COMS 110 Communication Skills 1 Lecture Notes PDF

COMS 110 COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1 Teaching Notes/Handbook Lecturer: Eric Ochieng Contact: 0710363911 Email: [email protected] 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION In this section, we shall examine the field of communication to serve as a foundation to what follows in the...

COMS 110 COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1 Teaching Notes/Handbook Lecturer: Eric Ochieng Contact: 0710363911 Email: [email protected] 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION In this section, we shall examine the field of communication to serve as a foundation to what follows in the course. Principally, we shall define communication; outline its elements, principles and its importance in academic and life in general. We shall also briefly examine the various types of communication. 1.1 Objectives of the topic At the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Define communication b) Discuss the elements that constitute communication c) Explain the importance of communication in academics and in life in general d) Outline the important principles of communication e) Discuss the various types of communication 1.2 What is Communication? The term communication comes from a Latin word ‘communicare’ which means to make common or share. Therefore, communication is a process by which meaning is exchanged between individuals or an individual and a group through a common system of symbols, signs and behavior.  The definition of communication is shared in the Webster's Dictionary as "sending, giving, or exchanging information and ideas," which is often expressed nonverbally and verbally.  A plethora of authors have defined communication including Gamble and Gamble, who define communication as a desirable or accidental transfer of meaning.  Communication is also a process of sharing or exchanging ideas, information, knowledge, attitude or feelings through certain signs, symbols and behavior.  Communication is more than transfer of ideas and thoughts; it is a dynamic process of action and interaction towards desired goals. 1.2.1 Key phrases of definition a) Communication is a process: it is an activity which is an exchange of meaning that is dynamic. Communication is therefore not static. Communication as a process is a concept whose critical element is the changing nature of its occurrence. b) Communication involves meaning: meaning is shared understanding of message. The understanding of the meaning of another person’s message only occurs when you elicit common meanings for words, phrases, and non-verbal messages. c) Communication is a system of symbols, signs and behavior: the system may be in form of language, gesture, demeanor, facial expressions e.t.c. 1.3 Importance of Studying Communication Communication is central to human life. You cannot avoid communication and you will engage in communication nearly every minute of every day in your life. In addition, communication plays a major role in every aspect of your life. Effective communication therefore both enhances your daily life and at the same time solves problems in your professional and personal life. Communication experts believe that poor communication is at the root of many of our problems. Therefore there are various reasons why studying communication is important: a) Studying communication helps in understanding and insight of oneself and others.  Self awareness is the way we see ourselves. Most of our self knowledge comes from communication with ourselves (intrapersonal communication) and communication with Page 2 of 39  other people (interpersonal communication). The message and feedback we receive from others helps improve our self concept. b) Studying communication and using it effectively can lead to more positive feelings of ourselves. Effective communication can improve our self worth by enabling us to positively project ourselves in what is called image management. c) Studying communication can increase our knowledge about human relationships because studying communication includes learning about how people relate with one another and about what communication is appropriate for a given situation. d) Studying communication can teach us important life skills. For instance it can help us acquire problem solving skills. Studying communication is also instrumental in helping us acquire important life skills such as decision making skills, public speaking e.t.c. All these skills are important in academic and career development. e) Studying communication can help us succeed professionally. Employers regard highly written, oral and other communication competencies. The ability to listen and analyze messages is usually considered an essential professional skill. Entrepreneurs too regard communication skills as top priority skills for success. f) Poor communication may lead to misunderstanding, frustration, being ignored by others, unsuccessful careers, among many other negative consequences. 1.4 Elements of Communication Elements of communication are the components that constitute the communication process. These are: a) People These are the participants in the communication process. People are involved in communication in two roles. They are sources and receivers of messages. Sources initiate/compose the intended message. S/he encodes the message, while receivers are the intended target of messages, i.e. a receiver is the person who receives, decodes, comprehends and attaches meaning to the message sent. The participants’ knowledge, interest and emotional state will affect how the message is sent or received. In the communication process, people are sources and receivers of a message simultaneously and continually. b) Message This is the verbal or non-verbal form of idea, thought or feeling that one person (source) wishes to communicate to a group of people (receivers). The message, therefore, is the content of interaction. A message may be easy to understand or long and complex, it may also be intentional or un- intentional. c) Channel This is the means by which a message moves from a source to a receiver. It is also called the medium of transmission. The medium may be in form of sound waves (in oral-auditory messages) or as light waves (in visual communication such as written communication). d) Feedback This is the receiver’s verbal, non verbal or written response to the message from the source. Feedback is part of any communication situation such that even non-response is feedback. e) Code This is the systematic arrangement of symbols used by the source or receiver to create meaning in the mind of another person(s) or receiver(s). The code may be in form of i) Language you choose to communicate in e.g. English, Kiswahili or Sheng. ii) Grammatical structure, for instance, a statement, question etc. iii) Words and phrases you choose to use. iv) Non-verbal codes you may choose. f) Encoding and decoding Page 3 of 39  Encoding is the act of putting ideas and thoughts into a code, while decoding is interpreting/making sense those ideas or thoughts. g) Noise Noise is any interference in encoding or decoding process that reduces the clarity of a message. Noise can be in the form of: i) Physical noise, which can be in form of distracting sounds or sights. Such noise is usually easier to prevent in a speaking or listening situation. For example, closing doors to a noisy room, wearing ear plugs etc. ii) Psychological/noise, mental and emotional interferences that distract communication, such as day dreaming, pain, hunger and the like. iii) Semantic noise, which is the use of expressions that are unknown to the receiver or are too complex in grammatical structure. They include language differences, inattention and misunderstanding caused by different interpretations of a word or an expression. Cultural diversity can also lead to semantic noise. 1.5 Principles of communication There are important properties of communication that we need to keep in mind as we study and employ communication. The properties constitute the invaluable attributes of communication: a) Communication is inescapable: communication is always occurring in human life at various levels, for instance, at the intra-personal level when you are thinking, planning, meditating, as well as when you are observing, gathering information and making conclusions. It also occurs at the interpersonal level as you interact with one another. b) Communication is irreversible: you cannot take back something once it is communicated. Even if you can, what has been communicated cannot entirely be erased. Traces of the effect of the communication will always remain. c) Communication is dynamic: all elements in communication (i.e. setting, participants, their knowledge, their roles etc) affect each other as communication progresses. d) Every communication interaction has a content dimension and relationship dimension: Content dimension is the information or message that a source desires to communicate, which has to be packaged in a strategic manner to elicit a desired reaction. The relationship dimension of communication constitutes the elements in the communication that seek to signal and acknowledge the state of the social relation between the communicating parties. The relationship dimension ‘oils’ the attainment of communication goals. For instance if you lecturer entered into the lecturer room with an unzipped trousers and you wanted to alert him to this fact, you will not just blurt out to him the content of what you want to say to him! You will need to do a lot of damage control about the awkward situation, while at the same time recognizing his superior position in relation to you as a student. Just think of the exact kind of language you would use and point out the content and relationship dimension of what you will say. e) Communication is contextual: communication does not occur in a vacuum. It involves various aspects of context of communication. The context of communication is the environment in which communication takes place. The context of communication involves: i) Psychological context: that is the needs, desires, values, personality, and so on that people communicate and bring to the communication activity. ii) Situational context: this involves the place and time of communication, which affects what and how we communicate. iii) Environmental context: this involves the physical features of the communication setting, such as, noise level, cultural context, objects available in setting e.t.c. Page 4 of 39  f) Communication is complicated: Communication is complicated in several respects. For instance: i) It involves choice about multiple aspects of message i.e. we have to make verbal and code choices, as well as non-verbal behavioral aspects to be used in communication. We also have to make choices of channel, and all these aspects must be combined strategically in order to pass across a unified message. ii) Communication is also complicated because of our differing perception of the same object that we may wish to communicate about. 