear of crime, by intervening to influence their multiple causes. The criminal justice system addresses the consequences of criminal behaviour in society and has the objective of protecting peoples' right to safety and the enjoyment of human rights. It refers, specifically, the work of the police, prosecution and judiciary with regard to criminal matters, as well as the access to legal aid, prisons and alternatives to imprisonment, restorative justice and victim protection and reparation. It also includes cross-cutting issues, such as gender, human rights and the considerations for victims and children within the criminal justice system. What is criminal justice system? The criminal justice system, essentially, is the system or process in the community by which are investigated, and the persons suspected thereof are taken into custody, prosecuted in court punished, if found guilty, provisions being made for their correction and 41 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Function of Correctional: Correctional institution is nothing but the penal of institution maintained by the The branch of the criminal justice system. FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL WORK IN CORRECTIONAL SETTINGS Assist boys and girls who are in trouble with the law is basically rehabilitated rather to punish them Help them to understand themselves their relationships with others, and what is of them as members of the society in which they live Emphasize bringing a positive change in behavior patterns Help to strengthen motivation Allow for ventilation of feelings – catharsis / release Establish and provide adequate information services Help offenders to make decisions Define the situation: to think and to feel Assist in modifying the environment Help offenders to reorganize behavior patterns and Facilitate referrals Correctional social workers, prison social workers are qualified and trained mental health professionals who are employed within the criminal justice system with the purpose of rates of re-arrest in the future. geriatric setting: Gerontological social workers, also known as geriatric social workers, coordinate the care older patients in a variety of settings, including hospitals, community health clinics, long- and residential health care facilities, hospice settings, and outpatient/daytime health care Role of Social Workers in Elderly Care / Geriatric Settings Those who work in geriatric social work help their clients manage psychological, emotional social challenges by providing counseling and therapy, advising clients‘ families about how to support aging loved ones, serving as the bridge of communication between clients and the rest the care team, and ensuring that clients receive the services they need if or when they between inpatient and outpatient treatment programs, in-home care, day treatment programs, the like. The role of social workers in elderly care leads to unique opportunities, which include deep and meaningful connections with clients and their families, changing problematic systems 42 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU both the personal and community levels, and the knowledge that their work has a direct impact on those in need. Psychosocial assessments gather information on a client‘s:  Mental and emotional health, including past and present psychological  Behavioral health challenges.  Social, financial, familial, educational and occupational history and current  Medical and mental health treatment history.  Current medications and adherence to treatment plans. School Social Work and Family settings School social work is a specialized area of practice within the broad field of the social profession. School social workers bring unique knowledge and skills to the school system and student services team. School Social Workers are trained mental health professionals who assist with mental health concerns, behavioral concerns, positive behavioral support, and classroom support, consultation with teachers, parents, and administrators as well as individual and group counseling/therapy. School social workers are instrumental in furthering mission of the schools which is to provide a setting for teaching, learning, and for the of competence and confidence. School social workers are hired by school districts to enhance district's ability to meet its academic mission, especially where home, school and collaboration is the key to achieving student success. School Social Work Services RELATED SERVICES:  Participating in special education assessment meetings as well as individual Planning Meetings  Working with those problems in a child's living situation that affect the child‘s in school. (home, school, and community)  Preparing a social or developmental history on a child with a disability.  Counseling (group, individual and/or family)  Mobilizing family, school, and community resources to enable the child to learn effectively as possible in his or her educational program  Assisting in developing positive behavioral intervention strategies. SERVICES TO STUDENTS:  Providing crisis intervention.  Developing intervention strategies to increase academic success.  Assisting with conflict resolution and anger management.  Helping the child develop appropriate social interaction skills.  Assisting the child in understanding and accepting self and others. SERVICES TO PARENT/FAMILIES:  Working with parents to facilitate their support in their children's school  Alleviating family stress to enable the child to function more effectively in &community.  Assisting parents to access programs available to students with special needs. 43 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU   Assisting parents in accessing and utilizing school and community resources. SERVICES TO SCHOOL PERSONNEL:  Providing staff with essential information to better understand factors (cultural, societal, economic, familial, health, etc.) affecting a student‘s performance and  Assessing students with mental health concerns.  Developing staff in-service training programs.  Assisting teachers with behavior management.  Providing direct support to staff. SCHOOL-COMMUNITY LIAISON:  Obtaining and coordinating community resources to meet students' needs.  Helping school districts receive adequate support from social and mental health  Advocating for new and improved community/school service to meet the needs of and families.  Helping the system respond effectively to each child's needs. SERVICES TO DISTRICTS:  Assist in developing and implementing educational programs for children for children.  Developing alternative programs for students with attendance concerns or with the law.  Identifying and reporting child abuse and neglect.  Providing consultation regarding school law and school policy including IDEA and 504.  Providing case management for students and families requiring multiple Family settings family, a group of persons united by the ties of marriage, blood, or adoption, constituting a household and interacting with each other in their respective social positions, usually those spouses, parents, children, and siblings. What is a Family Social Worker? A family social worker helps families and individuals get difficult times or get additional support. They assist by letting individuals and families know there are special services available to them, and will then go ahead and make plans for utilization. is a rewarding career, as there is the satisfaction of seeing people get back on the right track, restore harmony in their lives. They work for nonprofit organizations, for-profit social agencies, and for various levels of government. Social workers help families improve relationships and cope with difficult situations such divorce, illness or death. They guide families through the counseling process, by helping identify problems, set goals and find solutions to their troubles. 44 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Facilitating Communication A social worker often begins by simply encouraging family members to communicate. families have barely spoken to each other for months by the time they enter For example, if a child is misbehaving, it may not be because he disrespects his parents, but because he's troubled by tension in his parents' marriage. A social worker would help him these thoughts so the entire family could discuss and understand them. Intervention Duties Family intervention in social work sometimes requires immediate solutions, even if short-term, help families work through problems. For example, if one family member has a serious drug or alcohol problem, the family social worker may recommend he enter a treatment facility before continuing with therapy. Or, one family member has a mental illness such as depression or bipolar disorder, the social may advise him to visit a psychiatrist who can prescribe medications to help him manage condition. Conflict Resolution Families often enter family counseling because they have an immediate problem that's stress and conflict within the family. A social worker's first objective is to help families and solve the issue, according to The New Social Worker. or an example of the role of the social worker in divorce: If children are acting out because upset about their parents' divorce, or about the death of a parent or other family member, the worker will help them find ways to deal with their grief or fear. Teaching Responsibilities A social worker's long-term goal is to teach families how to work together to solve and problems. In addition to helping