Coms 324 Midterm Exam PDF - Discourse Analysis

Midterm exam WEEK 1- Disourse Discourse Analysis by marrianne Jorgensen and Luois Phllips Discourse analysis : Series of intersidcisiplinary approacheas that can be used to explore dif social domains in many dif studies. DISCROUSE DEF: a particular way of talking about and understanding the world...

Midterm exam WEEK 1- Disourse Discourse Analysis by marrianne Jorgensen and Luois Phllips Discourse analysis : Series of intersidcisiplinary approacheas that can be used to explore dif social domains in many dif studies. DISCROUSE DEF: a particular way of talking about and understanding the world 3 approches to social constructionist discourse 1.Discourse theory 2.Critical discourse Investigation for change. Concept of INTERTEXTUALITY: how an individual text draws on elements and discourse of other texts. Analysis of this: investigate both reproduction of discourse whereby no new elements are introduced and discursive change through new combinations of discourse. 3.Discursive psychology How many may change the way theys discuss things by changing the words used. Trying to elicit emotional reaction. Analyse how people use the available discourse flexibility in creating and negotiating representations of the world and identities in talk-in- interaction and to analyse the social consequences of this. Approach to social psychology to explore the ways in which peoples’ sleves thoughts and emotions are formed and transformed through social interactions. Individuals are both products of discourse and producers of discourse. Shared ideas of the 3 *Our ways of talking to no neutrally reflect our world, rather play a role in creating and changing them* * Share key premiss about how language and the subject are understood* *Aiming to cary critical research to investigate and analyse power relations in society to formulate normative perspectives. EACH PERSPEPECTIVES HAVE THEIR OWN PARTICULAR UNDERSTANDING AND CRITIQUE OF WHAT IS TRUE 1) Application for discourse analysis: can be used as a framework for analysis of national identity 2) Ways in which expert knowledge is conveyed in the mass media and the implecations of power and demoncracy. POWER: provides conditions possible for the social. Power is always bound up with knowledge, they presuppose one another. Power is both responsible for creating our social world and for the particular ways in which the world is formed and can be talked about. Both productive and constraining force Faulcult’s concept of power/ knowledge: NOT POSSIBLE to gain acces to universal TRUTH since it is impossible to talk from a position outside discourse. “THRUTH EFFECTS” created within discourse. SUBJECTS are created in discourse. The individual becomes a medium for the culture and its language Althussers’ understanding of ideology: A system of representations that mask our true relations to one another in society by constructing imaginary relations between people and between them and social formations. ALL ASPECTS OF THE SOCIAL ARE CONTROLLED BY IDEOLOGY. Althusser- based on the idea that a single ideology (capitalism) was dominant in society, leaving no real scope for effective resistance (the dominant ideology thesis) - Ideology distorts real social relations and if we liberated ourselves from ideology we would gain access to the truth. Interpellation denotes the process through which language constructs a social position for the individual … makes him or her and ideological subject. Scope of discourse: do they constitute the social completely or are they themselves partly contistuted by other aspects of the social. Multiperspectival: the view that different perspectives provide dif forms of knowledge about phenomenon so that together they produce a broader understanding. We are historical beings and our views of and knowledge of the world are products of historically situated interchanges amoung people. Anti-foundationalist: position that stands in opppposition to foundationalist view: that knowledge can be grounded on solid metatheoretical base that transecends contigent human actions. Social Constructionism: umbrella term for discourse analysis *Our access to reality is always through language, we create representations of reality that are never mere reflections of a pre-existing reality but a contribute to constructing reality. Langauge is a machine that generates and constitutes the social world. Physical objects exsit but only gain meaning through discourse, using language. Rise of water levels is an event,can ascribed meaning in terms of different perspectives or discourse Meaning of individual signs is determined by their relation to other signs. Word dog is part of network or structure of words which from it differs (NOT CAT) -- SAUSSURES’ THEORY; POSTSTRUCTURALISM –signs aquire their meaning by their difference from other signs. Language: structure of language, network of fixed signs Parole: is situated language use, signs used by people in specific situations- parole must draw on language. Stracturalist view of language is stable, unchangeable, and totalising structure- distinction between language and parole. Introduction to multimodal Analysis: David Manchin A magazine must be able to communicate its mood, style through visuals THE EFFECT: when you see the magazine you think fun, its effect the magazine gives. Disgners/ advertisers can create meaning if they know who their target audience is and what they want their effect/ reaction to be Semiotic approach to visual communications-allows us to break down compositions into their basic components and then understand how they work together, how relations are made to create meaning. Multimodal approach considers the way that signs are used in combination with symbols. Meaning of signs is treated as a potential rather than as fixed- meaning doesn’t lie in the sign rather in the context through combinations with other signs Mulimodality: describes grammar of visual communication that is used by image designers.