Consciousness, Sensation, and Perception PDF

✅ Consciousnes, Sensation and Perception Perception✅ It is the psychological process of making sense of the stimuli. A Process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to their environment. The American Psychological Association (A...

✅ Consciousnes, Sensation and Perception Perception✅ It is the psychological process of making sense of the stimuli. A Process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to their environment. The American Psychological Association (APA) defines perception as ‘’the process or result of becoming aware of objects, relationships, and events by means of the senses, which includes such activities as recognizing, observing, and discriminating." Top-Down Processing ✅ ○ When we observe the whole image first and apply existing knowledge to give it meaning ○ For example: when you read your essay you usually miss spelling mistakes. This is because you are reading your work as you wanted it rather than what was on the page. You read what you expect to read rather than what you have written. ○ Drawing on past experience and knowledge to interpret sensations ○ Interpret information according to expectations ✅ ○ Perception is formed Bottom-Up Processing ○ When we analyze the individual parts of a stimulus to gain meaning of the whole. ○ For example: children use bottom-up processing because they don't have much past experience. They ask questions to make sense of their thoughts. Eg. it’s large and grey, it has four legs, big ears and a trunk. It is an elephant. ○ Perception is formed ○ Creating a whole picture from the individual elements ✅ ○ Analysing the specific features or elements of a stimulus Factors affecting Perception | External factors | Internal Factors | | --- | --- | | Size | Personality | | Intensity | Learning | | Contrast | Motivation | | Motion | | | Novelty | |  Gestalt Psychology ✅ ○ Law of Similarity: The law of similarity states that similar things tend to appear grouped. Grouping can occur in both visual and auditory stimuli. In the image, for example, you probably see two separate groupings of coloured circles as rows rather than just a collection of dots. ○ Law of Prägnanz: The law of prägnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or the law of simplicity. This law holds that when you're presented with a set of ambiguous or complex objects, your brain will make them appear as simple as possible. For example, when presented with the Olympic logo, you see overlapping circles rather than an assortment of curved, connected lines. ○ Law of Proximity: According to the law of proximity, things that are close together seem more related than things that are spaced farther apart. In the image, the circles on the left appear to be part of one grouping while those on the right appear to be part of another. Because the objects are close to each other, we group them. ○ Law of Continuity: The law of continuity holds that points that are connected by straight or curving lines are seen in a way that follows the smoothest path. In other words, elements in a line or curve seem more related to one another than those positioned randomly. ○ Law of Closure: According to the law of closure, we perceive elements as belonging to the same group if they seem to complete some entity. Our brains often ignore contradictory information and fill in information gaps. In the image, you probably see the shape of a diamond because your ✅ brain fills in the missing gaps to create a meaningful image. Illusions ○ Figure-ground perception specifically, was established by Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin. Rubin created a now classic example called Rubin vases to illustrate his discovery. ○ The image depicts a black vase in between two profiles of white faces. Depending on the observer's focus, one can perceive a black vase on a white  background or one can perceive two white faces on a black background. ○ The human brain can settle on either perception of the image and alternate between them, which is called multi-stable perception. This means that an object that was once perceived as the ground can be changed into a figure. ○ The figure-ground principle states that people instinctively perceive objects as either being in the foreground or the background. They either stand out prominently in the front (the figure) or recede into the back (the ground) ○ One Gestalt principle is the figure-ground relationship. According to this principle, we tend to segment our visual world into figure and ground. Figure is the object or person that is the focus of the visual field, while the ground is the background. Principles In general, four factors prompt people to shift or change their figure-ground perception of a scene: blurriness, contrast, size, and separation. A brief discussion of each of the four factors can be found below. ○ Blurriness: The sharpness of the edges between two objects can influence figure-ground perception. In general, sharp edges make identifying a central image in a figure easier. Blurry edges make an observer more likely to perceive a shape as the background. ○ Contrast: The contrast in colors between a