them resolve their immediate issues, she'll also educate about family dynamics and how they impact both individual members and the family as a For example, she may recommend they hold weekly family meetings where they can discuss their concerns. Family counselors should possess a variety of key skills to be effective in their 1. Communication Family counselors must possess strong communication skills. They must be able to listen to various points of view that family members have about issues without appearing to be and to ask appropriate questions in the process of gathering more information when 2. Perceptiveness and Empathy Each family member plays a role in the family structure, so the family counselor must perceptive enough to understand varied points of view and have the empathy to mentally 45 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU himself in each person's shoes. For instance, one family member may be domineering, another attempts to be the peacemaker when conflicts arise. By gaining an understanding of role, the counselor can work to develop strategies so that she can help family members 3. Conflict Resolution Once the issues or conflicts have been identified, family counselors must help the parties an effective resolution that is as satisfactory as possible to everyone involved. Counselors must skilled at helping the parties to identify a set of possible alternatives and to weigh the pros cons of each. 4. Instructing and Leadership Families that seek counseling are often confused about what direction to take to resolve Counselors need strong leadership skills to develop the trust necessary to persuade family to follow the recommended course of action. They also must have the teaching skills necessary help the family members understand the causes of the conflict as well as the various steps in conflict-resolution process. In some cases, counselors need to teach family members how change negative behavior patterns. Child Protection and occupational social work: Social workers operate in a variety of settings and serve diverse populations. Understanding different kinds of social workers is a good first step to deciding what type of social work career best for you. For those who enjoy working with children and families, becoming a child social worker may be a meaningful career. What is a child protection social worker? A child protection social worker is a social who performs a variety of services to support children and families through hardships. Often, are government employees or work for nonprofit organizations. They work with families to them resolve conflicts and access social support services. They may also advocate for child and intervene in cases of child abuse or neglect. What does a child protection social worker do? A child protection social worker's primary responsibility is to protect children in situations neglect, abuse or maltreatment. They may investigate allegations of child abuse or by gathering evidence to build a case either to substantiate or dismiss claims against a parent guardian. Child protection social workers may evaluate parents or guardians to determine fitness for taking care of their children, and they may help place children with foster or families. Child protection social workers also complete documentation, manage case files perform other administrative responsibilities. In some cases, a child protection social worker may coordinate resources for families in need. example, the social worker may help a parent or guardian enroll in parenting classes, financial assistance programs or another community or state service. They might work with 46 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU courts or even the juvenile justice system to advocate for children in legal proceedings. For with children who have complex care needs such as a serious illness or disability, a child social worker may connect families with services that help them support their child's What is a Child Welfare Social Worker? Child welfare social workers protect vulnerable youth and help disadvantaged families meet needs of their children. As the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) explains, ―specialize in building upon the strengths within a family and their community to help provide safe and loving environment for their children,‖ but also ―intervene to protect children from when necessary. Some of the child welfare social worker‘s core responsibilities include responding to cases child abuse and neglect; removing children from home settings that are dangerous or do not certain standards; working with children and their families on a reunification plan in with child dependency courts; helping parents meet the needs of their children by connecting with resources and helping them navigate programs, therapy and advising; and arranging for and long-term care of children whose families cannot take care of them. Occupational social work is the practice specialization in which programs and interventions targeted specifically to the population of the workplace. Like all other fields of practice, occupational social work is bound by the National Association of Social Workers‘ Code of and the association‘s Guidelines for Culturally Competent Practice. But in terms of for innovative research, intervention, and program development for the future, occupational work is as boundless as the global economy. Where do Occupational social workers work? Occupational social workers, as part of EAPs, were either employed by the organisation or as part of outsourced services to render counselling services and interventions to employees their families. Industrial Settings: A study was undertaken to identify psychological problems reported by workers in an setting and the degree to which these problems 1. affected an individual‘s ability to carry out work and home responsibilities and 2. were related to physical and psychophysiological disorders. (Physical symptoms, included emotional factors-including anxiety, stress, fear) Functions of ISW: Management of industrial health services-first aid, dispensary ambulance and hospitalization Management of company schools and workers education classes. Management of canteens and midday /lunch meals, etc. 47 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU  Administration of housing estates and workers housing schemes. Promotion and management of recreational measures – sports, tournaments, centers, cinema shows, tours, etc Supervision of provident fund, employees state insurance scheme work. Administration of financial benefit schemes – loans, grants, etc. And cooperative INDUSTRIAL SOCIAL WORK Orientation and introduction to new employees. Communicating company policies to workers individually and providing them with interpretation and communicating workers opinions and feelings to the Exit interviews. Care of young persons, women and workers nearing superannuation / Health Care Settings: The term healthcare setting represents a broad array of services and places where occurs, including acute care hospitals, urgent care centers, rehabilitation centers, nursing and other long-term care facilities, specialized outpatient services (e.g., hemodialysis, podiatry, chemotherapy, endoscopy, and pain management clinics), and outpatient surgery In addition, some healthcare services are provided in private offices or homes. What does a Healthcare Social Worker do? A healthcare social worker refers clients to social services as necessary. They may advise givers and provide patient education. Many works in medical settings like hospitals, mental clinics, private practice, schools, child welfare, and human service agencies. They help through many phases of life in handling difficult issues like depression or the transition plan a client may leave one level of care to another. A healthcare social worker provides support and services to groups, individuals, or that are challenged to cope with terminal, acute, or chronic illness. They promote health and clients access better healthcare. They resolve serious problems or crises in being an advocate a clients care and wellbeing. Often, patients or families need their healthcare social worker to get them started on programs to aid in recovering from physical or mental illness and to be sure they understand available services such as housing options, legal aid, financial assistance, education, and opportunities. A healthcare social worker may organize support groups or educator patients on available groups. They may also coordinate rehabilitation and care and see the service is followed If a patient‘s status changes, the healthcare social worker would modify their plan 48 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU They observe environmental issues that may impede a patient‘s healing and keep records progress while continuing to evaluate and monitor the case. What Are the Different Types of Health Care Facilities? 1. Hospital Hospitals primarily provide diagnostic and treatment services to patients who require intensive immediate care. Most hospitals are in-patient facilities, requiring patients to stay under supervision of specialized health care professionals until discharged. Hospitals are generally classified by the type of ownership, treatment, facility size, and length a patient‘s stay. The majority of them are nonprofits, typically governed by a regional authority. 