- analysis of the rules and principles that allows veiwers to understand meaning relative to the placement of elements, framing, salience, proximity, colour, styles. Language-inspired model: not simply thinking about the visual elements as connoting particular meanings- but look for communicative uses, the way language can create moods and attitudes, convey ideas. ALL semeotic systems are social semiotic systems-allows us to negotiate social and power relationships. Ex: ‘marketplace’ how we define society- implies a society or trade and competition Ex: if we define society as a ‘biological organism’- emphasis on mutual dependency and support. Language and ideology structure our society Today visuals ( US movies protaying afircans as evil) create a compelling sense of what is the natural in societal reality. Acces to media and therefore to disseminate visual representations there gives great ideological power.- can influence the way we organise our societies and institutions we build. Discourse is a socially constructed knowledge about reality. – signs can be used to link discourses. Ex; National war museums- promoting the idea of nation. PROMOTING PARTICULAR DISCOURSE ABOUT THE NATURE OF BRITISH SOCIETY THROUGH THE USE OF SEMEOTIC RESSOURCES. Once discourse becomes dominant and become realised in different modes of communication they take on quality of truth. EX; discourse of society as a meritocracy mean that since it is believed that everyone has equal opportunity to wealth, housing etc. then inequalities are the fault of individuals rather than society itself. – make It appear as common sense so it is not questioned Semiotic ressources (Using the right colours, poses, fonts) can cannote particular values which in turn suggest particular kinds of people and behaviours and therefore discourse. Ideational Metafunction: semeotic system has to be able to represent ideas beyond its own system of signs, so language can represent objects as being connected. Interpersonal metafunction: semiotic system must be able to create a relation between the producer and the receiver. In language we can determine whether we are giving information or making a demand. Textual metafunction: system must be able to form coherent wholes. Flow of information in a text WEEK 2- Sounds and environment “the soundscape heard round the world” by Marc Weidenbaum Sounds at a given moment collectively have a cohesive sensibility one inferred by the listen and resulting from a variety of environmental and cultural forces. Soundscapes has a particular meaning in ecology, (church bells) Soundscape had more to do with civilization- it is constantly under construction, undergoing change- civilization could be framed as threat to nature. “Acoustic Ecology”: measure and mediate the impact of sound on the environment. “Soundwalking: creating moving environmental sound narrative” By Anra MCCartney Sound walks take place in urban, rural and wilderness. Soundwalk artist maintain dif attitudes toward the place in question, sounds recorded, processes used, audience of the walk itself and the audience of interpretive pieces. Sound walking: practice of listening while walking has a long history in philosophies of walking. (an excusrsion whose main purpose is listeneing to the environment) The Songlines: discusses oral walking narratives that the Australian aboriginals linked to routes through landscapre to orient themselves physically and spiritually; singing the world into existence. Invention of sound recording technology in 19th cnetry- opened possibility of doing audio recordings during walks. THE FLUXUS MOVEMENT: used scores for walks Essay “Walking in the City”- insights developed by augoyard (philosopher and musicologist)- he developed a rhetoric of walking and early example of reflective research methodology in which the ideas and expertise of research subjects were acknowledged. Sound walk work is using the recordist perspective in the writing. – they record their experience, what they are listening to, how they move through the space. *Humans are predisposed to focus on language that we understand excluding us from listing to other sounds Westerkamp: Sound walking radio-take lsitners to various locations, not far from home (Vancouver) and play back sounds of these environment Learns about the candian lanscapre with an immagrants displased ear, able to gain a fresh perspective. Francisco Lopez- research surrounding sound walking and and not seeing. Someone is blindfoldied and accompanied by a blind person on their walk. Critsitna Kubisch: electrical walks- Humans hearing electrical waves out of our range. Using headphones the sound of parking meters neon signs are played as they walk around the city. Viv Corringham: Shadow walking- documents her walks with audio recordings and accompanies them with objects she found at the site. Relationship of shadows to subjects mirror the links between songs and spoken words, environmental sounds and the people who hear them. Janet Cardif & George miller: Audio walking- situated in relation to meseum and tourist tours. Focus is not acoustic but rather the creating of a directed narritve using environmental