potential figure and the potential background also affects perception. If two parts of an image are black and white, this makes figure-ground perception easier. However, if part of an image is red and the other is maroon, figure-ground perception is harder. ○ Size: The size of a target object, relative to the rest of the image, can also affect figure-ground perception. Larger areas in an image are more likely to be assigned the status of "object," while smaller areas are more likely to be interpreted as background. ○ Separation: An object's degree of separation also affects figure-ground perception. An object in an image that is separated and isolated from everything else is more likely to be seen as a figure. In contrast, an object in close proximity to other objects will often be interpreted as background. According to Rubin, humans are more likely to view an enclosed area as a figure if it is surrounded by a larger area. ○ Brightness constancy: ✨  The brightness of objects is perceived to be constant, even though changes in illumination make the objects appear brighter or lighter. ○ Categories Physiological illusions arise in the eye or the visual pathway, e.g. from the effects of excessive stimulation of a specific receptor type. Cognitive visual illusions are the result of unconscious inferences and are perhaps the most widely known. Cognitive illusions are a result of our conceptions and assumptions about the world, which we impose upon visual stimuli. This can lead to four types of cognitive illusions: ambiguous illusions, distorting/geometrical-optical illusions, paradox illusions, or fictions (image source). Physical illusions or literal optical illusions - A literal illusion is when the image you see is different from the images that make it up. ○ Size Constancy: It involves recognizing that an object's actual size remains the same, even though the size of the image it casts on each retina changes. ○ Shape constancy: The tendency to see an object as keeping its form despite orientation changes. It is the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as constant, even when it changes on the retina. ○ Perceptual constancy Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive an object as remaining stable & unchanging (constant) despite any changes that may occur to the image cast on Retina. Three types: Size Shape Brightness ✅ Color Contemporary Perspectives there are 7 major perspectives in psychology ○ Psychodynamic The psychodynamic approach got its start from the work of Sigmund Freud. This is the view of psychology and human behaviour that emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, different life experiences when young and old and relationships to explain the way humans behave. This approach was also used to treat people with mental illnesses by trying to better understand how that particular individual views the world and what may have altered their way of thinking. Freud’s work allowed him to put the mind into three different categories that are used to deal with different things, they are the Id, Ego, and Superego. These allowed psychoanalysis to become a very popular way to go about psychology. ○ Behavioral Behavioral psychology is the perspective that focuses on the learning process and learning behavior. Behaviourism thinks about how humans or animals are controlled behaviorby the environment around them. This is the approach that details how environmental effects (called stimuli) particularly affect behavior. The approach is very concerned with the way we learned things and especially how we retain that information. This information allows us to apply it to several different things, most notably mental health with things like treatments and therapy. ○ Humanistic This approach is the perspective of psychology that looks at an individual as a whole person. It started to emerge in contrast to the behavioral and psychoanalysis parts of psychology. This approach emerged during the 1950s and decided to look at individuals’ behavior through observation and also how that certain person views life. This approach expanded a lot of different areas inside the psychology world and gave a lot of new insights to psychologists on how to treat and deal with patients. ○ Cognitive During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive psychology began to take hold. This area of psychology focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem-solving, language, and decision-making. Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura, this perspective has grown tremendously in recent decades. Cognitive psychologists often utilize an information-processing model, comparing the human mind to a computer, to conceptualize how information is acquired, processed, stored, and utilized.  ○ Biological This study of psychology focuses on genetics and how we are a product of our genes and nothing else. This approach looks at psychology through biological lenses as it examines our thoughts and behavior. This approach has been backed by science and has a lot of evidence to support its claims which makes it a strong point of view for psychology. This approach talks about the importance of inheritance and how things such as the brain, nervous system and immune system are things that can be affected in a negative way which can affect your behaviour. As technology has expanded it has allowed us a deeper look into our anatomy which has only further backed this approach with more strong evidence which has been very influential in the psychological field of study. ○ Evolutionary Evolutionary psychology is focused on the study of how evolution explains physiological processes. Psychologists and researchers take the basic principles of evolution, including natural selection, and apply them to psychological phenomena. This perspective suggests that these mental processes exist because they serve an evolutionary purpose – they aid in survival and reproduction. ○ Sociocultural The cross-cultural approach examines different cultures that people live in and look at how these environments can influence individuals’ behaviour and decision-making. This approach is new and has not been around as long as the other 6 approaches to psychology but it still plays a huge role in better understanding human behaviour is very important. There have been many examples of cultural differences in psychology and how they influence behaviour and also have cultures inside of other cultures. For example, American culture exists but because we are a melting pot we have smaller cultures among different types of people within American culture and it does play a big role in our behaviour and everyday decision-making. ○ Determinism vs free will (imp.) [Freewill and Determinism | Simply Psychology](https://www.simplypsychology.org/freewill-determinism.html# :~:text=The free will vs determinism,behave in a certain way.) - READ ✅ FULLY Perception of Movement ○ Types of Motion Perception ✅ Real Movement occurs when an object actually moves. Explanations for real movement: Image retina system - image moves along stationary retina Eye head system - eye moves to keep image stationary on retina Apparent Movement is a perception of motion caused by the appearance of two stationary stimuli at different times. Explanation: Phi Phenomenon - an illusion of movement arises when stationary objects-light bulbs, for example-are placed side by side and Illuminated rapidly one after another. Stroboscopic Motion - the apparent motion of a series of separate stimuli occurring in close consecutive order, as in motion pictures. Auto-kinetic effect - is a phenomenon of visual perception in which a stationary, small point of light in an otherwise dark or featureless environment appears to move. ○ Reticular Activating System Limits the information from the environment and thereby helping us fall asleep, present in brain stem and made up of bunch of nerves. ○ It is the process of inferring the speed and direction of elements in a scene based on visual input. ○ Image- Retina ○ We can define the perception of movement as the cognitive capacity that an organism possesses that allows it to capture Immediately, the change of place of an object or a body, and, at the same time apprehended some attributes related to this change, such as speed and direction. ○ Eye-Head ○ This illustration shows that another way to follow the racing car is to keep the eyes steady and to move just the head. ○ This causes the image to project to exactly the same retinal location at each instant (assuming you move your head at precisely the correct angular velocity) as the car moves from right to left.  This time you are following the car by moving your eyes from right to left. Just as before, your percept is that of the car moving from right to left. This is true even though the image remains on the fovea during the motion of the car and your eyes. Depth Perception ✅ ○ It is a sense of length, width, and depth seeing things in 3-D view ○ Monocular cues - cues that allow us to perceive distance with just one eye ○ Binocular cues - depth cues that depend on two eyes working together. ○ Monocular Cues known size texture gradient atmospheric scattering motion parallax light and shadow aerial perspective relative height ○ Binocular Cues Retinal Disparity: Retinal disparity is a binocular cue used to perceive depth between two near objects. It does so by comparing the different images from both retinas. Each eye receives different images because they are usually around two and half inches apart. Convergence: Inward turning of the eyes to focus on image on the retina. The angle the eyeballs turn towards each other is smaller when the object in focus is farther away. In order to project images on the retinas, the two eyes must rotate inward toward each other.  Accommodation: Consciousness ✅ Definition ✅ Consciousness refers to your individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environments. Essentially, your consciousness is your awareness of yourself and the world around you. This awareness is subjective and unique to you. If you can describe something you are experiencing in words, then it is part of your consciousness. Our conscious experiences are constantly shifting and changing. ○ For example, you may be focused on reading this article for one moment. Your consciousness may then shift to the memory of a conversation you had earlier with a co-worker. Next, you might notice how uncomfortable your chair is, or maybe you are mentally planning dinner. The American psychologist William James (functionalist) compared consciousness to a stream unbroken and continuous despite constant shifts and changes. Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud focused on understanding the importance of the unconscious and conscious mind. Sleep ✅ A process in which important physiological changes, slowing down your bodily functions (e.g., shifts in brain activity, showing basic bodily functions) are accompanied by major shifts in consciousness. These Changes studied during sleep are done with: Electroencephalogram (EEG): A record of electrical activity within the brain.  Electromyogram (EOM): A record of electrical activity in various muscles. Electrooculogram (EOG): A record of changes in electrical potentials in the eyes. (powernap - we do not go into the deep sleep stage 15-20 min) (If the cycle is not complete we will not feel active/energized) awareness level might be low but the brain is active Definitions ✅ Alpha Waves: Brain waves that occur when individuals are awake but relaxed. Beta waves: have the highest frequency, but are low in amplitude (voltage) - constantly processing information Theta rhythms: are the ones that are shorter in freq. but have high amplitude Delta Activity: Slow (3.5 Hz or less), high amplitude brain waves that occur during several stages of sleep, but especially during Stage 4. REM Sleep: A state of sleep in which brain activity resembling waking restfulness is accompanied by deep muscle relaxation and movements of the eyes. Most dreams occur during periods of REM sleep. Sleep Spindle: beginning of memory consolidation where it shuts off external sensory information K - complex: where the sleep is disturbed due to some external stimuli Atonia: when you can not move your body. Stages of sleep ✅ Stage 1 ✅ 5 to 10 mins Your brain activity slows down Your heartbeat, your eye movements, and your breathing slow along with it Your body relaxes, and your muscles may twitch This brief period of sleep lasts for around five to 10 minutes. At this time, the brain is still fairly active and producing high amplitude(high voltage but low in frequency 3.5-4.5 Hz) theta waves, which are slow brainwaves occurring mostly in the brain's frontal lobe. It is considered as a border between waking and sleep. Stage 2 ✅ (lasts for about 20 minutes per cycle.) You become less aware of your surroundings Your body temperature drops Your eye movements stop Your breathing and heart rate become more regular  The brain also begins to produce bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain wave activity, which are known as sleep spindles (12-14HZ). They occur 2 to 5 times per minute. They are thought to be a feature of memory consolidation-when your brain gathers, processes, and filters new memories you acquired the previous day. While this is occurring, your body slows down in preparation for NREM stage 3 sleep and REM sleep-the deep sleep stages when the brain and body repair, restore, and reset for the coming day. K complexes-they are sudden sharp waveforms that occur each minute Stage 3 NREM ✅ Deep, slow brain waves known as delta waves begin to emerge during NREM stage 3 sleep - a stage that is also referred to as delta sleep. This is a period of deep sleep where any noises or activity in the environment may fail to wake the sleeping person. Getting enough NREM stage 3 sleep allows you to feel refreshed the next day. Your muscles are completely relaxed Your blood pressure drops, and breathing slows You progress into your deepest sleep During this deep sleep stage, your body starts its physical repairs. Meanwhile, your brain consolidates declarative memories-for example, general knowledge, facts or statistics, personal experiences, and other things you have learned. Delta waves are high amplitude waves of less than 3.5 Hz. Stage 4 REM ✅ While your brain is aroused with mental activities during REM sleep, the fourth stage of sleep, your voluntary muscles become immobilized. During REM sleep, your brain's activity most closely resembles its activity during waking hours (beta and theta). However, your body is temporarily paralyzed-a good thing, as it prevents you from acting out your dreams. REM sleep begins approximately 90 minutes after falling asleep. At this time: ○ Your brain lights up with activity ○ Your body is relaxed and immobilized ○ Your breathing is faster and more irregular (also heart-rate) ○ Your eyes move rapidly ○ You dream Functions of Sleep ✅ Repair Theory or restorative theory  Restorative function Evidence - More delta activity in portions of the brain that have experienced intense activity. A pattern in which two hemispheres take turns in sleeping (in some marine mammals) Physical exercise increases slow-wave sleep Adaptive Theory Neural mechanism for maintaining circadian rhythm Prevent early humans and animals from wasting energy and becoming prey to nocturnal predators Cognitive Functions Consolidate memories Eliminate unnecessary memories Sleep disorders ✅ Sleep disorders are