2. Outpatient Clinic An outpatient clinic or facility is often for patients who need short-term care and can recover home. Hospitals refer discharged patients to a network of outpatient clinics that specialize services for ongoing conditions such as weight loss, drug or alcohol rehabilitation, and therapy. Outpatient clinics are typically more convenient and affordable for patients as well. Day centers, urgent care clinics, and specialty clinics are often in close proximity to a patient‘s providing easier access to high-quality, non-emergency care. 3. Long-Term Care Facility Long-term care facilities support people with short-term recovery, ongoing health conditions, disabilities. They are designed to help patients complete daily activities as safely and as independently as possible. According to a recent survey by Genworth, 7 in 10 people will require long-term care in lifetime. Depending on their health, patients can receive in-home care through homemaker or a home health aide. 4. Clinical Lab A clinical laboratory, or lab, completes diagnostic tests ordered by physicians and primary providers. Using biological specimens, such as blood, urine, or saliva, medical technicians tests to help diagnose, treat, and monitor a patient‘s health. Clinical lab facilities can be by function or test specialization. 5. Hospice Hospice is another type of health care facility. A hospice facility cares for the terminally ill people nearing the end of life. Typically, hospice care is for patients who have no more than months to live. A team of professionals, such as physicians, nurses, spiritual advisors, counselors, supports both the patient and the patient‘s family during the 49 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Depending on the care required and cost, hospice services can be accessed in a hospice facility, the patient‘s home, in long-term facilities, or in the hospital. Health infrastructure General hospital. A hospital that provides a range of different services for patients of various groups and with varying disease conditions. Specialized hospital. A hospital admitting primarily patients suffering from a specific disease affection of one system, or reserved for the diagnosis and treatment of conditions affecting specific age group or of a long-term nature. District/first-level referral hospital. A hospital at the first referral level that is responsible for district or a defined geographical area containing a defined population and governed by a administrative organization such as a district health management team. The role of hospitals in primary health care has been expanded beyond being dominantly curative rehabilitative to include promotional, preventive, and educational roles as part of a primary care approach A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized and nursing staff and medical equipment Hospital or medical social workers provide help and support to patients with a variety medical problems. Patients admitted to the hospital may require a social worker psychosocial problems. Functions of Social Work in Hospital Settings: Studies, observes and assesses the problems brought to the hospital or clinic by individual. Evaluates the role of the family. Helps the individual and his family to use the treatment of the service Collaborates with members of other professions in the treatment program. Help the patient to become oriented to the hospital and ease the pain of Promotion and organization of community mental health programs and Integrates psychiatric programs with community health and welfare programs. Educates the community in mental health concepts 50 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU  Chapter Four: Theories of Social Work 4.1 Importance of theories in social intervention 4.2 General system perspective theory in social issues 4.3 Eco-System theories in social issues intervention 4.4 The strength perspectives theory in social issues intervention 4.5 The feminist theory in social issues intervention Important Theories in Social Work Social work theories attempt to describe, explain and predict social events based on evidence, studies and research. Social work perspectives draw from psychology, economics, education and other fields to attempt to explain what drives and motivates people various stages of life. Some social work students studying for a bachelor‘s degree in social work or master of social may wonder, ―Why is theory important in social work?‖ Social workers learn a variety of so they‘re prepared to apply social work theory to practice. That ensures competence in work, which can increase social worker confidence. Why Is Theory Important in Social Work? Social work theories help social workers analyze cases, understand clients, create predict intervention results and evaluate outcomes. While the theories are constantly evolving new evidence is produced, referencing social work theories that have been used over time social workers to explore causes of behavior. They can then help their clients find the solutions. Learning about various social work theories helps remind social workers that their assumptions and beliefs should be suspended during social work practice. Social workers use evidence-based theories to investigate issues and drive their practice, instead of applying own attitudes, reactions and moods to client work. Applying Social Work Theory to Practice Social work theory provides a starting point for social workers to create interventions and their work. It gives social workers a way to address client problems through a research-based The theories help social workers better understand complex human behaviors and social environments, which influence their clients‘ lives and problems. A good grasp of theory guide social workers by providing them with a sense of direction, purpose and control by research-based scientific evidence in theory. One challenge of applying social work theories to practice is choosing the right theory for situation at hand. It can be difficult to assign a single theory to complex client issues. Often, more practical to draw upon the knowledge of multiple theories and use that understanding design multifaceted interventions. 51 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU The following list of social work theories includes some of the most widely referenced used in social work. 1. Social learning theory Social learning theory, which is also known as social cognitive theory, was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura. This theory posits that learning occurs by observing others and modeling their behavior. In order for social learning to occur, a person must want to emulate the person they‘re watching. The individual pays close attention to the action and retains the action in memory. Then, the individual must experience a situation where the behavior can be repeated and must be motivated to repeat the behavior. Social learning theory relates to social work because social workers may want to understand how role models affect the behaviors and moods in those they work with. Social learning theory can help social workers form intervention strategies that use positive modeling and reinforcement create new positive behaviors in their clients. 2. Systems theory Systems theory proposes that people are products of complex systems, rather than individuals act in isolation. In this theory, behavior is influenced by a variety of factors that work together a system. These factors include family, friends, social settings, religious structure, economic class and home environment, which can all influence how individuals act and think. Systems theory can be used to treat issues like eating disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, school trauma and risky behavior. In ecological systems theory, individuals are observ ed in multiple environments so that behavior is fully understood. Family systems theory examines the family as a social system influencing behavior and thoughts. Social workers using systems theory will work to understand how their clients are influenced by the systems they‘re a part of. Social workers then identify where systemic breakdowns are behavior. 52 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Some of the concepts of systems theory as they apply to psychology, sociology and social System: An entity that‘s made up of interrelated/interdependent parts. Complex system: The greater, whole system made up of individual, smaller systems. used in social sciences. Ecological systems: The various systems in an individual‘s life that influence their Homeostasis: The state of steady conditions within a system. A system is always moving homeostasis. Adaptation: A system‘s tendency to make changes that will protect itself when presented new environmental factors. Feedback loop: When the outputs of a system ultimately affect its inputs, causing the system feed back into itself circularly. Applications of Systems Theory Systems theory is employed in multiple sciences and offers practical insights to researchers workers of various disciplines. Below are some common examples of where systems theory be applied. Psychology: Systems psychology is a facet of psychology that examines human behavior experiences within complex systems. Individuals, communities, populations and other groups considered to be systems in homeostasis. For insights into human behavior, systems looks at the greater picture of how these systems and the complex system affect one Ecology: An interdisciplinary field of ecology, systems ecology takes the holistic approach systems theory to their studies of ecological systems, focusing on ecosystems and between biological and ecological systems. Engineering: Systems engineering is another interdisciplinary approach that employs the principles of systems theory. Systems engineering, when applied in the real world, often looks a group effort that considers all stages of a product or service in the developmental stages from creation to its use and disposal. Chemistry: A great example of the universality of certain scientific assumptions and systems chemistry takes systems theory all the way down to the molecular level. These examine the networks of interacting molecules to create functions from sets of molecules different emergent properties. 