1.6 Types of Communication Communication can be categorized in two ways. a) By the number of people involved in the communication process. b) By the channel or medium used in the communication process. a) Communication categorized by number of peopled involved: i) Intrapersonal communication: this is the process of sharing meaning within oneself in the mind, which involves such activities as reflection, problem solving, planning, and solving internal conflict among others. This is a continuous process we always engage in but rarely realize we are involved in it. ii) Inter-personal communication: this involves exchanging meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening. Interpersonal communication can be of two types:  Dyadic communication: involves two people in communication such as a doctor and a patient, a lecturer and a student.  Small group communication: involves three to ten people such communication includes that which takes place in families and work groups. iii) Public communication: it involves one person communicating to a large group of people. iv) Mass communication: this is communication mediated via a technological transmission system involving a source (professional communicator often representing an organization), and a large number of unseen receivers spread over a wide geographical area. The transmission system might be in the form of electronic, audio, audio-visual signal or visual technologies such as publication in form of books or newspapers. b) Communication Categorized by Channel or Medium i) Verbal communication: this type of communication relies on the oral-auditory signal for communication. ii) Graphic communication: this communication is also known as visual communication. It involves visual representation of ideas facts and objects other than written communication e.g. cartoons, graphs, charts, models, objects etc. iii) Written communication: this is the use of visual symbols, representing language, on a surface which is read by receivers. iv) Non-verbal communication: this is the use of visual or oral auditory signals that do not primarily rely on language or verbalized message for communication to take place. This form of communication is also known as paralinguistic communication and would include forms such as gestures, posture, distance, facial expression, rate of speech, pause, voice quality, and so on. Page 5 of 39 1.6.1 Categories of non-verbal communication Non-verbal communication can be divided into 5 categories: 1. Paralanguage This includes non-verbal communication such as tone, pitch, quality, rate of speech, laughing, crying, belching or even hesitating or sighing. Paralanguage can help reinforce a verbal message, for example, a father says, “awwww” to his daughter who has just fallen. 2. Kinesics/body language Body language is the gestures, movements and mannerisms by which a person communicates with others. Physical attributes such as appearance, facial expressions, eye contact and posture all contribute to kinesics or body language. For example:  Physical appearance includes clothes, jewelry and grooming. Wearing the appropriate clothing to specific events demonstrates taste and style.  Facial expressions indicate our emotions: happy, sad, confused, angry etc. Eye contact may convey confidence, honesty and interest in the conversation.  Gestures can express many things: a friendly wave to say hello etc.  Posture sends a message. Standing or sitting erect denotes that you are paying attention to the matter at hand, leaning forward conveys increased interest. 3. Environment Our environment communicates many different messages. For example: A large desk in a corner office with windows communicates high status within an organization Fast food restaurants are deigned to move customers through quickly by using plastic seats that is comfortable for about 10 minutes 4. Touch Touch, or haptic communication, is a primary method for achieving connection with people, indicating intention, or expressing emotion. The use of touch can be culturally bound. For example: In a business setting, the most appropriate form of communication is the handshake Haptic communication is status-driven. That is, a manager may give an employee an encouraging pat on the back, but not vice versa People in business must avoid touch that could be considered condescending or sexual harassment 5. Space Space, as it relates to non-verbal communication, is the physical distance maintained with others. How you use space to communicate depends on:  Cultural norms  Your relationship with the receivers of your communication  The activities involved Space generally falls into 4 categories: Page 6 of 39  a) Intimate distance: this distance is reserved for personal expression with those we know well b) Personal distance: this distance is used for casual and friendly conversations c) Social distance: this distance is used in the workplace for business-related conversations, small meetings and social functions. It is also used for other conversations that are not personal in nature d) Public distance: this distance is usually for public speaking. In a personal conversation, this distance would constitute a huge communication barrier 1.6.2 Pointers for using non-verbal communication  Avoid conflicting signals: messages are made stronger when both the verbal and non-verbal communications convey the same thing.  Care should be taken not to intimidate people by encroaching on their personal space.  Interpretation of the non-verbal cues and messages we receive is an essential responsibility of any communicator.  Perception is the cornerstone for interpreting non-verbal signals. c) Other types of communication categorized by direction of flow Communications creates links between people for different functions or purposes. If several links are missing, broken or not aligned properly, the communication becomes wobbly and may eventually break. The following are communication situations that represent a different flow of communication depending on the purpose: i) Upward communication This is communicating with people who rank above you, such as your boss or instructor. ii) Lateral or horizontal communication This is communicating with people who are at the same rank or level as you – your co-workers or classmates. iii) Downward communication This is communicating with people who rank below you, such as the people you might manage at work. iv) Internal communication This is a communication situation that takes place in a company or an organization. Internal communication is the transmittal of information between and among persons within a business or organization. It is used to accomplish company goals and objectives. For example, managers communicating deadline on assignments or employees seeking promotions. v) External communication This is the transfer of information to and from people outside the company or organization. The goal is to persuade the recipients to respond favorably to company needs. For example, a job advert tries to attract qualified personnel to fill a certain position. vi) Cross-cultural communication This refers to communicating, either in writing, verbally or non-verbally, with people who are from a culture different from your own. This calls for an understanding and respect of cultural differences and being adaptable. vii) Grapevine communication This refers to informal communication within a company/organization, where information spread bypasses the formal communication structure. It spreads in random ways, irrespective of the authority levels. Page 7 of 39 NOTE: The direction your communication flows at any given time will influence how you communicate – the words you use and the method you choose. 1.7 The objectives of communication Whether we are speaking, writing, persuading, informing, entertaining, explaining, convincing, educating or any other objective behind the particular communication, we always have four general objectives:  To be received (heard or read)  To be understood  To be accepted  To get action (change behavior or attitude) 1.8 Specific barriers to communication Human communication is fraught with problems and difficulties such as: 1. Differences in opinion Our worldviews are largely determined by our past experiences. As vast as these experiences are, so are the perceptions and interpretations of the world that people have. Age, nationality, culture, education, occupation, sex, status, personality etc, all bring to bear the difference in perception. 2. Jumping to conclusions We often see what we expect to see, thus hear what we expect to hear, rather than what is actually intended. This may lead us to unnecessary conclusions. 3. Stereotyping Our experiences could run us the risk of treating different people as if they were the same. 4. Lack of knowledge Communication is adversely affected if it is exchanged between persons whose knowledge of the particular subject is varied or whose backgrounds regarding the subject are too different. It requires skill on the part of the communicator to be aware of the discrepancy between the levels of knowledge, thus communicate accordingly. 5. Lack of interest This is lacking alertness to the message being sent. As an effective communicator, you should avoid assuming that your interest in the specific subject is everyone’s interest, thus angle your message to appeal to the interests and needs of the receiver. 6. Difficulties with expression This refers to difficulty expressing or conveying your message as clearly as possible. It includes lack of vocabulary as well as lack of confidence, both of which can be overcome by improving your vocabulary and preparing carefully respectively. Page 8 of 39 7. Emotions Both the receiver and communicator could harbor strongly felt emotions that could prevent almost anything from being communicated. Such emotions could entirely distort the communication and should be avoided. However, any audience knows that a speaker without emotion and enthusiasm is likely to be a dull speaker. Emotion just needs a clear balance. 8. Personality Our personality traits/behaviors can affect the behavior of others in a communication situation. We may not be able to change the personalities of others, but at least we should be prepared to consider our own personality to see if change in behavior may result in more satisfactory relationships, thus better communication. 1.9 The 7cs of effective communication Effective communication must apply the following 7 essentials, whether you are speaking or writing. Using these 7Cs will ensure that your communication is coherent and easy to follow. 1. Clarity This refers to being specific rather than vague while communicating. You must communicate so clearly that you cannot be misunderstood, i.e. it is not enough to communicate so you can be understood. Ask the following key questions to test how clear your communication is:  Have you used familiar words, short sentences?  Have you presented only one idea in each sentence?  Have you avoided "business" and technical terms?  Have you used the reader's language? 