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Unit 1: How English teaching methods have evolved through the years while learning how they could be of use for our lessons. Cognitivism and constructivism 1.2.1. Cognitivism According to this perspective, learning occurs, and has to be studied, not only taking into account the teacher’s performan...

Unit 1: How English teaching methods have evolved through the years while learning how they could be of use for our lessons. Cognitivism and constructivism 1.2.1. Cognitivism According to this perspective, learning occurs, and has to be studied, not only taking into account the teacher’s performance in class and the materials available (input) and the learner’s performance and response to stimuli (output), but mainly what happens inside the learner’s brain (cognitive development). - In words of Jonnasen “Learning is concerned not so much with what learners do but with what they know and how they como to acquire it” - The learner receives a more important, if not crucial, role in the learning process 1.2.2. Behaviourism Definition: “Focuses on the importance of the consequences of those performances and contends that responses that are followed by reinforcement are more likely to recur in the future. No attempt is made to to determine the structure of a student’s knowledge nor to asses which mental processes it is necessary for them to use. The learner is characterized as being reactive to conditions in the environment as opposed to taking and active role in discovering the environment” (Ertmer and Newby, 2013) - In other words, the learner is presented with a stimulus, for example, a flashcard of an animal is shown and they have to say the right name. The primary concern here is stimulating the right response, as much as knowing how the association between the stimulus and the response is made, strengthened, and maintained. 1.2.3. Constructivism Definition: “Constructivists do not deny the existence of the real world but contend that what we know of the world stems from our own interpretations of our experiences. Humans create meaning as opposed to acquiring it. Since there are many possible meanings to glean from any experience, we cannot achieve a predetermined, correct meaning. Learners do not transfer knowledge from the external world into their memories; rather, they build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions. Thus, the internal representation of knowledge is constantly open to change; there is not an objective reality that learners strive to know”. 1.2.4. Overview Cognitivism ● Focused on the processing of information (internal) ● Learner: proactive ● Type of learning: Higher-level reasoning and information processing with an emphasis on memory and organization ● Example: Imagine you're teaching your students to solve complex math problems. Here, they would focus on a deep understanding of the concepts, organizing information, and advanced reasoning to arrive at a solution. ○ Mind maps, for example require to analyze and organize information ○ Open ended questions that encourage critical thinking. Behaviourism: ● Focused on what the learner does (external) ● Learner: reactive ● Type of learning: basic definition and explanation of concepts, generalization and memory ● Example: It could be the traditional method of teaching vocabulary where a word is presented, its definition is given, and students are asked to repeat. Here, the emphasis is on repetition and memorization. ○ Whenever you give a reward in any shape it’s likely to be behaviorism Constructivism: ● Focused on how the learner processes new information and applies it (internal-external) ● Learner: proactive ● Type of learning: higher-level problem solving and critical analysis with and emphasis on real scenarios. ● Example: Imagine you're teaching history through a project where students research a specific time period. Here, students not only memorize facts but also actively apply knowledge, relating it to real situations and constructing their understanding. ○ they work together to achieve new knowledge Interdisciplinary fields in linguistics Introduction: An interdisciplinary field results from the combination of two or more academic fields for a certain purpose. In the case of linguistics, some examples would be sociolinguistics (sociology+linguistics). Those combinations usually happen due to the indefinite boundaries between different disciplines. - Neurolinguistics: It's the science which studies the parts of the brain directly related to the development and production of language. - Modern techniques, which are non-invasive, allow neurolinguistics to observe the brain in action. There are techniques which allow scientists to observe the brain’s reaction to input and its activity when processing and producing output. These techniques are based on the identification of which brain areas are functioning at a certain moment through the observation of the magnetic fields that this activity produces or through the observation of the blood moving to certain areas in response to the need of oxygen. - Studies dyslexia for example Psycholinguistics: An interdisciplinary field which studies, together with other fields like psychology, linguistics, neurolinguistics, etc.., aspects of the language related to brain activity like L1 acquisition, language comprehension, processing and production, and L2 acquisition. In early stages, these studies were carried out from educational (methods) or philosophical (approaches) points of view. Nowadays, psycholinguistics can go further in its investigations thanks to improvements in brain studying techniques used by other disciplines such as neuroscience, biology and