conditions that impair your sleep or prevent you from getting restful sleep and, as a result, can cause daytime sleepiness and other symptoms. Everyone can experience problems with sleep from time to time. However, you might have a sleep disorder if: You regularly experience difficulty sleeping. You are often tired during the day even though you slept for at least seven hours the night before. You have a reduced or impaired ability to perform regular daytime activities (Fall asleep while driving?) Struggle to stay awake when inactive, such as when watching television or reading? Have difficulty paying attention or concentrating at work, school, or home? Have performance problems at work or school? Often get told by others that you look sleepy? Have slowed responses? Have difficulty with your memory? Have difficulty controlling your emotions? Need to take naps almost every day? What causes sleep disorders? ✅ Sleep problems can be caused by various factors. Although causes might differ, the end result of all sleep disorders is that the body's natural cycle of slumber and daytime wakefulness is disrupted or exaggerated. Eight factors include: Physical (such as ulcers).  Medical (such as asthma). Psychiatric (such as depression and anxiety disorders). Environmental (such as alcohol). Working the night shift (this work schedule messes up "biological clocks.") Genetics (narcolepsy is genetic). Medications (some interfere with sleep) Aging (about half of all adults over the age of 65 have some sort of sleep disorder. It is not clear if it is a normal part of aging or a result of medicines that older people commonly use). Insomnia ✅ The condition can be short-term (acute) or can last a long time (chronic). It may also come and go. Acute insomnia lasts from 1 night to a few weeks, Insomnia is chronic when it happens at least 3 nights a week for 3 months or more. Types of Insomnia (2): ○ Primary insomnia: This means your sleep problems aren't linked to any other health condition or problem. ○ Secondary insomnia: This means you have trouble sleeping because of a health condition (like asthma, depression, arthritis, cancer or heartburn); pain; medication; or substance use (like alcohol). Sleep apnea ✅ It happens when your breathing is interrupted while sleeping, which causes you to wake up suddenly. If you have this condition, you may either be taking pauses while breathing or releasing shallow breaths. Those who have this condition repeatedly stop breathing during sleep. When left unchecked, sleep apnea can cause high blood pressure and heart attack. ✅ It also reduces your sleep quality. Symptoms ○ Excessive daytime sleepiness ○ Loud snoring ○ Observed episodes of stopped breathing during sleep ○ Abrupt awakenings accompanied by gasping or choking ○ Awakening with a dry mouth or sore throat ○ Morning headache ○ Difficulty concentrating during the day ○ Mood changes, such as depression or irritability ○ High blood pressure ○ Night sweats Disorders of REM sleep ✅ Narcolepsy ✅ Narcolepsy sleep occurs unexpectedly. Symptoms (Cataplexy, hallucination, excessive day time sleepiness, sleep paralysis, sleep disruption - CHESS) ○ Excessive day time sleepiness, ○ sudden loss of muscle tone, (from slurred speech to complete weakness of most muscles, and may last up to a few minutes) ○ sleep paralysis, ○ changes in REM, ○ narcolepsy can be accompanied by a sudden loss of muscle tone (cataplexy), ○ which can be triggered by strong emotion. Narcolepsy that occurs with cataplexy is called type 1 narcolepsy. Narcolepsy that occurs without cataplexy is known as type 2 narcolepsy. Narcolepsy is a chronic condition for which there’s no cure. However, medications and lifestyle changes can help you manage the symptoms. REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD) ✅ REM sleep behavior disorder is a condition in which a person acts their dream out, whether it's a simple, dramatic, or violent dream. People with RBD lack the state of paralysis we normally experience during the REM phase of our sleep (atonia). Thus, allowing them to move their limbs and act out their dreams. REM can cause disturbance to others in the home. It also serves as a danger to the person with the condition, as they can get up and move around without being aware. Unlike sleepwalking or night terrors, you can recall your dreams upon waking. Disorders of Slow wave sleep (delta waves) ✅ Somnambulism (sleep walking), talking in sleep  screaming during sleep Unusual behavior, such as urinating in closets or doorways this is more common in children Little to no memory of the event Difficulty arousing the person from the episode, or even violent reactions from the person when aroused Night terrors children awake from deep sleep with signs of intense arousal and powerful feelings of fear. individuals—especially children—awaken from deep sleep with signs of intense arousal and powerful feelings of fear. Yet they have no memory of any dream relating to these feelings. Night terrors seem to occur mainly during Stage 4 sleep. In contrast, nightmares, which most of us have experienced at some time, occur during REM sleep and often can be vividly recalled. Dreams ✅ Freud’s Wish-Fulfillment