sounds as base or ambient track. (physical cinema) Relationship with audience is intimate and they invite listeners to pay direct attention to visuals and features of location. Introduction to Aural Architecture By Barry Blesser Architecture is concerned with the design, arrangement and manipulation of the physical properties of a space. Odinary people can hear passive objects and sense spatial geometry- our auditory cortex converts these physical; attributes into perceptual cues, which we then use to synthesize an experience of the external world. The ECHO- is the aural means by which we become aware of the wall and its properties (size, location and surface material) The wall has audible manifestations. The acoustics of an open area can produce feelings of either freedom or insecurity. AURAL ARCHITECTURE: can have a social meaning. – within own beauty, aesthetic, and symbolism, parallels visual architecture. VISAL AND AURAL MEANING ALLIGNS AND REINFORCE EACHOTHER. Contribution made by listening varies greatly among individuals and cultures. To evaluate aural architecture in its cultural context, must ascertain how acoustic attributes are perceived: by whom, under what conditions, for what purpose and with what meanings. ACCEPTING AURAL ARCHITECTURE REQUIRES AN ACCEPTANCE OF THE CULTURAL RELATIVISM FOR ALL SENSORY EXPERIENCES. Aural architecture refers to the properties of a space that can be experienced by listening.  Acoustic architecture is the builder, engineer or physical scientist who implements the aural attributes previously selected by an aural architecture. Acoustic design manipulates physical objects, spatial geometry. *Cathedrals posses an aural architecture, without having had aural architects. * Audio subcultures: listeners share similar relationships to some aspect to aural architecture. WEEK 3- Public Spaces- unpacking nature/ social culture Places to be wild in nature by Catherine Ward Thompson Intention in creating urban parks in the 19th century was to create a setting that would promote civilized behaviour and encourage conformity to expect types of use children to play in designated playgrounds. Original inhabitants of central park were ex-slaves- treated as squatters and evicted form the site. Reoccurring theme has been the need for managers (of parks) to control behaviour and use of park. Bias theme against teenagers and young people. – teens in parks are disliked by adults, considered to cause trouble. Teens want to establish their self-identity and a desire for territory of their own. Teens feel lack of opportunities for free and adventurous, activity and landscapes that might allow that to happen. They find it hard to find places in the urban realm where teenagers are tolerated. Maria Kaika. “The Urbanization of Nature.” Modernity-period that began in 17th century, characterized by a new forward looking world view and a new set of social expectations. PROMETHEAN: major project of modernity, taming nature. Fights to emancipate humans through the domination of nature. -western societies set out to purify the world in order to study it better. Nature became separated from society in order to be scientifically studies, and tamed ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM: 20th centry (nazi eugenics): desire to emancipate human beings(or social class) by resolving the nature/ society relationship in a scientific manner Enlightenment thinkers (Marx and Engels) productivist rationality: capitalist production develops technology, combining together of various processes into a social whole only by sapping the original sources of all wealth (soil & labour). Nature/ Society dualism has been produced only at theoretical and conceptual/ ideological level. *These ideas often get politicized Author examines modernity’s contradictory scripting’s of nature and city and investigate how production of modern cities has been infused by particular vision and ideologies about the “nature’ of nature and the “nature” of cities. Argues that urbanization is a process of perpetual social-ecological change and consider ways of reconceptualizing both nature and city as a processes that embody a dialectics between good and evil. Different meaning of nature: -smt that must be conquered, tamed -smt sacred, ideal order or inspiration - can stand for being uncivilized- dark untamed wilderness requires control -perceived as inhenrently good, embodiment of a superior moral code Different menaing for city: -evil, underbelly of modern society -pinical of civilization, man’s triumph over barbarism uncivilized times. Prometheus project: nature/society dialectics has always been at the center of efforts to create a better society. EX: today ideas about “greening” of the city and reducing pollutants 1930s “Futurism” renounced anything to do with nature and the natural world as a thing of the past its only appeal being aesthetic. New society would draw inspiration from technology, the mechanical world. American Suburb: advocating the right to land owernership for everybody, function depended heavily on the automobile. Guarantee social harmony, ease tensions and class conflicts that characterized capitalistic cities- “brining humans close to nature” This chapter explores how modernity has shaped the relationship between nature and the city, challenging the idea that they are separate entities. It examines the "Promethean Project", where modernity aimed to dominate and control nature through science, technology, and urban planning. The chapter critiques this dualism, arguing that nature and cities are part of the same socio-ecological process. Using historical examples, the chapter illustrates how urban planning, industrialization, and environmental policies have reinforced the artificial separation between nature and society. However, modern urbanization continuously transforms nature, making it impossible to sustain this division. Instead, nature and cities should be seen as hybrid, interconnected systems rather than opposing forces. Key Points: 1. Modernity's "Promethean Project" o Inspired by the Greek myth of Prometheus, modernity sought to tame nature through technology and planning. o Science, reason, and urbanization were seen as tools to emancipate humanity from nature’s unpredictability. 