2. Completeness Complete communication includes enough details so that the recipient will not need to ask for more information. For example – if you receive a message from your lecturer asking you to pick your graded papers on Wednesday, how do you know which Wednesday it should be? To be complete, a communication should answer the following questions: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? or How much? Ask the following key questions to test how complete your communication is:  Have you given all the facts?  Have you covered the essentials?  Have you answered all his/her questions?  Did you PLAN what you said? 3. Conciseness Page 9 of 39 1.9.1.1 Concise communication avoids unnecessary words that could hamper the same communication. Such extra words may clutter the message and distort it all together. Conciseness makes the message more understandable and comprehensible. For conciseness:  Eliminate wordy expressions  Include only relevant material  Avoid unnecessary repetition Look at the following examples: WORDY CONCISE Due to the fact that Because In due course Soon At this time Now Few in number few On a weekly basis Weekly In spite of the fact that Although Until such time as Until Meet together Meet In-class exercise: Revise the following statement, which is too wordy and eliminate seven unnecessary words (‘fillers’). “I am writing this letter to inform you that your airline tickets will be mailed ten days before your scheduled departure”. 4. Consistency All communication should be consistent in FACT, TREATEMENT and SEQUENCE. Consistency in fact refers to agreement with a source document or an established fact. For example, an exam scheduled for 31st April should be questioned since April has only 30 days. Consistency in treatment means treating similar items the same way. For example using the courtesy title (Mr., Mrs., Miss., or Ms.) with names of all recipients of a letter or indenting all paragraphs in a report. Consistency in sequence refers to the arrangement of listings such as alphabetical, chronological or numerical order. For example, if an exam is scheduled for 3days, the dates should be given in chronological order: June 14, June 15 and June 16. 5. Correctness This refers to all the information in the message being accurate – the content, the spelling, the capitalization and the punctuation. The following guidelines can ensure your communication achieves correctness: Page 10 of 39   Use the correct level of language  Check accuracy of figures, facts and words  Maintain acceptable writing mechanics  There should be proper grammar, punctuation, spelling and paragraphing Ask the following questions to test for correctness:  Have you checked all facts for correctness?  Have you spelled the reader's name correctly?  Have you verified all numbers and amounts?  Is the appearance of the letter effective? Is it clean, well-spaced?  Have you checked your spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc.? 6. Consideration This refers to the use of the ‘You-attitude’ instead of the ‘I’ or ‘We-attitude’. Consideration applies sympathy, the human touch and understanding of human nature. It means the message is sent with the receiver in mind. You should try to visualize your readers; their desires, problems, emotions, circumstances and possible reaction to your communication. The following actions can ensure that your communication is considerate:  Focus on ‘You-attitude’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘We’  Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver  Emphasize positive pleasant facts Look at the following examples: NEGATIVE EMOTION/EXPRESSION TRANSFORMS INTO Anxious A little concerned, expectant Confused Curious Destroyed Set back Disgusted Surprised Failure Learning I hate I prefer Insulted Misunderstood Lost Searching Painful Uncomfortable Stressed Busy GOOD WORD GREAT WORD Attractive Gorgeous Confident Unstoppable Curious Fascinated Fast Ballistic Fortunate Blessed Interesting Captivating Like Relish Nice Fantastic Page 11 of 39 Quick Explosive Smart Gifted Ask the following questions to test your communication for consideration:  Have you put the client first?  Have you floodlighted his/her interests?  Have you walked in his/her moccasins?  Have you talked his/her language? 7. Courtesy This refers to the building of goodwill at all times.  Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative  Use expressions that show respect  Choose non-discriminatory expressions Ask the following questions to test your communication for courtesy:  Will it win good will?  Have you used positive, "pleasant-toned" words?  Have you used "I appreciate," "please", and "thank you" somewhere in your message?  Would you enjoy reading what you have said? NOTE: Concreteness: (sometimes used in the place of consistency – either one of them is ok.) This refers to when communication is specific definite unambiguous and vivid rather than vague and general. The following guidelines lead to concreteness. 1. Use specific facts and figures 2. Put action in your verb 3. Choose vivid image building words. Ask the following questions to test your communication for concreteness:  Have you given the crisp details the client needs?  Have you made the details razor and needle-sharp?  Have you flashed word pictures, made facts vivid? The chief art in communication is to know: 1. How much to put in. 2. What to leave out. 3. When to quit. Page 12 of 39 2 LISTENING AND CRITICAL THINKING 2.1 Introduction In this section, we are interested in discussing listening as an invaluable skill in the communication process. We shall also endeavor to show how listening is connected to critical thinking. 2.2 Objectives of the topic By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Distinguish between hearing and listening b) Outline the importance of listening in our lives c) Explain the essential aspects in the listening process d) Discuss the various types of listening e) Demonstrate knowledge of effective listening strategies 2.3 Definition of Listening Hearing is the act of receiving sound. Listening is the act of receiving sound, constructing meaning and responding to the spoken message. Listening also involves the ability to retain information as well as react emphatically to the spoken message. 2.4 Importance of Listening in our lives a) Listening is an essential task for effective communicators. We actually do spend the largest part of our time listening, for instance it has been observed that college students spend up to 50% of their time listening. b) Listening helps us build and maintain relationship. Part of our ability to build and retain relationships involves our ability to understand and respond empathetically to messages from others. c) Listening can help us determine whether people we are communicating with are honest or deceitful. d) Listening is an essential skill for success in academics and business world. e) Listening is directly linked to our ability to remember information. 2.5 The Listening Process The listening process involves receiving oral stimuli (music, words or sounds) in the ear (Hearing). The ear translates the vibration from oral stimuli into sensation that is registered by the brain (Listening). The brain, using attention and working memory, interprets the sensation and gives it meaning (Interpretation). The interpreted message is then stored in short term memory for immediate use (Retaining) or long term memory for future recall (Recalling). 2.5.1 Important aspects of the Listening Process a) Attention – At any one time there are many oral-auditory stimuli such that our mind has to focus on specific stimuli and block others. This process is called attention. Attention is selective or automatic. Page 13 of 39  i)Selective attention – This is sustained focus we give to information we deem important. Selective attention can be obstructed by our mind’s instinct to pay automatic attention to certain stimuli. ii) Automatic attention – this is instinctive focus we give to stimuli signaling a change in our surrounding. We give automatic attention to stimuli that we deem important or that which we perceive to signal danger. Automatic attention, therefore, competes with selective attention. b) Working memory – This is the part of our consciousness that interprets and assigns meaning to stimuli we pay attention to. We may use it without ‘thinking’ about it. It looks for shortcuts when processing information e.g. patterns of letters or words in assigning meanings. The working memory works in conjunction with the long term memory. c) Short term memory – Once information is interpreted in working memory it is either sent to the short term or the long term memory. The short term memory is part of the memory that acts as a temporary storage place for information. The information stored in short term memory is that which we want to use immediately but not necessarily in future. It is the least efficient of our memory resources because information stored here is easily forgotten unless some strategy like rehearsal is used. Unfortunately most people, students included, rely on short term memory for information that deserves to be recalled in the long term. d) Long term memory – This is the permanent storage place for information including past experiences, language, values, knowledge, images of people, memories of sights, sounds, smells and even fantasies. Unlike short term memory, long term memory has no known limitation on the quantity or duration of stored information. Long term memory is organized in schema, which are organizational filling systems for thoughts held in long term memory. We access such information through stimulus cues that constitute words, images, sights, smells or tastes that serve as triggers, which signal the mind to activate information held in schema. If we encounter information for first time, which is not in the long term memory, a new schema will be created and this information stored. The long term memory plays a key role in the listening process because it is instrumental in recalling stored information and helps in creating meaning between what we hear and our background knowledge. 