Comps 1 Anatomy PDF

Biology and Biochemistry Year-End Review Biology Scientific Method: Forming hypotheses from observations and submitting those hypotheses to tests Parts of the Cell: Cell Membrane: made of lipids and proteins; it is a phospholipid bilayer Ribosomes: made of RNA and Protei...

Biology and Biochemistry Year-End Review Biology Scientific Method: Forming hypotheses from observations and submitting those hypotheses to tests Parts of the Cell: Cell Membrane: made of lipids and proteins; it is a phospholipid bilayer Ribosomes: made of RNA and Protein; Responsible for making proteins; located on rough endoplasmic reticulum and free in cytoplasm Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: makes lipids; does not contain ribosomes Nucleus: Where DNA is housed and where messenger RNA is transcribed from DNA template. The messenger RNA then exits the nucleus via pores in the nuclear envelope and is translated into proteins by ribosomes. Mitochondria (powerhouse of cell): Makes majority of ATP; Has its own DNA that allows for replication independent of nuclear DNA. Golgi Apparatus: packages up cell products in vesicles Peroxyzomes- detoxify Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) ATP Production: ATP is generated via process called cellular respiration, which consists of the following stages: 1. Glycolysis: occurs in the cytoplasm. Converts a glucose molecule into 2 Pyruvate molecules; 2 net ATP are created in the reaction; does not require oxygen so it is said to be anaerobic. 2. Krebs Cycle aka Citric Acid Cycle: Creates 2 ATP; Occurs in mitochondria 3. Oxidative Phosphorylation creates 34 ATP. Process of Oxidative Phosphorylation uses a set of proteins embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane to carry out the process. This group of proteins is referred to as the electron transport chain. Cyanide is so deadly because it interferes with this process and the person cannot generate enough ATP to keep the cells running. a. Both the Krebs Cycle and the Electron Transport Chain require Oxygen, so they are said to be aerobic b. Oxygen is said to be the final electron accepter in the electron transport chain. In other words, it receives the electrons from the electron transport chain and is needed to complete the reaction. Types of Particle Movement: Simple and Facilitated diffusion have substances moving along their concentration gradient from high to low concentration o Simple diffusion: Fat soluble substances are able to diffuse right across lipid bilayer of cell membrane. Facilitated diffusion: Water soluble substances require channel to facilitate their movement across fat soluble cell membrane. o i.e. Na+ Channel  Simple and Facilitated diffusion do not require ATP Active Transport: Movement from low to high concentration; against concentration gradient; Requires ATP, i.e. Sodium/Potassium pump Osmosis: Diffusion of water Remember, water is attracted to charged particles like Na+. If you put cell into hypertonic/hyperosmotic/concentrated solution, water rushes out and the cell shrivels. If you put cell in hypotonic/hypoosmotic/dilute solution, water rushes in and cell swells. Genetic: Basic Process: DNA is transcribed into RNA with help of enzyme called RNA polymerase. RNA is then translated into proteins by ribosomes. Base Pairs of DNA molecule: Guanine pairs with cytosine; adenine pairs with thymine In RNA, uracil replaces thymine. Point mutation is a random change within DNA sequence Homozygous - AA or aa. Heterozygous = Aa Genotype - The genetic code of the person such as AA Phenotype - the physical characteristic such as brown hair Mitosis vs Meiosis: Mitosis: cell division that results in 2 identical daughter cells Meiosis: cell division that results in 2 daughter cells that each have half of the genetic material of the parent cell. This only occurs in sex cells necessary for sexual reproduction. Biochemistry: Protons=positive charge; found in nucleus Neutrons=neutral charge; found in nucleus Electrons=negative charge; found in shells