53 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU How Does Systems Theory Apply to Social Work? A holistic approach to an individual‘s personality, choices and hardships is important when comes to successful social work. Like the other fields mentioned, a social worker must look at factors that come together in a unique way to shape their experiences and who they Social workers may employ systems theory to understand problems like child abuse, family and community dysfunction as they relate to individuals‘ personal issues, such as anxiety, self-esteem, self-harm or relationship issues. Based on systems theory, multiple practices been created that are specific to social work. 3. Psychosocial development theory Psychosocial development theory was introduced by German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, believed personality develops in a series of stages. Erikson created an eight-stage theory of psychosocial development. According to the theory, the eight stages of development that people pass through in life are:  Trust versus mistrust  Autonomy versus shame and doubt  Initiative versus guilt  Industry versus inferiority  Identity versus confusion  Intimacy versus isolation  Generativity versus stagnation  Integrity versus despair In psychosocial development theory, humans are believed to go through these stages as they Psychosocial development theory can influence social workers, who can look at what stage 54 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU development their clients are going through and use the theory to better understand the their clients are experiencing during certain stages of psychosocial development. 4. Psychodynamic theory Psychodynamic theory was introduced by the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud. theory is founded on the idea that humans are biologically driven to seek gratification. The theory states that people do this based on processes that have developed outside of conscious awareness, with origins in childhood experiences. This drive influences everyday behavior, leading to actions like aggression, sex and self-preservation. In social work, psychodynamic theory can help to explain the internal processes individuals use to guide their behavior, some of which may be unconsciously motivated. Social workers may also examine how early childhood experiences have played a role in influencing their clients‘ behavior today. 5. Social exchange theory Social exchange theory originates with Austrian sociologist George Homans. It says that relationships are based on cost-benefit analysis. Each person seeks to maximize their benefits is expected to reciprocate for the benefits they‘ve received. When risks outweigh potential rewards, relationships may be abandoned. When one person in a relationship has greater personal resources than another, that person is predicted to have greater power as well. Social workers can use social exchange theory to understand the relationships their clients have with others and why they continue to maintain certain relationships or abandon them. Social exchange theory can also be applied to the techniques social workers use to connect with their clients. Social exchange theory can influence how social workers position the social worker- client relationship as one that benefits their clients. 55 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU 6. Rational choice theory Rational choice theory helps explain why people make the choices they do, as people weigh costs and benefits before making decisions. This theory says that all choices are rational people calculate the costs and benefits before making a decision. Even when a choice irrational, there was reasoning behind it. This theory can help social workers understand the decision-making processes and motivations their clients. Using rational choice theory, social workers can examine how their clients decisions, based on their rational preferences. Eco-System / Ecological systems theories in social issues intervention: The ecological systems theory—also known as human ecology theory or development in examines how individuals‘ environments shape them into who they are. This theory was developed by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner to delve into relationships within one‘s community as they relate to personality traits cultivated from childhood. There are five systems in the theory. Looking at the five systems of the ecological systems we see a heavy focus on how events influence a child through their development. We learn just the ―what,‖ but the ―why,‖ too. 1. Microsystem Microsystems are the people, groups and institutions that most directly influence a child‘s and development. This could include family, teachers, peers, neighbors or religious 2. Mesosystem Mesosystems are the relationships and interactions between microsystems in a child‘s life. example, if a child isn‘t getting enough attention or is dealing with abuse at home, this may them to have difficulty with emotional development and interacting with their teachers and 56 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU 3. Exosystem The exosystem consists of social settings the child has no control over, but is directly affected A common example of the exosystem is a child being affected by their parents‘ work. Consider scenario in which one parent suddenly receives more responsibility at work and must now frequently. This will fundamentally change the child‘s interactions with the other parent, their bond becomes stronger or there‘s increased conflict between them. 4. Macrosystem The macrosystem is the general culture that influences a child as they develop, and the microsystems and mesosystems within. The macrosystem includes factors such as status, ethnicity, race and geographic location. 5. Chronosystem The chronosystem is the pattern of major events and cultural shifts that occur and influence individual over the course of their lifetime. A frequently used example of an event within chronosystem is the child whose parents get divorced, which has negative effects on the child the first one to two years before stabilizing. Another example of a significant, influential shift would be the increased amount of women in the workforce over recent Learning more about the events that shaped this individual‘s personality and circumstances essential to addressing the issues they‘re dealing with—this is where the ecological systems offers actionable insight in the context of social work. The strength perspectives theory in social issues intervention: The strengths perspective and strengths-based approaches offer service providers ways of that focus on strengths, abilities and potential rather than problems, deficits and Strengths-based practice is a collaborative process between the person supported by services those supporting them, allowing them to work together to determine an outcome that draws on person's strengths and assets. As such, it concerns itself principally with the quality of relationship that develops between those providing and being supported, as well as the that the person seeking support brings to the process (Duncan and Hubble, 2000). Working in collaborative way promotes the opportunity for individuals to be co-producers of services support rather than solely consumers of those services (Morgan and Ziglio, Principles of the Strengths Perspective is an approach to social work that puts the strengths resources of people, communities, and their environments, rather than their problems and pathologies, at the center of the helping process. 57 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU The main principles of the Strengths Perspective are for social workers to:  Recognize that every individual, group, family, and community has strengths resource  Engage in systematic assessment of strengths and  Realize that while trauma, abuse, illness and struggle may be injurious, they may also sources of challenge and  Honor client-set goals and aspirations for growth and  Serve clients‘ and communities‘ interests through collaboration with them as directors their own helping  Mobilize the strengths and resources of clients, relationships, and  Link goals to specific doable actions that activate strengths and  Engage in social work with a sense of caring and The feminist theory in social issues intervention: Feminist theory, also known as feminism, is the belief in the full economic, political, social equality of the sexes. What Is Feminist Theory? Feminist theory, or feminism, is support of equality for women and men. Although all feminists strive for gender equality, there are various ways to approach this theory, including liberal feminism, socialist feminism and radical feminism. Let's take a look at the basic feminist ideas and various approaches to achieving gender equality. What is meant by feminist theory? Feminist theory considers the lived experience of any person/people, not just women, with emphasis on oppression. While there may not be a consensus on where feminist theory fits as theory or paradigm, disruption of oppression is a core tenant of feminist work. Basic Feminist Ideas Both females and males who identify themselves as feminists disagree on many things. That said, most feminists agree on five basic principles:  Working to increase equality: Feminist thought links ideas to action, insisting we push for change toward gender equality and not just talk about  Expanding human choice: Feminists believe that both men and women should have freedom to develop their human interests and talents, even if those interests and 58 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU  conflict with the status quo. For example, if a woman wants to be a mechanic, she have the right and opportunity to do so.  