2. Separation of Nature and Society o Western thought (e.g., Enlightenment, capitalism) artificially divided nature and society for scientific study and urban planning. o The division influenced various ideologies, from social Darwinism to environmental movements. 3. The Nature/City Dualism o Cities have been seen both as symbols of civilization and as sites of moral decay ("concrete jungle"). o Nature was either feared (as wild and untamed) or romanticized (as pure and harmonious).  o Urban planning reflected this duality, leading to contradictory policies that both controlled and embraced nature. 4. Urban Planning and Nature o 19th and 20th-century planners (e.g., Ebenezer Howard, Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Wright) integrated nature into urban designs but still viewed it as separate. o The "Garden City" movement sought to blend urban and rural life, but often reinforced social segregation. o Modernist cities either pushed nature out (futurism) or controlled it in artificial forms (planned parks, green spaces). 5. Nature as a Process, Not a Fixed Entity o The chapter argues that urbanization constantly transforms nature, making the distinction between "natural" and "urban" obsolete. o Nature is produced through social, economic, and technological processes (e.g., water systems, pollution, climate change). 6. The Urbanization of Nature and Globalization o Urban processes have global ecological effects (e.g., resource extraction, pollution, environmental justice issues). o The city is a network of flows—of people, materials, and energy—that reshape both urban and rural landscapes. 7. Conclusion: A City of Flows o Modern cities should not be seen as isolated from nature but as part of a continuous socio-ecological system. o Future urban planning must move beyond outdated nature vs. city models and recognize their interdependence. Takeaway: The chapter challenges the myth that cities and nature are separate. Instead, it proposes that urbanization and environmental change are deeply intertwined, requiring new ways of thinking about sustainability, development, and ecological justice. Study points 1. Modernity’s Promethean Project The Greek myth of Prometheus as a metaphor for modernity’s goal to control and dominate nature. The role of science, technology, and urbanization in attempting to free humanity from nature’s unpredictability. The separation of nature (science) and society (social sciences) in Western thought. 2. The Artificial Divide Between Nature and Society How capitalism, industrialization, and urban planning reinforced the separation of nature and society. Nature was seen as something to be tamed, exploited, or romanticized.  Early theories (e.g., Malthus, Darwin, Engels) addressed nature’s role in social organization. 3. The Dual Scripting of Cities and Nature Contradictory perceptions of cities: o Cities as symbols of progress and civilization. o Cities as chaotic, polluted, and morally corrupt ("concrete jungle"). Contradictory perceptions of nature: o Nature as wild and dangerous (needs control). o Nature as pure and restorative (idealized in urban planning). 4. Urban Planning and Nature 19th and 20th-century urban planners tried to integrate nature but still viewed it as separate. Examples of urban planning models: o Garden City Movement (Ebenezer Howard): Blended urban and rural life but reinforced social segregation. o Le Corbusier’s Ville Contemporaine: Organized cities into rigid structures with controlled green spaces. o Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City: Integrated nature into urban planning, relying on car ownership. 5. The City as a Socio-Ecological Process Cities and nature are not separate but mutually dependent and continuously transforming. Nature is socially produced (e.g., water supply, pollution, deforestation). Infrastructure (dams, roads, parks, pipelines) integrates nature into urban systems. 6. Urbanization and Global Ecological Impact Urban expansion affects rural environments (resource extraction, pollution, environmental degradation). Environmental injustice: Some social groups benefit from urbanization, while others suffer (e.g., gated communities vs. slums). 7. The Concept of a "City of Flows" Modern cities function as networks of flows (water, energy, materials, people). The idea of a fixed urban boundary is outdated; cities are part of a global ecological and economic system. 