encircling the nucleus Periodic Table: Atomic number is number of protons Mass Number is number of protons plus number of neutrons Atomic Mass is the average of all the possible masses of atoms of that element Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons Outer electrons aka valence electrons are the most important in chemical reactions Types of Bonds: Covalent bonds: Electrons are shared; Form molecules Ionic bonds: Electrons are transferred; Form ions Macronutrients: These are organic materials, and therefore, contain carbon. Protein: Amino acids are building blocks of protein. They form peptide bonds with each other to form proteins Glycine is the simplest of the 20 amino acids, meaning it has the fewest carbons Protein Structures: o Primary = order of amino acid sequence. o Secondary=Chain bends or coils and creates alpha helix or beta pleated sheet structure. o Tertiary=Chain folds onto itself. o Quaternary = 2 or more chains interact to form larger functional proteins like enzymes. Enzymes are proteins that lower the activation energy, and therefore, speed up chemical reactions Denaturation: When proteins start unfolding due to heat, acid, etc. The amino acid chains (primary structure) remain, but the complexity of the protein structure (secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures) has been altered. Lipids: Triglycerides are made of a glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acid tails Cholesterol is a lipid and forms the backbone of steroids Carbohydrates: 3 monosaccharides = glucose, fructose, and galactose 3 Disaccharides = sucrose (glucose + fructose), Maltose (glucose + glucose), Lactose (glucose + galactose) Isomer-Molecule with the same number and types of atoms but the atoms are arranged differently (different shape); i.e. Fructose is an isomer of glucose. Acid/Base: Acids are proton/H+ donors(release H+ ions into solution); bases are proton/H+ acceptors(tie up H+ ions) When an acid and base are combined, they form salt and water and are said to be neutralized (called neutralization reaction) Cardiovascular/Respiratory System: Heart Location: Mediastinum Sounds o S1-Closing of the: A/V Valves (tricuspid and mitral valves (bicuspid) o S2-Closing of the: Semilunar valves (Aortic and pulmonary valves) Phases of the Heart: Systole - Contraction phase Diastole - Relaxation phase or filling phase Cardiac Cycle: (Atrial Systole/Ventricular Diastole) à S1 (Atrial Diastole/Ventricular Systole) à S2 Frank Starling Law: The force of cardiac muscle contraction is proportional to the degree of muscle stretch after the filling phase. Degree of stretch can be referred to as the preload. Conduction system of the Heart: Depolarization starts with: o the pacemaker which is the SA Nodeà o Spreads through the contractile fibers of atria à o then slows down in A/V node à o Bundle of His à o Left and Right bundle branches à o moves fastest through the Purkinje fibers à o finally spreads through contractile fibers of the ventricles. Heart has auto rhythmicity - Heart has pacemaker that sets its own rhythm independent of Brain and spinal cord. EKG: P wave - SA node/Atrial depolarization QRS complex - Purkinje/Ventricular depolarization T wave - Repolarization of ventricles Systemic Circulation: Order of flow: Left Ventricle à Aorta à Arteries à Arterioles à Capillariesà à Venules àVeins à Vena Cavasà Right Atrium. No capillaries in lens of eye; Venous system is considered a reservoir for blood; Remember arteries are high pressure, veins low pressure. Major arteries: Branches off ascending aorta: o Left and right coronary arteries-take blood to heart muscle Branches off arch of aorta: o 1. Brachiocephalic trunk (artery) (will split into right subclavian and right common carotid arteries) o 2. Left common carotid artery o 3. Left subclavian artery 4 arteries that take blood to the brain: o Left and right vertebral arteries which will merge into 1 that will be called Basilar artery Left and right internal carotid arteries Blood Pressure: Pressure in arterial system Average - Less than 120 (systolic pressure)/ less than 80 (diastolic pressure) Pulse Pressure - Difference between systolic and diastolic pressure.  