2.6 Types of Listening There are various types of listening, which can be used for various purposes either independently or in combination. These are: a) Active listening – It involves listening with a purpose and comprises: i) Listening carefully using all our available senses. ii) Paraphrasing what we hear both mentally and verbally. iii) Checking our understanding to ensure accuracy. iv) Providing feedback positively or negatively. b) Empathetic listening – It is a form of active listening where we attempt to understand the other person by perceiving their world view as if it is our own. It is putting ourselves in the shoes of another person in order to feel and understand what the person is going through. This kind is very useful in sustaining relationships, counseling process, resolving disputes, as well as dealing with traumatic situations. c) Critical listening – This is listening that analyses, evaluates, critiques or challenges a speaker’s message by evaluating its accuracy, meaningfulness and utility. This goes hand in hand with critical thinking and it involves asking question such as: i) Is the speaker’s message possible? Is it realistic? ii) Does the speaker back up his or her claims? Are these claims reliable? iii) Is the speaker credible or an authority? iv) Is the message free of contradiction and inconsistencies? Page 14 of 39  Critical listening is very useful when we are confronted with persuasive messages such as advertisements, political communications, propaganda and the like. d) Listening for enjoyment – This type of listening helps us to relax like when we enjoy listening to, for instance, music. e) Reflective listening This refers to attentively listening to the speaker’s actual words, as well as tone of voice, and observing the body language and emotions displayed. Reflective listening is particularly an important tool in one- on-one situations. It is not practical in a speaker-audience situation. f) Passive listening This means concentrating at a low level and absorbing just enough of the speaker’s words to stay involved in a conversation or speech. Such listening is characterized by: - Listeners remembering little of what is said - Listeners let the speaker’s inflection or tone of voice signal when they should react by nodding, smiling or saying, “I see” - Listeners may suggest that the speaker has the listener’s attention, even though that may not be the case - It is appropriate when you listen for pleasure and when it doesn’t matter whether or not you retain what you hear 2.7 Effective Listening Strategies Effective listening is a life-long skill that is of paramount importance in academic life. There are various ways of improving listening skills that can make your life in academics and beyond very fruitful. Strategies that improve your listening skills include: a) Listen and think critically – This involves analyzing the speaker, the situation and the message in order to make critical judgment about messages being presented. b) Identifying and understanding barriers to the listening process and genuinely working towards eliminating them. Such barriers may include noise of various types, which should be eliminated in the listening process. c) Identifying patterns in what we are listening to – Understanding the overall message, its main points and the supporting points is essential in having a graphical impression of messages and is an important aid in the recall process. d) Applying memory retention skills such as: i) Rehearsing and rephrasing what we listen to. ii) Using mnemonic devices (using a series of letters forming a meaningful or pronounceable word where each letter stands for a particular concept, idea or point for easy recall). 2.8 Improving Listening skills Listening behavior also varies from culture to culture. For instance, African listeners may look away from you instead of maintaining eye contact, while Japanese listeners often close their eyes when they are concentrating. However, even such cultural orientations are not an excuse to effective listening. You can us these five strategies to enhance, reinforce and develop your listening skills:  Read to gain background information  Repeat a person’s name when you are introduced to someone Page 15 of 39   Ask questions to clarify information  Take good notes  Use a tape recorder, when permitted, to record a lecture or a meeting Good listening skills enable you:  To absorb an instructor’s lectures, explanations and directions for assignments  Understand what the speaker is saying  Combined with note-taking, listening skills enable you record information and review it at a later time 2.8.1 Overcoming listening barriers Becoming an effective listener requires conscious effort and practice. Listening barriers are any distractions that interfere with listening, for example:  Not concentrating on what is being said  Being distracted by noise  Talking instead of listening  Having preconceived thoughts and opinions  Not being interested in what is being said These can be overcome through:  Concentrate on the speaker’s message – it is your responsibility to stay focused.  Use filters to manage and control noise – control the two basic kinds of noise; 1)external noise, which includes sounds from conversations, radio, television, CD players, machinery etc and 2) internal noise, which includes distractions such as pain, fatigue, preoccupation with other thoughts, hunger, worry or a personality conflict with the speaker. To this end, you can turn down the volume of unnecessary sounds, take a pain reliever or get enough sleep.  Resist talking instead of listening – it is impossible to be both sender and receiver of information at the same time. You can even become your own distraction.  Focus on the message – make sure that your own ideas do not interfere with listening to the ideas of another.  Listen with a positive attitude – you do not have to agree with the speaker, but good listening requires you to keep an open mind and believe that the speaker might have something useful to offer. 2.8.2 Improving listening skills 1. Paraphrasing: this is summarizing the speaker’s message in your own words and allowing the speaker to correct any discrepancies from the intended message. That is, the listener crystallizes his/her own understanding of the content presented. 2. Evaluate your skills: everyone has listening weakness; you must therefore identify your weaknesses. 3. Prepare yourself physically and mentally: listening is a combination of physical and mental activities. 4. Set listening priorities: because you are bombarded with several messages at once, decide which ones deserve your focus. 5. Make efficient use of available time: do not rush through your conversation as you may lack full understanding of the message. 6. Listen attentively: be attentive and show interest in the speaker’s message. 7. Listen for ideas and feelings: look out for factual information as well as the speaker’s tone of voice. 8. Establish eye contact: do not stare at the speaker, instead, glance away periodically to reflect on the topic. Page 16 of 39 9. Use body language to show you are listening: body language can convey you level of interest. Employ appropriate non-verbal cues. 10. Overlook personal characteristics of the speaker: do not prejudge a speaker on the basis of distracting personal characteristics such as mannerisms, voice, speech patterns or appearance. 11. Choose strategic seating: posture can affect listening; therefore choose a physical location that is conducive, comfortable and practical. 12. Ask questions if permitted: this helps clarify the speaker’s information. 13. Take notes: jot down key ideas or concepts for further referencing. One method to help you retain the content of a speaker’s message is to think of the strategies represented by the letters in the sentence “IS A FACT”: Identify – identify the speaker’s ideas and connections among the ideas Summarize – summarize the main points of the message Assess – assess the correctness or validity of the message Formulate – formulate appropriate questions Associate – associate the speaker’s ideas with other known concepts Consider – consider specific ways the information might be used Take notes – take notes to assist in better recall (to bring to mind) Page 17 of 39 3 READING SKILLS 3.1 Introduction In this section, we shall examine reading as an important communication skill that you as a university student will be constantly engaged in as you research, conduct routine study as well as during revision for examinations. We shall therefore be concerned with how you can develop effective reading skills that you can use in your university studies and life after college. 3.2 Objectives of the topic By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Define reading b) Outline how you develop a purpose for your reading c) Explain what the various types of reading entail d) Expound on the effective reading and comprehension techniques e) Discuss the skill of note taking 3.3 What is Reading? Reading is the process of interpreting, analyzing and understanding written messages. Reading for study at university level is an active integration of the text involving interpretation and thinking as you read. Reading is, therefore, a dynamic process involving the following properties: a) Decoding or interpreting written symbols b) It is a physical and mental activity c) It requires attention and thought d) It is an interaction of the language of the text and background knowledge of the reader, such that, the written message focuses the reader on what background knowledge (in long term memory), the reader should bring to the interpretation of written message being read. 3.4 Developing a Purpose for Reading Before we engage in reading we need to establish the purpose for which we seek to read. Generally speaking, we engage in reading for the following purposes: a) We read to entertainment or leisure b) To acquire information and knowledge c) As a means of preparing for successful life i.e. as means of acquiring useful life skill. d) To improve quality of life. At the university level reading is particularly more focused and rigorous and would normally entail the following purposes: a) To gain an overall understanding of main ideas presented in some reading. b) To find specific information such as a name, date or a definition of a concept. c) To gain understanding of material so as to recall it as presented in the text. d) To evaluate, critique or analyze some material. The purpose of our reading will, to a large extent, determine the type of reading of style we adopt as the discussion below will indicate. Page 18 of 39 3.5 Types of Reading Types of reading refer to styles we may adopt in our reading as determined by the purpose for which we are reading. Types of reading include: a) Scanning – This style or technique is used when you are looking for a name, definition or any other specific piece of information in a text like a house in classified ads, addresses or phone in a directory, an important concept, information for a research essay in a library catalogue, table of content, index page etc. In using the technique you move your eye quickly over the page to find particular words or phrases that are relevant to specific information you are looking for. While scanning, a good reader should first:  Ensure that the text he/she is scanning is the correct text and that he/she knows precisely what he is looking for.  Try to determine the text structure or its style of arrangement, i.e. clues or signals which can assist in understanding the text pattern.  Scan with speed without reading extraneous or irrelevant material. b) Skimming – In this technique you read quickly through a text in order to get a grip of the main ideas or general information about the text. In using this technique you intend to get a general grasp of ideas presented by the author. This technique is useful when: i) Trying to decide if a book in library is useful or right for your studies. ii) Previewing books or texts before detailed reading. iii) Refreshing your understanding of a text after you have read it in detail. You can skim:  Introductory paragraphs – to give the general theme  Concluding paragraph  Transitional paragraphs  Subheadings  Italicized, underlined and boldfaced items As an efficient reading strategy, skimming is a very useful skill both for recreational and study reading. In study reading, it is useful for the following reasons:  It can be used at the preliminary stages of selecting texts for research or selecting reserved and supplementary literature. It helps determine which texts merit more careful and thorough reading and which specific parts of those texts are worth spending time on.  