Eliminating gender stratification: Feminists oppose laws and cultural norms that income, educational and job opportunities for  Ending sexual violence & promoting sexual freedom: Feminists feel that women have control over their sexuality and However, feminist theories still have some similarities, which are (Dominelli,  Honour women rights in order to be free from  Give chances to women to speak on behalf themselves and based on their  Take notice about what should be spoken out by  Create an alternative lifestyle here and  Integrate theories and  Seek the compatibility between the goals and means to achieve  Map the collective solution to acknowledge the individuality and uniqueness of woman and Appreciate the women The feminist theory promotes the recognition that women have more welfare work as well oppressive and sexist social services, then change it with alternative social services including the social work practices that focused on women (women-centred practice) 2001). What is an example of feminist theory? Expanding human choice: Feminists believe that both men and women should have the to develop their human interests and talents, even if those interests and talents conflict with status quo. For example, if a woman wants to be a mechanic, she should have the right opportunity to do so. According to Dominelli (2002), the influence of feminism of social work can be seen on massive debates on feminism issues in universities, social services agencies as well as a process and partnership relation in lectures: among the students, students and lecturers, and lectures. Moreover, feminism promotes some of these following:  Ask the epistemology of knowledge, in theories and practices of social works, as well underline the absence of women experiences in traditional approach on social (positivism), mainly in social  Show the using of language as a way to place the human and reveal the relation as well as how to  Criticise the applying practical models and learning techniques which tend to passive students. It proposes the participatory approaches to 59 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU   Reject the research methodologies which is not including the gender element and reconstruct the methodology that recognizes the women experiences, as well as the active relationship between the researcher and research  Celebrate open research to defend the women interest and position in society and eliminate gender The goal of feminist therapy: Feminist therapy tends to be more focused on strengthening women in areas such as communication, relationships, and self-esteem. One of the main goals of feminist therapists is develop equal mutual relationships of caring and support. 60 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU  Chapter Five: Emerging issues and trends in social work 5.1 Migration, refugee and IDPs 5.2 Urbanization and Urban Programs 5.3 Rural Programs and its related problems 5.4 Social work with Drug and substance abuse 5.5 Social work with Abuse and Exploitation 5.6. Gender, inequality and associated problems Migration Refugee, And IPDs Basic concepts on migration What is migration? Migration refers to a change of usual place of dwelling where it can be across city, state or international boundary lines (Arsdol, Guarin& Lam, 2003). This definition is also by Akokpari, (2000) who refers to it as. On the other hand, according to UNESCO‘s definition, the term migrant can be taken as "any person who lives temporarily or in a country where he or she was not born, and has acquired some significant social ties to country." Nevertheless, this is a narrow definition as some countries consider those people in their land as well as migrants. The term ‗migrant‘ as per article 1.1 (a) of the IOM constitution (1951) is referred as be understood as covering all cases where the decision to migrate is taken freely by the concerned, for reasons of 'personal convenience' and without intervention of an compelling factor." From this definition, one can understand that the term –‗migrant‘ – does refer to refugees, displaced persons, or other forced people who are constrained to leave country of origin but to those who make free choice to leave even though they may be pushed by certain situations (UNESCO, 2010). But on the other hand the term ‗migration‘ refer to the process of movement of persons including the movement of refugees, persons, uprooted people as well as economic migrants for a certain minimum time 2010). 1.1.1 International migration „Definition of international migration is broadened to encompass the movement people from one location to another beyond the country of normal residence.‟ The term international migration referring to the movement of people from one place to passing international boundary lines, involves both immigration and emigration. While is the movement ‗from‘ a country, immigration is a movement ‗to‘ a country (―Immigration Emigration‖, 2010). 61 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU  It was originally used to designate the dispersal of the Jews at the time of the of the first Temple (586 B.C.) and the forced exile to Babylonia (―Definition of Diaspora‖, The Diaspora became a permanent feature of Jewish life; by A.D. 70 Jewish communities in Babylonia, Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome. In modern times, Jews migrated to the Americas, South Africa, and Australia (―Definition of Diaspora‖, 2007). the creation of the state of Israel, the vast majority of the Jewish people remain in the notably in North America, Russia, and Ukraine (Mohan & Zach-Williams, 2002). Yet, since middle of the thCentury, the term Diaspora has also been applied to other peoples, with large numbers living outside their long-established homelands, even if their situation is different the above cited populations (―Definition of Diaspora‖, 2007). However, the term has been given different connotations by different scholars in accordance with the specific issue. Thus, some confusion arises because of the multiplicity meanings assigned to this word. The general definition of Diaspora as stated in the Webster dictionary (2008) is: “the movement, migration, or scattering of a people away from established or ancestral homeland”. Some scholars share this definition while others claim this definition does not sufficiently describe members of the Diaspora. According to Riggs the term Diaspora should be defined as: “any community of individuals living outside their homeland who identify themselves in way with the state or peoples of that homeland. Any such community is merely a fuzzy set individuals whose members (diasporas) act individually to express their identities and, significantly, they may organize themselves in various ways to enhance their influence achieve their goals” In his analysis, Riggs (2000) also argues that, by contrast, Diasporas and should be differentiated. Dispersions being communities who for any reason have fled or driven from their homelands. Factors such as location or area that diasporas view as homeland; the grounds for interaction between diasporas and their homeland; the relative to which diasporas identify with their homelands and their host-land; the degree to which support or oppose their homeland, or view it with neutrality; duration of residence abroad; location of host-lands where diasporas live; etc should be considered in defining the term 2000; Mohan & Zach-Williams, 2002). Each of the dimensions identified above affects overlaps with all the others. Each can be used, in principle, to characterize a Diaspora but to characterize any particular community, it may be important as stipulated above to the various relevant dimensions thereof. Process of migration People migrate in different ways such as: through colonial paths, family ties, networks, brokers, smugglers and traffickers to mention few. 62 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Colonial history is one of the influential factors in decisions of migration and also in choosing country of destination (Clark et al, 2003). The two countries that have instigated movements are France and the United Kingdom by employing workforce from those they have colonized. Networks are important in economic life because they are sources for the acquisition of means, such as capital and information (Portes, 1995). Migrants have to make a decision on destination after having sufficient information about documentation and visas (or how to without them). Moreover, they have to be able to be employed fast. In time, the already ones have been very useful sources of information and provide them with practical help accommodation. Advising on employment is one of the most important