o i.e. 120-80=40 Blood: Where are all blood cells produced? o Red Bone Marrow; Found in Epiphysis of long bones Erythrocytes: RBCs: Function: Transport Oxygen and some CO2. Hemoglobin is the molecule that O2 and CO2 attach to. Iron needed to make hemoglobin. Shape: Biconcave Hormone that controls production: o Erythropoietin (Made by kidneys)àErythropoiesis(making of RBCs) in red bone marrow Leukocytes: WBCs Function: o Immunity….protect you from foreign antigens/pathogens, etc Neutrophils: o First responders; Most abundant; engage in phagocytosis Eosinophils: o Most active in allergies/parasitic invasions Basophils: o Make histamine (chemical that causes vasodilation and triggers inflammatory response) Macrophages: o Biggest of White Blood Cells, engage in phagocytosis; antigen-presenting cells; It present to the T-Helper cell, which then activates immune response Lymphocytes: o Include: § 1. T cells § 2. B cells o These are the cells of acquired or adaptive immunity: You need that first exposure, but once exposed, you develop very specific, efficient immune response to invader. Humoral Immunity: o When exposed to pathogen, B cells mature into plasma cells, which make immunoglobulins (aka antibodies) Cell-Mediated Immunity: o Cytotoxic T cells or T killer cells directly attacking and killing infected or diseased body cells. Thrombocytes: o Platelets…….initiate coagulation cascade to clot the blood/stop bleeding Respiratory System: Order of Parts: External Nose: Internal Nose: Pharynx: area posterior to nose and mouth; food and air passes through here. Larynx: Air only; Vocal cords located here; Epiglottis covers the larynx to prevent food from entering Trachea: Bronchi (Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary): Bronchioles: Alveoli: Air sacs where gas exchange occurs; Surrounded by capillaries. What is the name of the serous membrane covering the lung? o Answer: Pleural membrane or pleura. Remember there are 2 layers: § 1. Visceral § 2. Parietal How many lobes does the right lung have? o Answer: Right Lung : 3 , Left Lung: 2 What is the function of pulmonary surfactant? o Answer: Decreases surface tension in alveoli to prevent alveoli from collapsing; Increases lung compliance Internal vs External Respiration: o External - gas exchange between atmosphere and blood; occurs in alveoli o Internal - gas exchange between blood and body cells Mechanism of external respiration: o Medulla oblongata has a group of neurons referred to as the respiratory center, which regulates respiratory rate and depth. o Fires every 5 seconds or so and send action potential down spinal cord to C3, C4, and C5 spinal cord levels. o Action potentials then trigger the axons that make up phrenic nerve to fire and phrenic nerve stimulates diaphragm to contract What are the 3 ways we transport CO2 in the blood? o Answer: § Small portion dissolved in plasma § Moderate portion carried on hemoglobin molecule § 70% (majority) is converted into HCO3: (bicarbonate ion). Used to buffer H+ (buffer acidity) Digestive System: Cavity: Peritoneal cavity or that the GI organs are within peritoneal membrane. o Kidneys are retroperitoneal. o Greater Omentum - fatty membrane covering stomach down to intestines. Mouth: o Teeth: Outer part = enamel o connective tissue on inside of teeth = dentin Enzyme in the Saliva - Amylase in saliva, begins carb digestion Pharynx: Food and air pass thru Esophagus: Posterior to trachea Stomach: Below diaphragm o Parietal cells Make: 1. HCL (protein denaturation) 2. Intrinsic factor (needed to absorb Vitamin B12 - eventually absorbed in ileum of SI) Chief cells: o Make pepsinogen/pepsin (active form) o Breaks peptide bonds à In other words à protein digestion § breaking proteins down to amino acids. Pyloric Sphincter - Distal end of Stomach. Controls Stomach emptying into Small Intestine Small Intestine: Sections: Duodenum, Jejunum, ileum Lined by Villi/Microvilli o Purpose: Increase surface area for better digestion and absorption (SI is primary site for absorption) Accessory Organs that secrete into duodenum: o Liver: Makes bile for emulsifying lipids; Stores glycogen(stored glucose). Glycogen also stored in muscles. Makes plasma proteins such as albumin, clotting factors, angiotensinogen, complement proteins. Also converts ammonia(by- product of protein metabolism) into urea. o Gall Bladder: Stores, concentrates, and releases bile into duodenum via common bile duct. o Pancreas: Makes amylase (carbs), lipase(lipids), and Trypsin(proteins) Large Intestine: Primary functions: Eliminate waste(feces), Absorption of water; Bacteria help extract vitamins B and Vitamin k. Fermenting of indigestible carbs such as cellulose leads to gas production Sections: Cecum (appendix attached to this) à Ascending colon à Transverse à Descending colon à Sigmoid Colon à Rectum à Anus.  Blood Flow to and from GI Oxygenated blood comes from superior and inferior mesenteric arteries. (from aorta to GI organs) All blood leaving GI organs goes through hepatic portal vein and is taken to Liver. Endocrine Review Paracrine vs Exocrine vs Endocrine secretions: Endo: Secretes hormones into bloodstream Exo: Secretes to outside of body; includes secretions into hollow organs i.e. enzymes, saliva, mucus, bile, tears Paracrine: Acts locally Hypothalamus: Located in brain. o Part endocrine part nervous system. o Regulates thirst, hunger, body temp, plays role in emotions, master gland of endocrine system. o Names of hormones including releasing and inhibiting hormones. § I.e. Thyroid releasing hormone Posterior Pituitary Stores hormones and releases them into bloodstream. Does not make hormones. Hypothalamus makes ADH and oxytocin. o 1. Anti-Diuretic Hormone: Increases reabsorption of H2O in collecting ducts of nephron (kidneys). ADH released when body fluids are too concentrated o 2. Oxytocin: Promotes delivery of fetus by causing uterine contractions, ejection of breast milk, cuddling hormone Anterior Pituitary Follicle stimulating Hormone: Promotes making/maturation of sperm in testes and oocytes in ovaries Luteinizing H: Surges on Day 14 of female reproductive cycle to trigger ovulation Adrenocorticotropic H(ACTH): Tells adrenal glands to make cortisol Thyroid Stimulating H: Tells thyroid to make thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) Prolactin: Promotes lactation/making of breast milk Growth H: Most GH is converted to insulin-like growth factor 1 by liver and then many tissues respond to that. Pineal gland Located in diencephalon of brain o Melatonin regulates sleep/wake cycles or circadian rhythm o Pancreas Located posterior to stomach. Head of pancreas nestled in curvature of duodenum and tail goes towards spleen. Hormones made in Islets of Langerhans Insulin: Lowers blood sugar (i.e. after eating) by promoting cellular utilization of glucose, promotes glycogenesis (making of glycogen), promotes adipose tissue to convert glucose to fat (lipogenesis). Glycogen: stored glucose. Stored in the liver and muscles. o Promotes: § glycogenesis and lipogenesis Glucagon: Raises blood sugar during starvation situation. o Promotes: § glycogenolysis(breakdown of glycogen) § lipolysis (Breakdown of fat) § gluconeogenesis(Creation of new glucose from non-glucose sources i.e. converting fat or amino acids into glucose Thyroid: Thyroid Hormone (T3 and T4): Regulates metabolic rate-the rate your cells convert food energy into chemical energy that the cell can utilize (ATP). Calcitonin: Promotes uptake of calcium by bone. Lowers blood calcium. (Tones the bones) Parathyroid (4 little glands on posterior side of thyroid) Parathyroid Hormone: Stimulates bone breakdown to raise blood calcium. Adrenal Glands Above kidneys Medulla: o Epinephrine: Works in conjunction with sympathetic NS. Fight or flight. Cortex: o Glucocorticoids: § i.e. Cortisol: Raises blood sugar as part of a stress response o Mineralocorticoid: § i.e. Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ in collecting ducts of nephron (done in response to drop in blood volume/blood pressure) o Androgens: § DHEA-can be used to make sex hormones. i.e. testosterone Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Cycle: Function: Helps increase blood volume/ raise blood pressure. 1. Kidneys secrete renin, which converts angiotensinogen into Angiotensin I, which then goes to the lungs where ACE (Angiotensin converting enzyme) converts it to Angiotensin 2. Functions of angiotensin 2 are to stimulate secretion of Aldosterone and ADH, cause constriction of arterioles, and to stimulate thirst.  Nervous System Functional Unit of Nervous System: Neuron (cell that carries out the nervous system’s primary actions) 3 parts: o 1. Cell Body o 2. Dendrites: receptive part of cell. Respond to incoming signals. o 3. Axon: 1 long, slender axon. Sends action potentials away to another tissue. Have synaptic vesicles at end, which release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft. How does neuron conduct action potential? Depolarization: o Na+ o Ca++ influx Repolarization: o K+ Efflux Neuron vs Nerve vs Tract vs Ganglion: Nerve: Bundle of axons (can be combo of motor and sensory) in PNS. o i.e. sciatic nerve, radial nerve Tract: Bundle of axons in CNS (brain and spinal cord) o i.e. lateral spinothalamic tract Ganglion: Cluster of cell bodies in peripheral nervous system o i.e. Dorsal root ganglion (sensory input passes through these) Neuroglia: 6 types Supporting cell of nervous system. Support neurons. Protect, nourish, remove debris from neurons. 1. Astrocytes: Form blood/brain barrier 2. Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin in CNS 3. Schwann Cells: Form myelin in PNS 4. Microglia: 5. Ependymal Cells: 6. Satellite cells: Parts of the brain: 1. Cerebrum 2 hemispheres breaks down to 4 lobes: i. 1. Frontal ii. 2. Temporal iii. 3. Parietal iv. 4. Occipital visual cortex. Wernicke’s area vs Broca’s area: Broca’s: Speech production (Coming up with the proper words and saying them) (injury causes expressive aphasia), Wernicke’s is understanding of written and spoken language (injury causes fluent aphasia) 2. Cerebellum: Responsible for Coordination, Equilibrium, and Proprioception Coordination of skilled muscular activity (muscle memory). o Proprioception: awareness of location of body parts in relation to each other and surrounding space. 3. Diencephalon: Contains thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland. 4. Brainstem: Organ regulation (involuntary-autonomic nervous system) o 3 parts: i. 1. Midbrain (superior) ii. 2. Pons iii. Medulla Oblongata (inferior) iv. Pons/MO have a lot of centers (clusters of cell bodies) that regulate organ activity. i.e. respiratory center, cardiac center, vasomotor center Motor pathway: Primary Motor Cortexà Pyramids of Medulla Oblongata (axons cross or decussate in pyramids)à Down spinal cord via Corticospinal/Pyramidal Tracts à Anterior/Ventral Hornà Anterior/Ventral Rootà Spinal Nerveà Peripheral Nerveà Muscle Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine Sensory pathway: Peripheral Receptor à Peripheral Nerve à Spinal Nerve à Posterior/Dorsal Root including Dorsal Root Ganglion à Posterior/Dorsal Horn à Up spinal cord via Spinothalamic Tract à Thalamus(Relay station) à Somatosensory Cortex Where do tracts cross? o Answer: Corticospinal Tracts cross/decussate in the Pyramids of Medulla Oblongata o Lateral Spinothalamic Tract (Pain and Temperature) cross at: § Answer: spinal cord level o Entire CNS (brain and spinal cord) is wrapped by connective tissue protective layer known as: § Answer: Meninges 3 Layers: P - Pia Matar (deepest) A - Arachnoid Matar D - Dura Matar (Most superficial; thickest, toughest) CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid) formed by:  o Answer: Choroid plexus (capillaries) in ventricles (hollow areas) of brain. CSF will circulate through ventricles and into subarachnoid space in meninges. CSF reabsorbed by: o Answer: Arachnoid villi Peripheral Nerves