It can be used as an exercise for improving speed and therefore performance and for coping with high quantity work. It can enable a reader cover a lot of material in a short time, therefore saving time.  It is one of those skills used in the reading for the main idea only when the supporting details or other extraneous materials are not important. c) Active/detailed reading – This technique is used in serious study. It calls for an active involvement in the reading process. In this type of reading you need to interrogate or think over what you read so as to both evaluate what you have read and facilitate recall of read material. This is the kind of reading that is most extensively used at university during study. As you use this type of reading the following tips are important. i) Always make notes Page 19 of 39  ii) Pick out what you think are the important points of what you are reading by highlighting these points. iii) Record main headings as you read, this helps you to see the flow of your reading and notes. iv) As you prepare for active reading note down questions you want the material to answer. v) After you have read a section of text and have made a summary of what you have read in your notes, skim through the text and check how accurate your summary is. As you do this, fill in gaps that you may notice in your notes. d) Extensive reading is purposeful, organized, wide reading of long texts such as journals, novels, magazines, and periodicals etc, especially those that relate to one’s area of study, to enrich one’s vocabulary, which is basic to all good reading. e) Intensive reading is a concentrated, thorough and comprehensive reading style. It is applied when one wants to understand the contents of the reading deeply. It is an intellectually involving affair int hat the reader will be trying to evaluate how the ideas involved could be applied or adapted to different situations. It is also analytical, critical and interpretive. It could involve a paragraph, a whole passage or even a whole book, like in the case of a literature book. f) Light reading – this is the type of reading that we apply when reading papers and novels for leisure. This does not involve any critical assessment or appraisal of the material one is reading. It is fast and superficial. g) Word by word reading – this is the style used by beginners when they are reading for the first time and in an attempt to understand each word or phrase at a time. It is also applicable when one is reading scientific or mathematics process or formula. 3.6 EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT READING STRATEGIES To read effectively means to be able to comprehend, evaluate and utilize that which one has read, while reading efficiently means reading effectively with the least amount of physical (psycho-motor) effort and time. To attain efficiency, one has to: 1. Reduce certain poor reading habits 2. Utilize better psycho-motor reading strategies 3.6.1 Common poor reading habits a) Vocalization (sounding out) This is reading aloud (the tendency to register the sound of the words as you read), which wastes time and creates a sub-process as follows: According to Pearson (1981), the reading process involves a) visual perception, b) response to visual stimuli, c) transmission to brain, d) decoding (giving meaning), e) vocalizing, f) response to mental stimuli (understanding or not). As a result, vocalization slows down this reading process. Henry Pearson (1981) observed that reading aloud takes at least twice as long as reading silently and yet it is not any more effective. b) Sub-vocalization This is where the reader makes a conscious effort not to move his/her lips when reading but his/her internal speech organs; larynx or vocal cords are mechanically working. That is, the tendency to internally acknowledge or pronounce the sound of the words in your head. c) Finger reading, pointing at words and head movement Page 20 of 39 These habits not only affect the rate of reading but also affect the comprehension, since they prevent the reader from grasping full phrases and clauses, therefore hindering him/her from understanding the ideas expressed fully. d) Narrow recognition span and poor rhythmic eye movement Recognition span is the number of words a reader can recognize while eyes are fixed at one point. Fixations are the stops a reader takes to take in a word or phrase and then move on to the next. A narrow recognition span wastes time and energy and therefore affects one’s rate and comprehension. Efficient readers take in several words per fixation, which should be at least a phrase. Thus, rhythmically, eyes should move systematically from the middle of one phrase to another. e) Regression (backtracking while reading) This is glancing back and re-reading words, phrases and sentences that have already been read. It is a characteristic of lacking concentration and poor reading. It affects comprehension because it interrupts the reading process (though process). An efficient reader should move forward at all times. NB: Regression is different from review, which is done after, for clarification. 3.4 Effective Reading and Comprehension Skills One important technique that has been developed for effective reading and comprehension is summed up as SQ3R, which stand for: S – Survey Q – Question R – Read R – Recall R – Review a) Survey – stands for a rapid preview of material in order to get an overview a topic, chapter, or book. The idea here is to look for main points of the text, its content and approach. In doing this: i) Read the title to help give you an idea of the subject. ii) Read the introduction or summary to see what the author thinks are the key points. iii) Notice boldface headings to see what the structure of the text is. iv) Notice any maps, charts or graphs which give a summation of ideas in the text. v) Notice reading aids and any questions at the end of chapter because they are meant to help you understand and remember. b) Question – When reading you should develop a questioning attitude. Questions help your mind to engage and concentrate. This is because your mind is actively engaged when it is looking for answers to questions. In using questions as you read, keep in mind the following: i) Try to turn bold face headings into questions you think the section should answer. ii) Ask yourself:  What is the main point being made here?  What is author trying to explain here?  Have I understood the argument and conclusion? c) Read – After formulating questions you can start reading the material carefully in detail. The approach you take in reading may depend on subject. If the subject is complex your reading may be slower and if the subject is familiar, you might adopt a faster pace. How you read may also be determined by your personal approach. As you read: i) Remember to take notes. Page 21 of 39  ii) Engage actively with your material. iii) Look for answers to questions you have set for yourself and make up new questions if necessary. d) Recall – After each section, stop and think back to your questions. See if you can answer them from memory. If not take a look back at the text. Do this as often as you need to. As you do this you may highlight important points of your notes. e)Review – Once you have finished reading, for instance, a whole chapter or section, go back over all questions in all headings to see if you can still answer them. If not, look back and refresh your memory. Do this as an important part of your revision for exams. 3.6.2 The importance of SQ3R:  It makes reading a conscious active effort.  It enables a reader think constructively along similar lines as the writer.  The prediction or question formulation stage is both a sign and an aid to understanding.  The stages improve one’s concentration and retention ability.  Reading is organized into stages, therefore it takes less time and effort and it is more effective. 3.6.3 Other important tips to effective reading and comprehension a) Do not treat all books in same way, skim before you read a book to establish the type, for instance, whether it is complex or elementary. b) Do not start reading a book unless you have decided it is suitable. c) Determine the purpose for reading a book. d) You can switch from one way of reading to another, this is suitable particularly so when selecting books or doing research. e) Extract important reference information during your reading. This includes: i) Name of Author ii) Title and sub-title iii) Date of publication iv) Publisher and city of publication 3.7 Note taking Notes are a shortened version of information. Note taking is an integral part of reading, listening as well as during revision or study. 3.7.1 Advantages of Notes 1. Taking notes helps you to learn and understand by translating what you are studying into your own words and thereby helping you to understand and remember what you are studying. 2. Taking notes helps you concentrate while you are studying because the note taking process helps you process and digest the information. 3. Making notes helps you assess information because you are selecting the most important parts of what you are reading or hearing. Through making notes, you are also spotting the key issues and ideas of the materials. 4. Note taking also helps you think about the subject. Writing down ideas often produces ideas about other ideas you already know. This makes you think and connect what you are noting down with what you already know. This process, therefore, makes remembering of information more likely. Page 22 of 39 3.7.2 How to Take Notes 1. You should only choose the main points of what you are reading or listening to. Do not record all the materials from your source. 2. Show the difference between main points, supporting points and examples. This can be done by use of highlighting through the use of colours, underlining, or using various types of font or bolding for the different aspects of your notes. 3. Listen, read or watch closely the source of notes while carefully thinking about the subject and decide which part of source material are most useful, then put them down in your own words as your notes. 4. Brevity is important in taking notes. Use abbreviations wherever possible. You could also achieve brevity by adopting mathematical or scientific symbols or device your own personal code of symbols and signs. 