advantages a supplies. Pioneer migrants usually arrange the conditions with the employer for their family friends to come to the same place. On the other hand, migrants may enter countries illegally using the help of smugglers. to Stalker (2005), Trafficking is also another way which is somehow related but different from smuggling, there is often some overlap and the perpetrators may be the same people. The main between the two activities is that smuggled people are traveling voluntarily while those trafficked have in some way been coerced or deceived (Stalker, 2005) Types of international migration Most countries have their own ways of labeling migrants. The ways through international migration can be categorized can be motives and legal status (UNESCO, While the motives may include the categories of economic, family reunion, and refugees, the status include irregular migration, controlled emigration/immigration, and free emigration/immigration (UNESCO, 2010). This is one of the reasons that attributes to the definition of the term. According to a study conducted by Adamnesh (2006), the categories migrants include: Settlers- People, the majority of whom are joining close family members, with a of residing lastingly in the country of destination; mostly, though not always, the western Contract workers - People, like seasonal workers or others who will be on longer- contracts, of a year or more, accepted to other countries for a definite period in accordance the duration of their contract on. Professionals – Those who are transferred from one country to another being members of transnational corporations. This category is likely to involve fairly small when compared to the others. 63 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU  Unauthorized workers– Groups, at times referred as ‗undocumented‘ or ‗illegal immigrants‘ that are considerable in number in most immigration countries. Some of unauthorized workers enter the countries through smuggling while others are overstaying visas, or are working on tourist visas. Asylum seekers and refugees - Runaways who chose to migrate in order to avoid hazards or risks; they are recognized as 'refugees' if the destination country accepted their for asylum. Being a refugee is not a matter of personal choice but of governmental decision accordance with legal guidelines. Nonetheless, in some cases of mass journey i.e., when numbers of people flee across a border they simply are acknowledged as refugees without through the individual process (Portes and Ruben, 1996: 23 cited in Adamnesh, Categorization of migrants is based on two forms: motives and legal status. As stated UNESCO (2010), the distinction is made as: Temporary labor migrants: these are people who move to another country for a period of time mostly for employment and support their home. Highly skilled and business migrants: persons who are professional qualified for professional jobs such as managers, executives, professionals, technicians or similar, who their movement through international organizations, trans-national corporations and who looking for limited opportunities of employment that require high skills. These types of are often welcomed in the host country and are most of the times encouraged by most Irregular migrants: migrants who are undocumented / illegal who are in the countries without the legal permits. Forced migration: refugees and asylum seekers are included in this category along those who migrate to a destination because of external factors such as environmental disasters others. In a way this type of migration is similar to displacement (Stalker, 2005; UNESCO, Family members: this is usually in purpose of family reunion where migrants enter destinations to be with their family members who already have settled in the (UNESCO, 2010; Stalker, 2005). While many countries recognize this right of migrants, deny it. Return migrants: people who return back to their home countries of origin after spending certain period of time in the host countries. 64 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Theories of Migration The neo-classical macro-economic theory According to this theory, the wage differential between sending and receiving countries is explanation for migration (Stalker, 2005; Shuerkens, 2005; Tasse, 2007). In other words occurs where situations push labour to where jobs, wages and other economic factors are advantageous (Massey et al, 1993; IOM, 2003) where differentials on such factors is important migration flows. Therefore as per this theory, labour movement will come to an end when becomes equal between receiving and sending countries. Nevertheless, this theory focuses on wage differential as the determinant factors of people‘s movement while it is the case that it the well to do, upper and middle class, who are seen to migrate to the developed countries than those belonging to the lower class or the poor (Stalker, 2005; Tasse, 2007; Shuerkens, This was the earliest theoretical framework developed to explain labour migration. It migration as the result of geographical differences between labour supply and labour These differences can exist at the international level or at the internal (or national) International migration is caused by the differences in wage levels between countries and markets. If wage differences were eliminated, labour migration would stop according to theory. This theory suggests that the bulk of labour migration moves from capital-poor/labour force- countries to capital-rich/labour force-poor countries, while by contrast capital moves in opposite direction, expecting a higher return on investment made in capital-poor 65 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Dependency theory Dependency theory is also another explanation developed for migration. According to this theory, migration is the result of the existence of uneven dependency relationship in which the industrialized centers dominate the agricultural sector (Massey et al, 1993). The big cities are created by the exploitation of the periphery which positively affected cities development. This results from colonial and neo-colonial political and economic relationships between the capitalized countries and their peripheries (Mahmud, Sabur & Tamanna, 2009). As a result, people migrate from developed to the more developed sectors. The dual labor market theory Another theory is the dual labor market theory that explains migration in terms of the initiation the flow from the receiving countries (Tasse, 2007). It states that the receiving countries the areas where they need external force required to fulfil certain demands; yet, the practice that receiving countries are seen to become stricter by the day in accepting migrants (Mahmud al, 2009; Massey et al, 1993). The other macro-level theory is that of political causality (Tasse, 2007). Political instability, level of violence, absence of democracy and other components of political insecurity are some the factors explaining migration (Leon-Ledesma & Piracha, 2001; Tasse, 2007)). 5.1.2 Refugee, and IDPs Refugees are people who have crossed an international frontier and are at risk or have been of persecution in their country of origin. UNHCR, the UN Refugee Agency, is a global organization dedicated to saving lives, protecting rights and building a better future for refugees, forcibly displaced and stateless people. Internally displaced persons (IDPs), on the other hand, have not crossed an international but have, for whatever reason, also fled their homes. Internally displaced people (IDPs) have not crossed a border to find safety. Unlike they are on the run at home. IDPs stay within their own country and remain under the protection of its government, if that government is the reason for their displacement. They often move to areas where it 66 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU difficult for us to deliver humanitarian assistance and as a result, these people are among most vulnerable in the world. The UN Refugee convention held in 1951 determined that a refugee is a person who flees home country because of their fear of being persecuted because of national origin, race, religious or political affiliation. The below are the types of displaced and refugee According to UN refugee Convention Asylum Seekers An asylum seeker is another type of refugee who has not officially been recognized as a by the country they have fleed to. This application process is a long and hard one and many asylum seekers struggle through sometimes ending up without a place to sleep or in subpar conditions in refugee An asylum-seeker is a person who has left their country and is seeking protection persecution and serious human rights violations in another country, but who hasn't yet been recognized as a refugee and is waiting to receive a decision on their asylum Internally Displaced Persons IDPs are those who have been pushed out of their homes but remain in their home These conditions affect the person negatively as they struggle to secure basic necessities like or shelter. UNHCR’s Strategic Directions 2017-2021/2022. To coordinate assistance to IDPs, we use a cluster approach. A cluster is when a group of work together to set up and deliver an area of assistance, such as shelter, health care, management or protection. UNHCR leads the Global Protection Cluster, co-leads the Global Shelter Cluster with International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and the Global Coordination Camp Management Cluster (CCCM) with International Organisation for (IOM). Stateless Persons These are people who are forced to live without a nationality. This means that they do not to any country and therefore live without any identifying documentation. This type of discrimination bars people from rights like healthcare and education among many 67 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Returnees These are former refugees and have now returned to their country of origin. Returnees may need some guidance and support in their return and in reestablishing their life their home country. Along with the different types of refugees, there are also many different reasons for refugees flee. Religious or Political Affiliation Many of the world‘s refugees flee their homes because of discrimination based on things like or political affiliation. Religion is one of the main ways people are persecuted and forced to flee. Political persecution also creates refugees, like Rohinga People, and causes them to fight in to remain in another country that will guarantee their safety. Escaping War War is the longest-running producer of refugees, displacing people from countries like Iraq Afghanistan and more recently Syria. 