How do we name Spinal Nerves? In cervical region, nerve is above corresponding vertebra (i.e. C1 nerve is above C1 Vertebra.; In thoracic and lumbar spine, nerve is below corresponding vertebra. o i.e. Nerve between C1/C2: § C2 Dermatome: Area of sensation that corresponds to 1 spinal nerve level § Nerve between C7/T1: C8 § Nerve between T2/T3: T2 Cranial Nerves: 1. Olfactory: Sense of smell 2. Optic: Sense of vision. a. Light enters eye through pupil, is focused by the lens, light hits the retina in the back of the eye(photoreceptor), which will trigger action potential along CN 2. Ultimately, occipital lobe is where vision occurs 3. Oculomotor: Moves eye every other direction, raises eyelid, and constrict pupil. 4. Trochlear: Moves eye down and in. 5. Trigeminal: Facial sensation, Motor for mastication (chewing) 6. Abducens: Moves eyeball laterally 7. Facial: Motor for face (expression), sensory for taste on anterior 2/3 of tongue 8. Vestibulocochlear: Hearing and equilibrium (inner ear) 9. Glossopharyngeal: Motor for swallowing and sensory for taste on posterior 1/3 of tongue 10. Vagus: Longest cranial nerve in body. Parasympathetic control of organs. a. I.E.: Slow Heart Rate, promote digestive activity/peristalsis. 11. Accessory: Controls SCM and trapezius (shrug shoulder, turn head) 12. Hypoglossal: Movement of tongue Pneumonic: On Occasion Our Trusty Truck Acts Funny, Very Good Vehicle Anyhow. Autonomic Nervous System Fight or Flight Rest and Digest Body Part Sympathetic Parasympathetic Pupil of Eyes Dilate Constrict Heart Rate/Force Increase Decrease Blood Vessel Diameter Constricts(raises bp) Dilates(lowers bp) Bronchiole Diameter Dilates Constricts Peristalsis, Digestion, Bowel Suppress Promote Movements, Urination  Reproductive System Male Primary Function: Spermatogenesis(making of sperm) Takes place in the Testes (in seminiferous tubules) Sperm matures in the Epididymis Location: o posterior side of testes Maturation consists of: o Growth of tail for swimming and making of enzymes to penetrate oocyte(egg). Tube that carries sperm to ampulla (pouch posterior to UB where sperm is stored): o Vas (ductus) deferens Sperm Released into Prostatic urethra (section of urethra within prostate) 3 glands that make seminal fluid: o 1. Seminal vesicles (posterior side of UB, right next to ampulla) o 2. Prostate (inferior to UB within pelvic cavity) o 3. Cowper’s glands (inferior to prostate) Parasympathetic Nervous System Stimulates: o penile arteriole dilation which leads to erection. Sympathetic Nervous System Stimulates: o Ejaculation Female Primary Function: Oogenesis (making of oocytes) o Takes place in the Ovaries (spec in ovarian follicles) Each month, 1 follicle matures beyond the others. It is now called a Graafian follicle o Development of this follicle is stimulated by Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) On Day 14 a women’s cycle, this follicle will ovulate. o This is triggered by surge in Luteinizing hormone (LH) o Empty follicle is now called Corpus Luteum Ovulated egg travels down Fallopian tubes to the uterus o Location of uterus: § Superior/posterior to Urinary Bladder, anterior to rectum. During delivery, Cervix (neck of the uterus, projects into vaginal canal) dilates. Female Reproductive Cycle Day 1-5ish: Menstrual phase (Day 1 is first day of bleeding), All reproductive related hormones are at lowest levels except Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). Day 5-14: Preovulatory phase, Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and estrogen (starts rebuilding uterine lining) will be elevated, Luteinizing hormone (FH) will start to rise. Day 14: Surge in Luteinizing hormone (FH), triggers ovulation Day 14-28:Post ovulatory phase or luteal phase; Estrogen and progesterone will be elevated to prepare for potential pregnancy. If pregnancy occurs, they stay elevated. If not, those hormones drop and trigger next menstrual cycle.  