5. Use note cards and list each new idea on a new line 6. Use phrases, not complete sentences to save time 7. Use abbreviations when possible 8. Never take verbatim notes, unless you need a direct quote 9. Use pen rather than pencil 10. Use underlining and asterisks to indicate important points 11. Number items, put information in bulleted lists, or use an outline to make it easier to review notes 12. Leave space in the margins for additional notes 13. Write on only one side of the paper or note card 14. Watch for clues: repetition of words or topics, handouts with key phrases or terms 15. Create networks, just in case you miss out important points during a lecture 16. Use a second note page for listing questions and their answers 17. Begin each day’s notes with a heading that includes the name or number of the course, instructor’s/speaker’s name, date and topic of the day Page 23 of 39 4 WRITING SKILLS 4.1 Introduction In this section, we are going to look at writing as an important skill in the communication process. Principally, we shall define writing and its importance in communication, discuss the paragraph as a key component in writing, then how to plan your essay and finally discuss the various types of essays that you will need to use in your writing. 4.2 Objectives of the topic At the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Define writing and explain its importance in communication b) Discuss the characteristics of a paragraph as an important component of writing c) Plan an academic essay d) Identify and explain the various types of essays e) Demonstrate understanding of referencing and documentation techniques in academic writing 4.3 Definition and importance of writing Writing is expression of language in form of symbols (letters, words and sentences) on a surface. The primary purpose of writing is communication. Writing is a life-long skill that when used clearly can help you express ideas convincingly to others and can determine your success at the university and professional life. Writing takes different forms. It may be in the form of a single paragraph, an essay, a short paper, a report, a letter, a memo e.t.c. Whatever the form of writing, effective writing involves the proper use of words, sentences, punctuations and paragraphs to pass across messages. In most of the writing you will engage in at the university, the paragraph constitutes a very important building block. It is in this regard that we shall turn to this unit of writing in the next section. 4.3.1 Paragraph writing Paragraphs are important building blocks in the writing of essays. A paragraph usually contains one main idea captured in a sentence, with about four to eight supporting sentences which expand the main idea by giving explanation, details and/or examples to support the main idea of the paragraph. The length of a paragraph may vary from one form of writing to another or by the idea one is expounding on. A paragraph can be part of a longer piece of writing, as it is in an essay, or it can stand alone as in an exam answer. Writing a paragraph is not a natural skill, but learned skill. A paragraph is unified by a single main idea. There is no one correct structure of writing a paragraph, however, a useful structure to have in mind is that it should have three main components, namely: a) Topic/thesis Sentence: this is the first sentence and it expresses the main idea that unifies the paragraph. b) Supporting Sentences: these sentences present details, facts and examples that expand on or illustrate the main idea. c) Concluding Sentence: this sums up the paragraph’s main idea or what has been said. Alternatively, it draws a logical conclusion from the main idea. Page 24 of 39 A good paragraph therefore must reveal its main idea in a prominent statement called topic/thesis sentence. The prominent idea is usually presented at the beginning of the paragraph such that other statements that follow support the main idea. A paragraph must convey thoughts that are connected together by logical associations and signal words, that is, there must be a clear connection between the sentences which constitute a paragraph. Signal words or transitional phrases that indicate connection between sentences include connectors of various kinds, such as: a) Connectors of sequence: afterward, as soon as, before, first, second…, finally, later, next etc, as well as, firstly, next, then, finally, so thus, as a result, because, therefore, for example, for instance, in contrast, on the other hand etc. b) Connectors of addition: also, and, another, besides, furthermore, moreover, likewise etc c) Connectors of contrast: but, even if, even so, however, despite, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand etc d) Connectors of result: as a result, consequently, accordingly, therefore, hence, thus etc e) Connectors of illustration: for example, for instance, for this reason, that is etc. A good paragraph must match real division of your ideas, that is, a paragraph must be about one idea such that the start of new paragraph should signal a shift to a new idea. Essay writing constitutes an important writing skill at the university level, where most of the research and term papers, as well as exam questions are written in essay form. 4.3.2 Essay writing An essay is a piece of writing on a single subject, issue or event with more than one paragraph, which is meant to communicate something. The length of an essay varies, where short ones may be 300 to 600 words long, constituting of four or five paragraphs. The paragraphs of an essay should be logically connected using transitional words and phrases as those connecting sentences within the paragraph as outlined above. An essay has three necessary parts: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. a) The introduction states the main point or thesis of the essay and may be a single or just a few paragraphs. b) The body supports by showing, explaining, proving the main point or advancing an argument. It generally has at least three paragraphs, each containing facts and details that develop the main point. c) The conclusion reminds the reader of the main point by summarizing and reinforcing the support in the body paragraphs, or it may make an observation based on that support and present the writer’s last thoughts on the subject. 4.3.3 Planning the essay The following six methods/stages can help you order your material in readiness for essay writing: Stage 1: Write down your purpose It is a good idea to write down (in a sentence or two) exactly what you are trying to achieve through your essay. This helps you organize your material around this purpose without straying away from the point. Page 25 of 39 Stage 2: Assemble the information Using notes on paper, index cards or notes on your PC, jot down all the ideas or points you may want to make. At this stage, you need to select only the essential, relevant information. Ask questions like; Is this really relevant to my message? Does my audience really need to have this information in order to understand my message? Will this information help me achieve my purpose? Stage 3: Group the information At this stage, you should consider your list and look for links between the bits of information. Rewrite your notes in clear notes, preferably under clear headings. These could become the paragraphs or sections of your completed message. Remember all paragraphs should carry one main idea. All other material in the paragraph will be supporting evidence – examples, elaboration, illustrations etc. Stage 4: Put the information into logical sequence This stage requires you to put the groups of information (still only in note-form) into some sort of sensible order. You can employ any of the following methods to order your material: a) Chronological order – it is sometimes called historical order and is perhaps the most common method. It presents the material in the order in which it occurred or occurs in time. b) Spatial (or place) order – facts are presented on a geographical basis – from place to place: from north to south, top to bottom, left to right, high to low, in and out, up and down or near to far. This method is effective for describing machinery, buildings, furniture, or geographical location. c) Order of importance – this presents material either in descending order of importance (deductive order): starting with the most important point to gain the reader’s attention; or in ascending order (inductive order): starting with the least important point. d) Ascending order of complexity – simpler ideas first, followed by increasingly difficult or complex material. e) Descending order of familiarity – moving ‘from the known to the unknown’. f) Cause and effect – put simply it means, “because of this, then that”. That is, “because this happened, that happened”. g) Topical – this requires that you deal with the material on a topic-by-topic basis. This is especially useful when there appears to be no real link between the chunks of material you have. Stage 5: Produce a skeleton outline This involves the production of a clear plan, which becomes increasingly easier by working through the previous four stages carefully. An outline makes the job of writing and presenting your work easier. Stage 6: Write the first draft Now you are ready to start writing. At this stage, do not worry about style and words. Just place the different chunks on information in their place: introduction, the main body and the conclusion. Stage 7: Edit the rough draft and write the final draft This stage requires you to put yourself in the shoes of your receiver. Read the rough draft through their eyes, checking for ambiguities, errors, awkward expressions, lack of signpost words (first, second, finally, in Page 26 of 39 addition, on the other hand etc), which are essential to guide your reader along the route of your ideas. Above all, aim for a concise, easily understood style. 4.3.4 Editing checklist I. Vary the length of the sentences but keep them on the shorter side: 18-22 words should be the average II. Paragraphs should have only one main idea III. Use words that the reader will understand – avoid unnecessary jargon IV. Avoid unbusiness-like colloquialisms such as “to cut the long story short” V. Omit unnecessary words for example, “serious” in “serious crisis” VI. Use the shorter rather than the longer word or phrase, for example, “start” rather than “commence” VII. Avoid hackneyed expressions (clichés such as “please find enclosed”, “if I can be of further assistance”, “please do not hesitate to contact me”) VIII. Avoid needless repetitions of words and phrases – find alternatives wherever possible IX. Use sincere words – do not overstate or exaggerate X. Use positive words rather than negative word if possible XI. Use the active rather than the passive voice 5 WRITING EFFECTIVE ESSAY EXAMS 5.1 Introduction In this section we shall examine the various strategies that can be used in taking and writing exam answers. You should find the tips on how to tackle exams provided here invaluable to your success in your academic life at the university, because passing exams constitute a core requirement in the university progression and graduation. 5.2 Objectives of the topic At the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Apply tips that are invaluable in writing exams. b) Demonstrate understanding of what writing strategies key verbs used in essay questions require of a student. 5.3 Tips for writing essay answers 1. Preview the exam and choose the questions to answer. 2. Plan your time according to the worth of the questions 3. Start with the easiest question because you get a psychological boost if you are able to successfully accomplish a task and therefore you would be motivated to tackle more difficult questions. 