8. Key Takeaways  The nature/city divide is an illusion; they are part of the same socio-ecological system. Urbanization should be studied as a process that continuously transforms nature. Future urban planning must move beyond artificial divisions and recognize the interdependence of cities and the environment. “Visions of Modernization” The preface introduces the book’s central theme: the relationship between modernity, urbanization, and nature. It reflects on how modern cities and homes were conceptualized as independent from natural and social processes, only to reveal their deep interconnectedness. Using water as an example, the author examines the transformation of nature into a resource that sustains urban life. Key Points: 1. Personal Reflection on Modernization: o The author recalls childhood trips to dams as symbols of human technological triumph over nature. o A drought in the 1990s revealed the illusion of natural autonomy, exposing the dependence of urban life on engineered water systems. 2. Theoretical Framework: o Modernity is described as a vision of social progress linked to industrialization and capitalism. o The "Promethean Project" refers to humanity’s effort to dominate nature through urban and technological development. o The city and home were ideologically separated from nature, even though they remained materially connected. 3. Modernization as a Process of "Creative Destruction": o The vision of independence from nature was contradicted by the necessity of complex infrastructures that integrated natural resources into urban systems. o Social relations and resource networks were fetishized or hidden to maintain the illusion of urban autonomy. 4. Historical Phases of Modernization: o Early 19th Century ("Nascent Promethean Project"): Cities suffered from environmental and health crises due to unregulated urbanization. o Late 19th - 20th Century ("Heroic Moment"): Large-scale infrastructure projects tamed nature, reinforcing faith in technology. o Late 20th - 21st Century ("Discrediting of Modernization"): Environmental crises and funding shortages exposed the flaws in modernization narratives. 5. Structure of the Book: o Part I: Theoretical exploration of how water connects nature, the city, and the home. o Part II: Historical case studies of Athens and London, tracing their urban water transformations.  6. Conclusion: o The perceived separation between nature and the city is a modern construct. o Uncovering the hidden flows of resources and labor challenges this view, positioning nature and urban life as part of a unified socio-spatial process. This preface sets the stage for a critical analysis of modernization, questioning the dominant narratives of progress and the sustainability of urban development. Study Points for "Preface: Visions of Modernization" 1. Concept of Modernization and the Promethean Project Definition of modernization as a programmatic vision for social change linked to industrialization and capitalism. The "Promethean Project" as humanity’s attempt to dominate and control nature through technology. The paradox of modern cities appearing independent while remaining deeply reliant on natural resource networks. 2. The Perceived Separation of City, Home, and Nature The ideological construction of cities and homes as autonomous "space envelopes." How urban infrastructure (e.g., water supply, electricity) actually integrates natural resources into the city. The realization that nature and the city form a continuous socio-spatial system. 3. Three Historical Phases of Modernization Early 19th Century: Industrial cities faced severe environmental and health crises. Late 19th – 20th Century: Infrastructure projects (water supply, sanitation) tamed nature and reinforced faith in technology. Late 20th – 21st Century: Environmental crises and funding shortages exposed the flaws of the modernization project. 4. Role of Water in Modernization Water as a lens to analyze modernization, from its natural state to urban consumption. Transformation of water into a commodity through infrastructure. Case studies of Athens and London highlighting urban water management. 5. Technology and Social Power in Urban Development The fetishization of infrastructure as a symbol of progress. Hidden labor and economic systems supporting modernization. Privatization and commodification of urban resources. 6. Structural Organization of the Book Part I: Theoretical analysis of urban-nature integration. Part II: Historical case studies of Athens and London’s water systems. 7. Key Takeaways Modern cities are not separate from nature but deeply interconnected with it. Infrastructure projects shape our understanding of progress and urban life. Environmental crises challenge the sustainability of modernization’s vision. WEEK 4- Decoding environments Ads must take into account not only the inherent qualities and attributes of the products they are trying to sell, but also the way in which they can make those properties mean smt to us. Use language to transform the objects: Diamonds-sing: it’s a rock. Signified as a symbol for love. Distinction between people (created by their rolse in the process of production) and product (product of their own work). IDEOLOGY: Meaning made necessary by the conditions of society while helping to perpetuate those conditions. WE feel the need to belong and have a social place. Advertising works: bc It feeds off geniun ‘use-value’ beside needed social meaning, WE DO NEED MATERIAL GOODS. Advertising gives those goods a social meaning, so that the two needs are crossed. Dream- work: work of interpretation, consists of transforming thoughts into visual images. SIGN- Simply the thing Signifier- material object Signified- its meaning. SIGN = THING + MEANING A true understanding of advertising- understands meaning through its content and form. Cannot understand the content while ignoring the form. FORM: is invisible, set of relations to be filled out by content. CONTENT: seen as substantial, with a solidity of meaning. *A linking of an internal thoughts and