Sensation, Perception, & Cognition Notes PDF

Sensation vs. Perception ○ Sensation ➔ Detection of stimuli (light, sound, touch) ○ Perception ➔ Organization and interpretation of sensory information Example: Light on retina ➔ Brain interprets as image Sensory Receptors & Transduction...

Sensation vs. Perception ○ Sensation ➔ Detection of stimuli (light, sound, touch) ○ Perception ➔ Organization and interpretation of sensory information Example: Light on retina ➔ Brain interprets as image Sensory Receptors & Transduction ○ Sensory Receptors ➔ Specialized neurons for detecting stimuli ○ Sensory Transduction ➔ Conversion of stimuli into neural signals Example: Light waves ➔ Transduced into visual images The Visual System ○ Light ➔ Electromagnetic radiation (380 nm - 760 nm visible) Human Eye Cornea ➔ Transparent layer for light entry Iris ➔ Controls pupil size Lens ➔ Focuses light on retina Retina ➔ Contains photoreceptors (rods & cones) Optic Nerve ➔ Transmits signals to brain Photoreceptors Cones ➔ Detail, color vision, best in daylight Concentrated in fovea Rods ➔ Low-light vision, not color Primarily in peripheral retina Depth Perception ○ Binocular Depth Cues ➔ Retinal disparity, convergence ○ Monocular Depth Cues ➔ Relative size, linear perspective Example: Ponzo illusion (linear perspective trick) Gestalt Principles of Perception ○ Studies whole objects ➔ Not just parts ○ Key Principles: Closure ➔ Fill gaps for completeness Similarity ➔ Group similar objects Proximity ➔ Nearby objects perceived as related Good Continuation ➔ Smooth lines perceived over disjointed ones Perceptual Constancies ○ Size Constancy ➔ Same size perception despite distance ○ Shape Constancy ➔ Same shape perception from different angles  ○ Color Constancy ➔ Maintain color despite lighting changes Light as a Stimulus ○ Part of electromagnetic spectrum (380-760 nm) ○ Wavelength determines color (short = blue/violet, long = red) The Auditory System ○ Sound Waves ➔ Created by vibrating objects ○ Frequency ➔ Determines pitch ○ Amplitude ➔ Determines loudness Structure of the Ear Outer Ear (Pinna) ➔ Collects sound Middle Ear ➔ Tympanic membrane & ossicles Inner Ear ➔ Cochlea transduces sound into neural signals Transduction of Sound ○ Sound vibrations ➔ Move basilar membrane ➔ Hair cells convert to neural signals Somatosensory System ○ Detects sensations: touch, pressure, vibration, pain, temperature Receptors ➔ Pressure-sensitive, thermoreceptors, nociceptors The Homunculus & Somatosensory Cortex ○ Sensory input mapped in brain ➔ Larger areas for more sensitive body parts (e.g., hands, lips) Perception & Psychophysics ○ Psychophysics ➔ Study of stimulus-perception relationship ○ Absolute Threshold ➔ Minimum detectable stimulus intensity ○ Subliminal Perception ➔ Processing stimuli below conscious detection The Gestalt School & Grouping Principles ○ Gestalt Psychology ➔ Whole object perception ○ Grouping Principles ➔ Similarity, proximity, continuity, closure Learning vs. Memory Learning → Lasting change in behavior from experience ↳ Involves behavioral change Memory → Process of encoding, storing, & retrieving information ↳ Retains & uses learned information Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) Definition: Neutral stimulus becomes associated with unconditioned stimulus ↳ Elicits conditioned response Key Terms: ○ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) → e.g., Food ○ Unconditioned Response (UCR) → e.g., Salivation ○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS) → e.g., Bell ○ Conditioned Response (CR) → e.g., Salivation at bell sound Example: Pavlov’s dogs learned salivation at bell sound Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) Definition: Learning through rewards & punishments Reinforcement (Increases behavior): ○ Positive → Adding something pleasant (a treat) ○ Negative → Removing something unpleasant (ending a chore) Punishment (Decreases behavior): ○ Positive → Adding something unpleasant (scolding) ○ Negative → Removing something pleasant (taking away TV privileges) Reinforcement Schedules: ○ Continuous → Reinforced every time ○ Intermittent → Varies intervals/ratios Memory Types Explicit Memory: ○ Episodic → Personal experiences ○ Semantic → Facts & general knowledge Implicit Memory: ○ Procedural → Skills & tasks (e.g., riding a bike) ○ Associative → Classical conditioning responses Forgetting & Interference Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus) → Rapid forgetting, retains some over time  Types of Interference: ○ Proactive → Old memories disrupt new learning ○ Retroactive → New memories disrupt retrieval of old memories Flashbulb Memories → Strong memories from intense emotional experiences, not always accurate Additional Notes Real-World Classical Conditioning → Explains preferences, aversions Extinction → Conditioned response fades when not paired with UCS Cognitive Learning (Edward Tolman) → Latent learning, cognitive maps Memory Processes: ○ Encoding → Converting input to memory ○ Storage → Retaining information ○ Retrieval → Accessing information Short-Term vs. Long-Term Memory: ○ Short-Term → Temporary, limited (7±2 items) ○ Long-Term → Stable, last years/lifetime The Case of H.M. Hippocampus crucial for explicit memories, not implicit Retains short-term memory, but can't form new episodic/semantic memories Eyewitness Memory Unreliable due to misinformation Elizabeth Loftus → Memory altered by misleading information Computational Theory of Mind → Brain as an information-processing device → Inputs → Processing → Outputs → Example: Seeing a red light → Brain processes → Output: Press brake Thinking and Mental Imagery → Mental representations → Mental imagery → Visual (picturing a face) → Auditory (hearing a song) → Activation: Same brain areas activated in imagination vs. real experience → Example: Imagining pizza → Same brain areas as eating pizza Schemas, Concepts, and Prototypes → Concepts: Mental categories (e.g., cars, trees) → Prototypes: Most typical examples (e.g., robin vs. ostrich) → Schemas: Networks of interconnected concepts → Example: Food schema → connects vegetables → connects broccoli → Importance: Reduce mental effort → Crucial for higher-level thinking Problem-Solving Methods 1. Heuristics → Mental shortcuts → Fast, not always accurate → Example: Guessing shortest line 2. Algorithms → Step-by-step procedures → Slow, but reliable → Example: Following a recipe 3. Insight → Sudden realizations → Example: “Ah-ha!” moment Dual Systems of Thinking (Kahneman) → System 1: Fast, automatic → Quick judgments → Example: Avoiding an oncoming car → System 2: Slow, deliberate → Requires focus → Example: Solving a difficult math problem Heuristics (Detail) → Availability Heuristic → Judging commonality based on memory → Example: Shark attack perceptions → Representativeness Heuristic → Categorizing based on prototypes → Example: Assuming a glasses-wearing book lover is a librarian Confirmation Bias → Focusing on information that confirms existing beliefs → Ignoring contradictory information Intelligence → General Intelligence (g) → Underlines all cognitive abilities → Proposed by Charles Spearman → IQ (Intelligence Quotient) → Measures mental age vs. chronological age → Binet’s and Stanford-Binet Tests Environmental Influence on IQ → Twin Studies → Identical twins: Similar IQ scores (genetics) → Non-twin siblings: Lower correlation (environment) Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence → Three Types of Intelligence: 1. Analytical Intelligence 2. Practical Intelligence 3. Creative Intelligence → Note: Traditional IQ tests mainly measure analytical intelligence Emotional Intelligence (EQ) → Components: 1. Recognizing own emotions 2. Empathizing with others → Importance: Predictive of relational success Grit → Definition: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals → Research: Grit leads to success, even with lower IQ → Critique: Can limit cognitive flexibility Animal Intelligence → Concept Formation: Animals can form concepts → Example: Counting by birds → Insight and Tool Use: Problem-solving abilities in animals → Example: Chimps using sticks for termites