Theory ✅ Freud’s wish-fulfillment theory suggests that we dream to fulfill repressed wishes. Often, these wishes are embarrassing. We wish to kill our father or have sex with our mother, for example. (Freud has some interesting theories.) That’s why, Freud believed, our dreams were so bizarre. We added unique elements so we could still fulfill our wish but in a more palatable way. In Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams, he interprets these unique elements. For example, he suggests interactions with sticks, trees, and other phallic-shaped items suggest…you can probably guess. Activation-Synthesis Theory ✅ The Activation-Synthesis Theory suggests that dreams are the result of our brains attempting to make meaning from the brain activity that takes place during sleep. These dreams aren’t meaningless, necessarily, but they do not come from unconscious wishes or messages from the beyond. Just as we daydream to make sense of our social interactions, we dream to make sense of all the neurons firing in our brains during sleep. Threat- and Social-Simulation Theory ✅ Finnish neuroscientist Antti Revonsuo suggested that nightmares are actually a biological defense mechanism.  We simulate threats in our dreams so that we may be more prepared for them if we actually face them. Revonsuo theorized that the ancient humans that did “practice” facing these threats could fight them off and have children. Those children, too, simulated threats in their dreams and were more prepared to fight them. The threats we face today are very different than what early humans faced. (We discuss this often when discussing fight-or-flight.) Whereas “threats” used to be carnivorous animals, now our bodies get just as stressed by pop quizzes and asking a cute girl out to the dance. Information-Processing Theory (Self-Organization Model) ✅ It suggests dreams are just a part of our cognitive development. Cognitive psychology looks at how the brain makes decisions, solves problems, and stores memories. Memory storage is key to this study and why we dream Dreaming could just be a key part of how we convert our short-term memories into long-term memory. And our minds don’t shove all long-term memories into one big storage container. Information-processing theory suggests that we organize our memories as we sleep. Our dreams, which often contain elements from what we experienced that day, are a byproduct of that process. Physiological-Functioning Theory ✅ This theory suggests that dreams are pretty much meaningless and that we dream to preserve neural pathways. Have you ever been told to run your car for ten minutes once a week to keep it working properly? The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. We spend a lot of time sleeping. Brain activity during this time keeps us functioning and ready to process information when we wake up the next morning! Hypnosis ✅ It is an altered state of consciousness. It is a trance-like state in which you have heightened focus and concentration. In the interaction between two persons, the hypnotist induces changes in the behaviour, feelings, and cognitions of the other (subject) through suggestions. Hypnosis tends to be a shift of awareness in the direction of sleep without actually falling asleep. The key factors are absorption of awareness, relaxation of the body, and dissociation from your surroundings. These are the very reasons that hypnosis can certainly be considered an altered state of consciousness. Hypnotherapy It involves suggestions by the hypnotist - you are feeling sleepy. The hypnotist speaks continuously in a calm voice. It is suggested to the subject that they are gradually sinking deeper and deeper into a relaxed state. (Not sleep, but a state where the person is highly susceptible and open to suggestions). Another way is when the subject is asked to concentrate on a small object (a sparkling one that can be rotated by the hypnotist). Distinctive traits-high on visual imagery, and high in the trait of absorption. In short, tend to be deeply involved in sensory and imaginative experiences, and often seek advice and direction from others, they expect to be influenced by hypnotic suggestions. Theories of Hypnosis Social Cognitive or Role-Playing View ○ Effects produced by hypnosis are the result of hypnotized persons' expectations about hypnosis and their social role as "hypnotized subject". ○ The person believes that they are in hypnotist power. They obey because of the social role they are enacting. ○ They are not faking but they sincerely believe that are experiencing hypnosis. ○ Spanos et. al Neo-Dissociation Theory ○ This suggests that hypnotized individuals enter an altered state of consciousness in which consciousness is divided. ○ It induces a split or dissociation between two basic aspects of consciousness: Executive or Central Control Function & monitoring function. ○ Cognitive barrier: Hypnotic Amnesia (preventing experiences from entering into normal consciousness) ○ Hilgard, (1986, 1993) Theory of Dissociated Control ○ This suggests that hypnotism weakens control by the central function over other cognitive and behavioural subsystems, thus permitting these subsystems to be invoked directly by the hypnotists, suggestions. ○ Bowers, 1992 Myths vs Facts Drugs ✅ Substance abuse is a pattern of compulsive substance use marked by recurrent significant social, occupational, legal, or interpersonal adverse consequences, such as repeated absences from work or school, arrests, and marital difficulties.