feelings with something external ‘objective’ is a crucial feature in any creation of meaning. Advertising is based on evoking emotion- only thought A PROMISE of evoking pleasure. Technique to correlate feelings, moods to tangible objects- linking unatonable things (Masculinity, strength) with those that are attainable (cigarette). The product which initially has no menainf must be given value by a person/ object which already has value to us. *Smt about a product is being signified, and the correlating thing/person is the signifier Product may become not only ‘sign’ but the actual referent of that sign. New Branded World by Naomi Klein Succesful corperations must produce brands as opposed to products. Their real-world lays in marketing (Nike, Tommy Hilfiger Microsoft). Branding and advertising are not the same process. Advertising a product is only one part of branding’s grand plan The text discusses the evolution of branding from traditional manufacturing to modern brand- focused corporations. It highlights how companies transitioned from producing goods to primarily marketing brand identities. This shift led to a corporate model where ownership of physical production was minimized in favor of outsourcing, while branding and marketing took center stage. The transformation is traced from the late 19th century, when mass production required distinguishing identical products through branding, to the 1980s and beyond, when corporations realized their value lay more in brand equity than in manufacturing. Today, corporations focus on brand image, advertising, and cultural influence rather than direct production. Key Points: 1. Shift from Production to Branding Early industrial economies were centered around factories and tangible goods. By the 1980s, major companies (Nike, Microsoft, Tommy Hilfiger) outsourced production and focused on marketing and branding. The most successful corporations became those that produced powerful brand images rather than physical products. 2. The Evolution of Branding 19th-century branding: o Mass production led to standardized, indistinguishable products. o Branding gave products a unique identity (e.g., Campbell’s Soup, Quaker Oats). o Logos and brand mascots (e.g., Aunt Jemima) humanized factory-made goods. Early 20th century: o Advertising evolved from simple product promotions to creating emotional connections. o Corporations sought to establish a "brand soul" (e.g., General Motors was marketed as a family-oriented company). Post-World War II: o Companies developed a corporate identity beyond individual products. o Advertisers positioned themselves as cultural influencers, shaping how consumers perceived brands. 1980s and beyond: o Companies prioritized brand equity over manufacturing. o Example: Philip Morris buying Kraft for six times its paper value, showing that the brand name alone had immense financial worth. 3. Branding as a Cultural and Economic Force Branding is no longer just about advertising products—it influences culture, identity, and public space. Companies continuously search for new ways to expand brand influence, from logo licensing to immersive marketing. The rise of "branded humans" like Martha Stewart reflects how personal identities can be turned into marketable brands. 4. Conclusion: The Power of Brands Over Products The success of modern corporations is measured by their brand strength, not their physical assets. The shift from factories to images has changed how companies operate, compete, and interact with consumers. Takeaway: Branding has evolved from a marketing tool into the core business model of modern corporations, where controlling cultural perception is more valuable than physical production. Study Points for "Decoding" 1. The Shift from Production to Branding Early industrial economies were focused on owning factories and producing goods. By the 1980s, corporations like Nike and Microsoft outsourced production and focused on marketing brand identity. Success became defined by brand power, not physical assets. 2. The Evolution of Branding 19th-century branding: o Mass production led to standardized products, requiring differentiation through branding. o Logos and mascots (e.g., Aunt Jemima, Quaker Oats) helped humanize industrial goods. Early 20th century: o Advertising shifted from simple product descriptions to emotional storytelling (e.g., General Motors as a family brand). o Corporate identity became a marketing focus, beyond just individual products. Post-World War II: o Advertisers positioned themselves as cultural influencers, shaping public perception. 1980s and beyond: o Companies like Philip Morris paid six times Kraft’s actual value just for its brand name. o Brand equity (perceived brand value) became more important than production. 3. Branding as a Cultural and Economic Force Branding now extends beyond advertising into culture, identity, and public spaces. Companies use logo licensing, sponsorships, and brand extensions to strengthen their presence. "Branded humans" like Martha Stewart show how personal identities can be commercialized. 4. The Corporate Race to "Weightlessness" Modern corporations aim to own less, outsource more, and focus on brand perception. The more a company relies on marketing rather than manufacturing, the more profitable it can be. 5. Key Takeaways  Branding has evolved from product promotion to the core business model of corporations. Owning a powerful brand is now more valuable than owning factories or physical assets. The modern economy is driven by image, perception, and brand loyalty rather than just products.