4. When stalled for an answer, move on to another question or take a quick break. 5. Keep your exam time until the last possible moment. 5.4 Writing complete essay exam answers Before writing an exam answer, read the entire question. To answer essay questions completely, you need to follow directions, organize and provide adequate support. You usually need to supply a definition or explanation, to compare or contrast, classify, formulate a persuasive argument, or apply other writing Page 27 of 39 strategies. You are expected to cite significant points and explain connections clearly. Quality and clarity are more valued than quantity. In answering essay questions effectively, you need to know the precise meanings of certain verbs commonly used in exams. They provide clues to the writing strategy that will best organize an essay answer. 5.5 Definition of Common Verbs in Essay Questions Account for: to explain, as a cause and its effect; to justify Analyze: to examine the parts of and determine their connections Clarify: to explain; to present details, reasons or examples Defend, justify or support: to give reasons for; to offer evidence Define: to give the meaning; to describe basic characteristics Discuss: to examine and consider; to present details and reasons Evaluate: to examine advantages and disadvantages; rate or judge Identify: to define; to give the characteristics of Trace: to track or explain in chronological order 5.6 Essay Writing strategies suggested by key phrases Key Phrases Writing Strategies  Trace, give the history of  Narration  Provide details, describe  Description  Explain, list, provide examples  Illustration  Discuss or analyze the parts of  Division-classification  Analyze, explain how, show how  Process analysis  Discuss advantages/disadvantages  Comparison-contrast  Show similarities/differences  Comparison-contrast  Account for, analyze the results of  Cause-effect  Discuss or explain reasons for  Cause-effect  Identify, clarify, explain the term  Definition  Defend, evaluate, justify, support  Argument-persuasion 5.7 Types of Essays There are various types of essays, which can be classified according to the purpose for which they are written as discussed below. 5.7.1 Descriptive Essays Effective descriptive essays create word pictures of objects, persons, scenes, events or situations. In creating images it is important to create sensory impression. Sensory impressions are created by use of words that appeal to our senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. Descriptive writing in general, can appear on its own or as part of some other form of writing, for instance, in writing history, biography, fiction, poetry, journalistic cases, advertisement e.t.c. Page 28 of 39 5.7.1.1 Characteristics of effective description a) They employ precise sensory impression, which capture the features that they describe, with appropriate words by likening the objects they describe with images and things that the reader can easily recognize. b) Effective descriptions take a vantage point, that is, they do not present every detail observed, but select what details to include or exclude. They also describe objects starting from one point to the other e.g. from bottom up, left to right or vice versa, front to back, general to specific, inside out, and so on. 5.7.2 Narrative Essays Narration is a process of relating events that occurred where they occurred, when they occurred and who was involved and probably why. It involves the answering of the 5 wh- and how reporters’ questions, namely, what happened, who was involved, where, when, why and how. 5.7.2.1 Characteristics of effective narration a) Effective narration selects and relates significant events of what happened. The significant events are determined by purpose of narrative. The purpose of your narrative may lead to the decision as to which of the questions above would be major and which will be minor in your narration. b) Do not bring up unrelated events because narration is discriminative. c) Follow logical and understandable time sequence. Basically there are three sequences that you can follow: i) Chronological sequence, which starts at the beginning of events and follow the events as they progress to end. ii) Starting from the end and then flashback to the first event, then proceed chronologically. iii) Start in the middle of the story then go the beginning and then proceed chronologically to the end. d) Good narration usually has a point that can be drawn from the story. The point might be Sharing experience in order to tell a moral or just to amuse. e) Conversation can be important in advancement of narrative by adding impact to it. You therefore need to know how to punctuate conversation. Avoid using vague speech tags such as: he said, or she asked, in the statement of who spoke unless these words are the logical choices instead be more precise to increase vitality for instance, she purred, he burst out. The conversation should be realistic. 5.7.3 Persuasive Essays Persuasive essays are intended to encourage others to adopt a view or take a particular action. Persuasion as a skill is used in a variety of ways e.g. when seeking employment, in advertisement, when you want to make change in group, in law courts, in debates, when appealing for help and so on. Persuasion is concerned with action and motivation, for instance, when we encourage people to buy specific products, we are motivating them to take certain actions. The details used in persuasion are determined by views and knowledge of the audiences. It involves asking the questions: Page 29 of 39  a) Who am I talking to? b) Who disagrees with me on these issues? c) Who might I influence? d) How might I influence them? Persuasive details should be arranged carefully so as to achieve the desired effect. One way of doing this is to arrange points in the order of forcefulness. Persuasive essays may incorporate narration, description, illustration, comparison and contrast, definition and explanation. Persuasive writers can speculate about what would happen if their views were or were not adopted. Objections to a point of view in a persuasive essay should be raised and countered. 5.7.4 Expository Essays Expository essays are those that set out to explain something. What is explained is the subject of the essay. The purpose of exposition is to enable readers to understand something, for instance, what something is, how something works, a relationship between one thing and another, how different parts of something are related, why something happened the way it did e.t.c. There are various types of exposition some of the common ones are: a) Definitions: in these types of exposition the writer intends to make readers understand concepts, ideas, a theory, object and so on. It entails saying what something is, its characteristics and probably how it is distinct as an entity. b) Illustrations: these are also called exemplifications. This type of writing helps the reader to concretize an idea. You can use comparison and contrast to illustrate an idea or use a more familiar object to illustrate a more complex or abstract idea. c) Analytic expositions: these expositions analyze or reveal certain properties that are not accessible to a casual observer. They entail breaking material into constituent parts in order to show the hidden nature and how the parts relate to each other. They may also show how each of these parts contribute to the total shape of a whole thing. d) Comparison-contrast expositions: These show the similarities and differences of an idea, object or thing. e) Cause-effect expositions: these expositions show the relationship between cause and effect of something or vice versa. Many things can be explained by identifying what causes them or alternatively explaining the effect, for instance diseases. In these types of expositions you must convince the reader that the cause will be capable of producing the effect in the manner that you are suggesting. Cause-effect expositions must be presented clearly and systematically in order to be convincing. 5.7.5 Argumentative essays Argumentation involves convincing others of the correctness of a given view. The product of argumentation is an argument either for or against a certain idea. Argumentative essays involve debates and discussions about a view or idea that has opposing views. Most arguments for which essays are written tend to be matters of policy, theory, interpretation, the best way to do something and other issues whose working and interpretation are not settled. Page 30 of 39 5.7.5.1 Important properties of arguments: a) Reasonableness: arguments have to appeal to reason, that is, the grounds used to support a given position should be relevant and adequate. b) The weighing of evidence for or against an argument should not be biased. Matters of fact should not be distorted or ignored. c) No irrelevant or inconsequential issues should be brought to the argument. d) Arguments should appeal to logic. A good argument should be logical where the conclusion put forward should have been logically derived from the premises which are sound. The argument put forward should not suffer fallacies (faulty argument). e) Arguments should be consistent and clear, that is, key concepts of an argument should be clearly defined and the argument should not have internal contradictions. Your position in the argument should be clearly stated and the evidence that supports your argument should be clearly presented. Evidence presented in argument could be: i) Testimony, which is a story or statement given by someone who has experienced something relevant to subject of debate. ii) Evidence from authority or expert, which is a statement or position by somebody who by training or experience is believed to be capable of giving reliable opinion, for instance, a doctor in a medical argument or a professor in a given subject. iii) Statistical evidence, which are figures that support a position. Statistics should be from a reliable source and must be current. 5.8 Documentation & Referencing in Academic writing This section will deal with referencing techniques, which are established conventions used in citation and documentation of sources of information. Most disciplines/subjects or institutions prefer certain documentation and referencing techniques. In academic writing, it is a standard practice to make reference to what other scholars have said about various subjects of your interest or as part of your research work as you write your assignments and term papers. You will therefore need to show what authors’/scholars’ work you have read and how these works have influenced your thinking/writing. You do this by citing and making reference to the authors and their works in an orderly manner for three reasons: a) To let the reader know whose ideas you are using b) To enable your reader to check your information c) To provide information for your reader. 