- American Psychological Association (APA) Addiction is a state of psychological or physical dependence (or both) on alcohol or other drugs. It is often used as an equivalent term for substance dependence and is sometimes applied to behavioural disorders, such as sexual, internet, and gambling addictions - American Psychological Association (APA) Dependence ○ Strong need for a particular drug and inability to function without it. ○ Two types: Physiological & Psychological Tolerance ○ The person needs to use increasingly more of the substance to feel the desired effect. ○ Cross-tolerance Withdrawal ○ Unpleasant physical effects occur when the substance is stopped or when it is counteracted by another substance. Depressants ○ They are drugs that reduce activity in the nervous system and therefore slow many bodily and cognitive processes. ○ Alcohol & Barbiturates Stimulants ○ Drugs that increase activity in the nervous system. ○ Amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine. Opiates ○ Drugs that induce a dreamy, relaxed state and sometimes intense feelings of pleasure Psychedelics/Hallucinogens ○ Psychedelics are drugs that alter sensory perception and so may be considered mind-expanding, like marijuana. ○ Hallucinogens are drugs that generate sensory perceptions for which there are no external stimuli, like LSD. Biofeedback ✅  Biofeedback is an alternative medicine approach that teaches people to change the way their bodies function. It is a mind-body therapy that may improve your physical and mental health. During a biofeedback session, a practitioner uses monitoring equipment and instruments to measure your body’s functions. Based on feedback from the instruments, the practitioner suggests how you can create physiologic changes. With education and practice, you can learn to make these bodily changes without equipment. We can learn to control our heart rate, body temperature, breathing and other involuntary actions, which are controlled by our autonomic nervous system, consciously by learning, which can help in psychological problems such as anxiety, depression etc. and also physiological problems such as high blood pressure, chronic pain, headaches During a biofeedback session, your provider places painless sensors on your skin. The sensors measure physiological signals from your body, such as: ○ Breathing ○ Heart rate ○ Muscle activity ○ Sweat ○ Muscle movement and tension, using surface electromyography (S-EMG) ○ Electrical brain activity, using neurofeedback or EEG biofeedback ○ Skin temperature ○ A nearby screen displays the results, which your practitioner will explain. Then your practitioner will suggest strategies to change how your body is functioning. The practitioner may ask you to: Change how you sit, stand or move: Positioning your body differently may ease muscle tension. Alter your breathing: Breathing patterns can help calm anxiety. Release muscles: If you concentrate on relaxing your muscles, it may relieve pain. Use mindfulness and focus: Thinking about different things can help you control your breathing or slow your heart rate. Take a test: If you try to solve a math problem or riddle, you can see how stress affects your body’s response.  ○ As you try each suggestion, you can watch how it affects the results on the screen in real-time. With practice, you can learn to create the same bodily changes without the feedback screen or the practitioner’s prompts. Circadian Rhythms ✅ Biological Rhythms (Cyclic changes in bodily processes) - a series of bodily functions regulated by your internal clock Circadian Rhythms: Cyclic changes in the bodily processes occurring within a single day. (24 hours) (Latin word around the day) (body temp, hormonal Influences, blood pressure, (different for different people, times, age) EVIDENCE: ○ Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (cells present in the hypothalamus - resp. for the regulation of the circadian rhythm - keep track of time - Zeitgeber (cues) - Wegener (1997) - respond to light) ○ In the morning, the shining sun adjusts the timing of the circadian clock by activating proteins in the retinas of the eyes. ○ The proteins then signal tiny structures in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). ○ In turn, the SCN stimulates the pineal gland to decrease its output of the 😉👉 hormone melatonin (melatonin promotes sleep). ○ Now light, is a Zeitgeber ○ Pineal gland Meditation ✅ Another altered state of consciousness A set of techniques intended to encourage a heightened state of awareness and focused attention. Looking within A self-regulation strategy focused on physiological and overt behavioural changes. Sometimes result in powerful subjective experiences leading to radical transformation. Meditation in psychotherapies. Sensations ✅ DOC-20221009-WA0073..pdf Chap 3.pdf Chapter 3 [last part].pdf