5.2 Urbanization and Urban Problems Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways which societies adapt to this change. Urbanization is a global trend reflecting the growing population of the world. The populations of less-developed countries are currently increasing at a faster rate than those of developed countries. Urbanization results from a natural increase in the population and rural urban migration. According to sociologist Gideon Sjoberg (1965), there are three prerequisites for the of a city: First, good environment with fresh water and a favorable climate; second, technology, which will produce a food surplus to support nonfarmers; and third, strong organization to ensure social stability and a stable economy. Most scholars agree that the first were developed somewhere in ancient Mesopotamia, though there are disagreements about where. Most early cities were small by today‘s standards, and the largest was most likely with about 650,000 inhabitants (Chandler and Fox 1974). The factors limiting the size of cities included lack of adequate sewage control, limited food supply, and immigration For example, serfs were tied to the land, and transportation was limited and inefficient. Today, primary influence on cities‘ growth is economic forces. Since the recent economic 68 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU reduced housing prices, researchers have been waiting to see what happens to urban patterns in response. Ethiopia is still predominantly a rural country, with only 20% of its population living in areas. But this is set to change dramatically. Figures from the Ethiopian Central Statistics project the urban population is will triple to 42.3 million by 2037, growing at 3.8% a (According to World Bank) Urban centers in Ethiopia are characterized by a variety of socio-economic problems, mainly poverty, and the higher rate of dependency, unemployment, and 5.2. Rural to urban migration In developing countries, urbanization usually occurs when people move from villages to settle cities in hope of gaining a better standard of living. The movement of people from one place another is called migration. Migration is influenced by economic growth and development and technological change (Marshall et al., 2009) and possibly also by conflict and social disruption. is driven by pull factors that attract people to urban areas and push factors that drive people from the countryside. Employment opportunities in cities are one of the main pull factors. Many industries are in cities and offer opportunities of high urban wages. There are also more educational providing courses and training in a wide range of subjects and skills. People are attracted to urban lifestyle and the ‗bright lights‘ of city life. All of these factors result in both temporary permanent migration to urban areas. Poor living conditions and the lack of opportunities for paid employment in rural areas are factors. People are moving away from rural areas because of poor health care and educational and economic opportunities as well as environmental changes, droughts, floods, of availability of sufficiently productive land, and other pressures on rural Rural to urban migration can be a selective process, as some types of people are more likely move than others. One of the factors involved is gender, because employment opportunities greatly with different jobs for men and women. Another factor is age. Young people are likely to move to towns, with more elderly people and children left in rural areas. Selectivity 69 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU migration affects the population in both the rural and the urban areas. If more men move to and cities than women, this leaves a predominantly female society in rural areas. 5.2. Impacts of urbanization in Ethiopia Although people are pulled towards the advantages of cities, the impacts of urbanization are First we will look at the many positive impacts of urbanization before going on to describe of the challenges created by rapid unplanned urban growth. Thriving towns and cities are an essential element of a prosperous national economy. The of economic and human resources in one place stimulates innovation and development in science, technology and industry. Access to education, health, social services and cultural is more readily available to people in cities than in villages. In cities, child survival rates are than in rural areas because of better access to health care (Mulholland et al., 2008). The density urban populations makes it easier and less costly for the government and utilities to essential goods and services (Brockerhoff, 2000). For example, the supply of basic facilities as fresh water and electricity can be achieved with less effort and less cost per Negative Impact of Urban Development A. Housing In developing countries, about a third of urban inhabitants live in impoverished slums and squatter settlements (UN- Habitat, 2012). Slums are urban areas that are heavily populated and have sub-standard housing with very poor living conditions, creating several problems. In Addis Ababa, a report in 2008 found that 80% of the houses in the city were classed as due to the physical deterioration of its housing, overcrowding, high density, poor access and lack of infrastructure services. Many low-income families gravitate to these informal settlements that proliferate in and around towns. Poverty is one of the most critical 70 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU issues facing urban areas. Urban poverty degrades both the physical and social B. Water supply and sanitation The provision of water and sanitation services to growing urban settlements, peri-urban and areas presents critical challenges. The increased demand for water from the growing can place added stress on already stretched resources. In and around cities, water is commonly short supply and subject to increasing competition by different users. Urban growth leads increasing demand for water for industrial and domestic use, which conflicts with agricultural demands. It is especially difficult to provide water and sanitation services to deprived areas and the poorest people. Many people in these areas live without access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation. Even where adequate water supplies are available, and wastewater disposal are often inadequate or missing. Pit latrines and septic tanks are the methods for human waste disposal but they have limited capacity and are not always adequate cope with the quantity of waste produced by many people living close together. latrines and septic tanks contaminate surface water and create a serious health The lack of these essential services threatens not only the health and the environment of people slum areas, but also that of people living in formal urban areas. In Ethiopia most of the centers have no sewers at all, which affects rich and poor alike. This is true of many cities with million or more inhabitants, as well as smaller cities and towns. C. Wastes and pollution Urbanization affects land, water, air and wildlife because of the number of people, the amount of buildings and construction, and the increased demands on resources. It has impacts on the physical environment in several ways. 71 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU In developing countries, including Ethiopia, many rivers in urban areas are more like open sewers (Figure 5.6). The lack of sanitation and sewerage systems has a dramatic impact on urban watercourses. People use the rivers to dispose of all their wastes from homes, industries and commercial businesses. Wastewater from human settlements contains organic material and nutrients; industrial wastewater contains many different types of toxic pollutant. These make the water unsafe for humans to use for many purposes including drinking and irrigation, as well as the fish and other animals and plants living in the water. Any changes to the quality of water also affect groundwater because they are linked by the processes of the water cycle pollutants from the surface will infiltrate down and contaminate soil and groundwater as D. Solid waste In many towns and cities solid waste management is inefficient or non-existent. Solid management means the proper collection, transfer, recycling and disposal of all the solid material we throw away, including