Muscle and Bone Review 4 Types of Tissue: o Epithelial Tissues (Covering, lining, secreting) o Connective Tissues (includes bone, cartilage, fat, and blood) o Muscular Tissues o Nervous Tissues Integumentary System Includes: o Skin, Hair, Nails, Sweat glands. § Skin, Hair, and Nails mostly composed of the protein Keratin Anatomical Position: o Forward standing: Forearms supinated Directions: o I.E. § proximal vs distal § Dorsal vs Ventral Muscle Actions: o Abduction vs Adduction o Flexion vs Extension o Internal Rotation vs External Rotation o Pronation vs Supination o Eversion vs Inversion o Dorsiflexion vs Plantarflexion Skull and Face: Boney Landmarks: Know what bones articulate with what. o I.E.: § Parietal bone articulates occipital, temporal, and frontal bones Frontal and temporal do not articulate Know key boney landmarks and what bone they are found on: o I.E.: § Temporal bone landmarks: Mastoid process, zygomatic process, styloid process, external auditory meatus What 2 bones make up the hard palate? o Answer: Palatine and Maxilla 4 sinuses: o Frontal o Ethmoid o Maxillary o Sphenoid Muscles: Muscles of Mastication: o Buccinator o Internal Pterygoid o Temporalis o External pterygoid o Masseter Spine: Parts of typical vertebra: Body is the most anterior portion of vertebra, Posterior there is 1 spinous process, laterally 2 transverse processes Vertebra get larger as you move down. So lumbar vertebra is larger than cervical What makes C1 and C2 different? o C1: Atlas - No body and no spinous process o C2: Axis (contains Dens or odontoid process) o Dens forms a pivot joint with C1 Lordotic vs Kyphotic Curve: Lumbar and cervical regions have lordotic curve; thoracic and sacral regions have kyphotic curve Ribs Rib 1-7 : True ribs(connect directly to sternum) Rib 8-10 : False ribs(connect indirectly to sternum via cartilage) Rib 11-12 : Floating ribs Muscles that move the Spine: Sternocleidomastoid (SCM): o Sternum, Clavicle, Mastoid process; Rotation to opposite side(contralateral), Flexion and lateral flexion Rectus abdominis: o Flexion of spine Erector Spinae Group (Illiocostalis, Longissimus, Spinalis): o Extension of spine Internal and External Obliques: o Lateral flexion and rotation of spine Quadratus Lumborum: o Lateral flexion of spine Upper extremity Landmarks of scapula: o Spine of scapula, inferior and superior angles, Acromion process, Coracoid process, Glenoid fossa(Glenohumeral joint) Landmarks of humerus: o Greater and Lesser tubercle o Medial and Lateral Epicondyle  Landmarks on radius: o Styloid Process o Head of Radius Landmarks on the ulna: o Styloid Process; Head of Ulna; Olecranon Process Carpals: o Scaphoid o Lunate o Triquetrum o Pisiform Lateral to Medial, Proximal to distal o Trapezium o Trapezoid o Capitate o Hamate Pneumonic: Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can’t Handle Base (Proximal) vs head (distal) of metacarpals/metatarsals/phalanges: Hallicus(Big toe) vs Pollicis(thumb): Muscles that Move Scapula: Elevate: o Upper Trapezius o Levator scapulae Depress: o Lower Trapezius Protract: o Pectoralis Minor (attaches to coracoid process of scapula along with Long head of biceps and coracobrachialis muscles) Retract: o Rhomboids (Deep to traps) o Middle Trapezius Muscles that move the shoulder joint: Deltoid: o Anterior Deltoid: Flexion of shoulder; internal or medial rotation of shoulder o Middle Deltoid: Abduction of shoulder o Posterior Deltoid: Extension of shoulder; external or lateral rotation of shoulder Pectoralis Major: adduction of humerus/shoulder; internal/medial rotation Latissimus Dorsi: Adduction, internal/medial rotation, extension. Rotator Cuff Muscles: o Supraspinatus: Abduct shoulder o Infraspinatus: Externally rotate shoulder o Teres minor: Externally rotate shoulder o Subscapularis: Internally rotate shoulder Muscles that move elbow joint: Bicep: Supination of forearm, Flexion of elbow, Flexion of shoulder Triceps: Extension of shoulder and elbow Pronator Teres: Pronating forearm Muscles that move the wrist and fingers: Flexor Group: o Flexor Carpi Radialis, Palmaris Longus, Flexor Carpi Ulnaris: o Flexor Digitorum: Flex