5.8.1 Important terminologies in referencing and documentation a) Citation is a reference to a document. It should include all the bibliographic details needed to trace the document. Citation is done within the text. b) Footnotes are listed at the bottom of the page on which a reference or citation occurs in the text. A number is placed in the text to indicate the cited work and again at the bottom of the page in front of the footnote. Footnotes are used when only a small number of references need to be made. Page 31 of 39  c) Reference list is the list of citations (material cited) in a written work. It shows the authority on which you base statements in the text, shows how well acquainted (how widely read) you are with the subject, and is a starting point for anyone else wanting to find out about the subject. Reference writing is currently the preferred mode of documentation. d) Bibliography is a list of documents (books, articles, and papers) read for a specific essay or assignment. All these references are not necessarily included in the list of references. 5.8.2 Techniques of Documentation and Referencing There are various referencing techniques. They include: Harvard reference system, APA (American Psychology Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), Chicago style of documentation, among others. KEMU favours the use of Harvard reference system, which we shall look at below. 5.8.2.1 The Harvard Reference System a) Citing works within the text The system requires you to cite the author's surname, the year of publication, and the page reference immediately after the quoted material, e.g.: ‘Alongside this normative perspective that emphasizes the centrality of the West in the formation of modernity, there are alternative approaches to modernity’ (Kane 2003:5). No comma is needed after author’s name (not ‘Kane, 2003’). Be consistent with punctuations. For example, where a colon is used after year of publication, either put a space before the page numbers (‘Amin 2002: 65’) or not (‘Amin 2002:65’). Separate publications by different authors by semicolons (‘Amin 2002; Diaw 1994’) and the same author’s by a comma (‘Mkandawire 1999, 2002’). b) Writing references/bibliography With this system it is essential that the bibliography or references list every work cited by you in the text. Where there are two or more works by one author in the same year, distinguish them as by use of letters of the alphabet (e.g. Olukoshi 1998a, 1998b, etc.). Type the bibliography or reference list in the order: author, initials, date, title, place of publication, publisher. c) Example of Bibliography Using Harvard System Ake, C., 2001, The Feasibility of Democracy in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA. Amadiume, I., 1987, Male Daughters, Female Husbands, London: Zed Books. Ibrahim, J., ed., 1997, Expanding Democratic Space in Nigeria, Dakar: CODESRIA. Mamdani, M., 1996, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism, London: James Currey. Senghor, J.C., 1979, ‘Politics and the Functional Strategy to International Integration: Gambia in the Senegambian Integration’, unpublished PhD. Thesis, Yale University. d) Citing online works In addition to information necessary for printed works, include full URL location and the date work was last accessed, if applicable. Adeya, N., 2001, Information and Communication Technologies in Africa: A Review and Selective Annotated Bibliography. (htt p://www.inasp.org.uk/pubs/ict/index.html). 30 May 2003. If a publication is available in both print and online cite full publishing information and include: ‘Available online at [url]’. For example, Page 32 of 39 Moudileno, L., 2003, Littératures africaines francophones des années 1980 et 1990, Dakar: CODESRIA. Available online at http://www.codesria.org/Links/Publications/monographs/ Moudileno.pdf. Page 33 of 39 6 LIBRARY USER SKILLS 6.1 Introduction This section is concerned with guiding you to become an effective library user. Effective library usage is important because it is an essential part of life in education, particularly at university level, where you are required to find and acquire materials on your own, either for research or for study. 6.2 Objectives of the topic At the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Discuss the characteristics of the various types of libraries. b) Discuss the various information sources c) Discuss the organization of information sources in the library d) Explain the criteria for evaluating reading materials in the library. 6.3 Types of libraries Libraries can be divided into five main categories: a) National libraries b) Public libraries c) Special libraries d) Private libraries e) Academic libraries. a) National Libraries are also referred to as reference libraries because they are used for references. Their main function is to collect and preserve for posterity the books, periodicals and newspapers published in the country. They are formed through a law and these laws require publishers to deposit copies of all publications they produce. National libraries also purchase books published in other countries. b) Public libraries are types of libraries that are funded by the public through local authorities or government and the use of these libraries is open to all members of public. The function of these libraries is to promote a reading culture in a country’s citizens. They provide a wide range of loan services, where you can borrow reading material. They endeavor to provide reading material to the entire country, communities and they do this by providing travelling and mobile libraries even in remote areas. They also provide special facilities for the old and disabled and also organize provision of library services for hospital, jails e.t.c. Public libraries therefore build up their collection to relate to local community interests. The ideal public library should provide access to knowledge for all people in the country besides providing books. Many public libraries also provide meeting rooms for use by community groups. They should also sponsor lecturers as well as participate in adult education programmes. Page 34 of 39 c) Special libraries contain a collection of books and other materials dealing with a limited field of knowledge for a particular society, research organization, government department, or educational institution department. A special library may also be a special branch of a public library serving certain interest or occupation groups. A special library is intended to serve needs of specific users requiring detailed materials in a limited area. A library may be special in a variety of ways. i) By nature of subject it deals with. This type of library store resources on particular subject e.g. Central Bank library, Kenya Agriculture research Institute (KARI) library. ii) In terms of type of user. This type of library serves a special category of people i.e. prisoners, children, pastoral communities e.t.c. iii) By nature of material or resource found there. These libraries have special format of resources for instance video libraries, Braille, internet library, KBC, KTN, and NTV as broadcast libraries. d) Private libraries are libraries owned by individuals, clubs, and societies to which members of the public have no right of access. They may contain a variety of materials or specialized materials depending on the interests of the individuals or group. e) Academic libraries are libraries associated with educational institutions and are established to serve the needs of those in the institutions. Such libraries include university, college, polytechnics and so on. University libraries, for instance, are meant to serve academic needs of students and members of the academic staff. 6.4 Information sources Information sources are materials used as resources of information in the library, which are selected to meet the needs of users of specific libraries. 6.4.1 Types of Information Sources Information sources can be grouped into print or non-print information sources. A. Print information sources are print information sources are devised into four categories. a) Reference sources b) Periodicals c) Textbooks d) Recreational books 1. Reference sources are designed to be consulted for definite information and are meant to be referred to rather than being read as texts. Usually they are not allowed to be taken away from the library building. Reference sources include: encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, indexes, and atlases. Reference sources are divided into two that is, general reference books and quick references. 2. General reference books include research reports, including theses and dissertations; official publications such as government publications including Kenya Gazette, parliamentary reports, statistics reports, development plans and government budget estimates; bibliographies; indexes and abstracts. 3. Quick references are books that will provide you with material or direct and factual information. They provide basic and background information to a topic and are designed for consultation when you are in urgent need of a piece of information or fact. The information provided is usually in shortened form for quick reference. They are written by specialists in specified fields. Some quick reference books include: Page 35 of 39  i) Dictionaries, which may be general language dictionaries that give meaning, pronunciation, spelling, usage of meaning, trace history of words, synonyms and antonyms. They may also be subject dictionaries, which provide meanings of words as used in that particular field. ii) Encyclopedias, which are like dictionaries. Most are in a number of volumes covering all types of subjects and cover a wide range of knowledge. Others are specialized and cover specific fields of knowledge. iii) Other quick reference books include yearbooks, covering major events that occurred in the year of publication; and atlases, providing varied geographical information. 4. Periodicals These are publications that have a distinct title and published at stated intervals. They contain articles or other writings by several contributors. The intervals in which they are published could be fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, or once a year. Periodicals include: i) Journals, which are publications by a society, institution or professional body containing news, proceedings, transactions and reports of work contained in a particular field of study e.g. communication, linguistics, philosophy, political science e.t.c. ii) Magazines, which contain varied information written by various writers. They deal with general topics, and are non-professional and non-technical. Examples include Parents, Adams, Time and Newsweek magazines. iii) Newspaper, which contain recent news and may be published daily or weekly. The news items generally include politics, sports, business and advertisements among others. 6. Textbooks A textbook is book written specifically for use by those studying for examination in a particular system. Textbooks discuss subject areas in details and are the main material found in academic libraries. They include most of course texts used in the university. 7. Recreational books These are books read for leisure or entertainment and may not be meant for serious study. This includes mainly fictional works. B. Non-printed information sources These sources of information are those that are not books or period