plastics, paper and cardboard, food wastes, electrical waste, etc. It also includes industrial, hospital and institutional wastes which often contain pathogens as well as hazardous and toxic chemicals, which need special care. Urban waste often ends up in illegal dumps on streets, open spaces, wastelands, drains or This is frequently a problem in Peri-urban areas, which are convenient for dumping wastes because of the availability of open space and ease of access from central urban areas. This can lead to the pollution of groundwater and surface waters which may be used as a source for drinking water. Sometimes the wastes are collected and taken to legalized 72 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU waste disposal sites but these are not always properly managed to protect water bodies groundwater. The combustion of solid waste creates yet another environmental problem. People want to get of the wastes and they will burn them in their backyards if there is no collection E. Air quality Air quality in towns and cities is frequently very poor as a result of air pollution from many different sources, this might include: vehicle exhausts, smoke from domestic fires, outputs from factory chimneys, diesel-powered generators and dust from construction works and city streets. F. Crime and violation The impact of the process of industrialization and urbanization on the reasons of crime is evident as it promotes changes in social structure, promotes culture conflict and a change in space environment thereby it induces an increasing number of criminal elements. Much of the empirical studies have been conducted to establish a relation between urbanization and crime and many a times the process of urbanization has been maintained to be the cause of rural crimes also. This way the urbanization has been considered as the tipping point for creation of new crimes and amplification of existing crimes too. The disruption of cultural value and morality is other feature of urbanized way of life which also accounts to the crime augmentation. The rising reports of crime incidents by youth of urban areas is other controversial issue which is due to the loss moral values as a result of new urban life, they are part of. It has also been maintained that lower probabilities of arrest and a lower probability of recognition being the features of urban are responsible for higher frequency of crime in cities. 5.3 How Can Social Workers work Treat Addiction Effectively Drug and alcohol addiction impacts quality of life for those afflicted. Their employment, and health are just a few areas affected. Social workers treat addiction as professionals equipped to handle the behavioral and chemical dynamics associated with abuse Simply put, this treatment can be pivotal in helping an individual overcome addiction. this article, we will examine the question: Can Social Workers Treat Addiction Effectively. B applying evidence-based interventions, social workers treat addiction by providing 73 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU groundwork necessary for an effective plan of action. Though the road to recovery is here are some ways social workers treat addictions, helping their clients overcome abuse. Clinical Counseling A highly tailored and empowering aspect of clinical social work is counseling individuals from drug or alcohol addiction. Substance addiction problems do not develop overnight, but instead made up of series of factors influencing individuals in different ways. intervention can help an individual heal from past trauma. Clients may also have limited support systems due to their personal history or as the result of addiction impacting close relationships. Clinical counseling provides clients with the means to and feel heard without judgment as they work toward recovery. Steps within professional counseling include the following: 1. Assessment 2. Treatment 3. Maintenance 4. Achievement Evaluation Assessment Why is it important for social workers who treat addiction to know their clients' histories? addiction is complex, prior to starting treatment, social workers conduct assessments to the unique dynamics impacting their clients. These include discussing the extent of the the frequency of substance use, family history, and any triggers in their current lives contributing to abuse. Socio-emotional issues, including family problems and mental illness, frequently substance abuse issues. Thorough assessments of these factors are essential to understanding is impacting clients. During assessments, social workers treat addiction by checking to make sure basic needs such food and housing are met. Clients are then referred to appropriate resources if 74 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Treatment Plans After assessments, social workers treat addiction by developing comprehensive treatment for their clients. Treatment plans are tailored to each individual‘s needs and may take months even years to be fully implemented. The social worker may serve on a multidisciplinary team specialists, healthcare providers, and human service workers who all collaborate cohesively deliver treatment plans. Treatment plans often include individual counseling, which is one of the most effective ways workers treat addiction. They may also include group therapy, referrals to healthcare and employee assistance programs. It may be difficult for someone with a substance abuse issue to seek help. There may be of shame or dependency, poor self-esteem, depression, anxiety, or other emotional Clients may also rebound multiple times during recovery. Behavior which has developed over long period of time is difficult to simply change. When this is the case, social workers engage their clients in dialogue aimed at determining factors preventing them from taking the next step in their recovery. Insights are then in collaborative plans that will gradually help clients adjust. When it's difficult for clients to follow through with recovery, social workers will work find out why and collaborate with them. Maintenance After meeting with clients during the intake phase and developing a treatment plan, social next help create structure to maintain treatment plans. Clients typically attend weekly sessions with a social worker. They may also be involved in group therapy in addition to counseling sessions. Therapy aims to help clients develop coping skills including stress management, conflict resolution, and self-reflection. The social worker‘s check-ins during regular sessions comprise non-judgmental way for clients to start orientating themselves to the process of checking- fostering introspection, and initiating and maintaining positive growth. 75 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU Evaluating Achievement After clients and social workers have established a working relationship, progress is evaluated determine if adjustments should be made to treatment plans. Perhaps a given client could from additional therapy, such as family or group therapy. Depending on progress, clients may start doing sessions every other week instead of weekly. Treatment aims to help clients understand toxic influences, make positive changes, and small wins. The goal is to help clients develop stronger control over their life, eventually to a substance-free lifestyle. 5.4 Social work confronting With Gender inequality, Abuses and Exploitation 5.4. Definitions of Basic Gender Issues, Sex: refers to the biological differences between males and females. Sex differences are concerned with males‘ and females‘ physiology. Sex is determined by differences in characteristics and permanent and universal. It is biological, born with and cannot be Gender: refers to the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being women and men. The social definitions of what it means to be a woman a man vary among cultures and change over time. Gender is a socio-cultural expression particular characteristics and roles that are associated with certain groups of people with to their sex and sexuality. It is socially-constructed, not born with and can be Gender is socially constructed roles and responsibilities of women and men, in a given culture location are influenced by perceptions and expectations arising from cultural, political, environmental, economic, social, and religious factors, as well as custom, law, class, ethnicity, individual or institutional bias. Gender attitudes, gender identities and behaviors, roles responsibilities and associated expectations are learned and changeable between and cultures. What is gender inequality? Gender inequality is discrimination on the basis of sex or gender causing one sex or gender to routinely privileged or prioritized over another. Gender equality is a fundamental human right and that right is violated by gender discrimination. Gender disparity starts in childhood and is right now limiting the lifelong of children around the world – disproportionately affecting girls. At Save the Children, we put gender equality at the heart of everything we do. Our vision is world in which all people – girls, boys, women and men – have equal rights, responsibilities 76 BSW/Notes/Contemporary Social issues and social work/Mustafe A.Ibrahim /SSW-JJU opportunities, regardless of gender norms, identities or expressions. A world where everyone equally recognized respected and valued. What are some of the situations in which we see gender differences? Social: Different perceptions of women‘s and men‘s social roles: the man seen as head of household and chief