wrist and fingers All muscles on flexor side(including pronator teres) all originate on medial epicondyle of humerus Extensor Group: o Extensor Carpi Radialis longus and brevis, Extensor Carpi Ulnaris: o Extensor Digitorum: All originate on lateral epicondyle of humerus Nerves of Upper Extremity: Radial: Cover back of arm and forearm(SJ channel) Median: Ventral side Fingers 1-3 and up from there(Lung/LI channels) Ulnar: Ventral side, fingers 4-5 and up from there (Heart/SI channels) Lower Extremity Pelvis: o Pelvis made from 3 bones: § Ilium, Ischium, Pubis o Landmarks: § Iliac Crest, ASIS, PSIS, AIIS, PIIS, Pubic Symphysis (Cartilaginous joint), Obturator Foramen(made of ischium and pubic bones), Acetabulum (Depression on ilium where head of femur connects) Landmarks on Femur: o Greater and Lesser Trochanter, Medial and Lateral Epicondyle Landmarks on Tibia: o Tibial Tuberosity(where quadricep muscles insert), Medial Malleolus Landmarks on Fibula: o Head of Fibula (GB 34 is just below this), Lateral Malleolus Tarsal Bones: Talus, Calcaneus, Navicular, Cuboid, Cuneiforms (Medial, Middle, and Lateral) Muscles the move the hip joint: Psoas, Illiacus, Rectus Femoris: o Flexion of hip Hamstrings (Biceps Femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus): o Extend the hip Gluteus Maximus:  o Extends, abducts, and laterally rotates the hip Muscles that move the knee: Quadriceps (Rectus Femoris, Vastus Medialis, Vastus Lateralis, Vastus Intermedius): o Extend the knee Hamstrings: o Flexion of knee Muscles that move the ankle: Gastrocnemius: o Plantarflexion Soleus: o Deep to gastroc o Plantarflexion Tibialis Anterior: o Dorsiflexion o Inversion of ankle Peroneus longus and brevis: o Eversion of ankle Nerves of Lower Extremity Femoral: o Anterior thigh, sensory to front of thigh, controls quads Sciatic: o Longest/thickest nerve in body o Runs down back of leg so carries sensation on back of leg and controls hamstrings, calves, etc. 3 TYPES OF MUSCLES Skeletal Cardiac Smooth Striated Striated Non-Striated Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary Actin Actin Actin Myosin Myosin Myosin Tropomyosin Tropomyosin Tropomyosin Troponin(Binds to Ca+) Troponin(Binds to calcium) Calmodulin (Binds to calcium)  Urinary System Location of Kidney: o Retroperitoneal o Level with and posterior to stomach and pancreas. o Level with T12 to L3 The Nephron: o Functional units (About 2.2 million) of urinary system (filters nitrogenous waste from blood) o Form urine o Remove excess water and electrolytes. o Renal arteries take blood into kidneys à Renal veins take blood away from kidneys à Afferent arterioles take blood into individual nephrons (specifically into individual glomeruli) à Efferent arterioles take blood out of individual nephrons (specifically away from individual glomeruli) à Glomerulus: (Ball of capillaries that filter substances out of blood and into Bowman’s capsule.) o Then filtrate passes through Proximal convoluted tubule à Loop of Henle à Distal convoluted tubule à Collecting duct. Most water, ions will be reabsorbed. o RBCs, WBCs, Platelets, Plasma proteins (albumin) do not filter out of the glomerulus. These items are too big to filter out. They remain in the blood and should not be in the urine. What Happens in each part: Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): o 65% of water, ions, bicarbonate, H+ is reabsorbed 100% of glucose and amino acids will be reabsorbed (so this means glucose and amino acids should not be in urine) Descending Loop of Henle: o Water reabsorption only Ascending Loop of Henle/Early DCT: o Solute(i.e. sodium) reabsorption only Late DCT/Collecting Duct: o Fine tuning. Reabsorption occurs according to bodily needs What hormones are important here? o Answer: ADH causes increased water reabsorption in late DCT/Collecting duct Aldosterone causes increased sodium reabsorption in late DCT/collecting duct Where Does Urine Go after Collecting duct? o Answer: Urine will go into renal pelvis then into ureters then to UB and finally out urethra