particularly neurolinguistics. - Note: neurolinguistics looks at the neural basis of language in the brain, while psycholinguistics explores the psychological processes involved in language use. Let me know if you want more details or have other questions - - From intention to articulation - Modeling and remodeling writing- Hayes Metalinguistics: In order to understand this concept, first we must understand the prefix ‘meta-‘. Originally, it was an old Greek word meaning ‘what is beyond’, but it was misunderstood and now its meaning has changed to ‘x about x’. For example, ‘metadata’ means ‘data about data’. In the case of metalinguistics, the concept means using linguistics to talk about linguistics; in order to do so, it uses ‘metalanguage’, this is, ‘language about language’ with words like ‘morpheme’, ‘syntax’, ‘morphology’, ‘phoneme’, etc. - - Language Analysis (lexis, grammar, etc) - Language Awareness (change in context) - Language Functions (convey info, complain) - Language Development (through reflection) Pragmatics: As we know, the meaning of a sentence is not only determined by semantics but also by context. And this is pragmatics’ field of study, the ways in which context and also previous knowledge, amongst other factors, influence, determine and contribute to meaning. - Pragmatics sets the difference between a sentence, which is an abstract linguistic entity, and an utterance, which has a complete meaning because context, speaker’s intent, etc. are taken into account. For example, in the sentence ‘Have you got a light?’, if we do not have previous knowledge (this sentence is used to ask for a lighter in order to smoke a cigarette), if we do not know the context (the person asking has a cigarette in his mouth) and the speaker’s intent (lighting a cigarette), we will understand a completely different thing, that is, we will not get the true meaning of the utterance. - One of the most important theories within the pragmatics field is the cooperative principle, also known as Grice’s maxims, which, according to its author, Paul Grice, must be fulfilled in order to make the best communication possible - Maxim of quality: (super maxim) try to make your contribution one that is true - - Sub: Do not say what you believe to be false - Sub: Do not say that for which you lack evidence Maxim of quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is required. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. - Maxim of relation: Be relevant - Maxim of manner: Supermaxim: Be perspicuous. - - Sub: Avoid obscurity of expression - Sub: Avoid ambiguity (context is necessary) - Sub: Be brief - Sub: Be orderly Sociolinguistics: Is the field which studies the influence that society has on language. Those aspects studied by sociolinguistics and which influence language are context, how language is used, cultural norms, etc. Sociolinguists are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning. Discursive Communicative competence: This approach rose to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, as the advent of the European Common Market led to European migration, and consequently there were a large number of people who needed to learn a foreign language for work or for personal reasons. At the same time, children were increasingly able to learn foreign languages in school. - It is the basis for Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study. This approach rose to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, as the advent of the European Common Market led to European migration, and consequently there were a large number of people who needed to learn a foreign language for work or for personal reasons. At the same time, children were increasingly able to learn foreign languages in school. 1.4.2. Components 1. Communicative competence - The four language skills and their learning in order to achieve language knowledge which is apt for basic communication. - Oral comprehension (listening) - Oral production (speaking) - Written comprehension (reading) - Written production (writing) 2. Digital competence: - Being able to interact with new text formats (digital genres), new ways of interaction between the reader and the text, which imply a high level of cognitive and metacognitive development and the proposal of new activities, as the development of new learning competencies linked to digital environments. 3. Discursive competence: - Ability to explore the use of the language appropriately in a specific context and to build, interpret and use generic resources in order to achieve the objectives of the community in which one intends to act. 4. Intercultural competence - Sociocultural and cross-cultural knowledge, aiming to the development of cultural mediation competence 5. Linguistic competence - Basic elements of communication (phonology, grammar and vocabulary) 6. Pragmatic competence - Illocutionary and sociolinguistic competences, speech acts, cooperative principles, relevance theory and courtesy theory - Illocutionary competence: knowledge needed to transmit and understand the communicative attempt when performing and interpreting speech acts and linguistic functions - Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge of the characteristics of context which determine which statements are appropriate in certain situations. 7. Strategic competence - Plans established consciously in order to face a difficulty, which lead to adopt a specific attitude regarding their learning process. - Communicative strategies: verbal and non-verbal mechanisms used to avoid communicative problems. - Cognitive strategies: linked to specific learning tasks (such as repetition for memorization, terms classification, context-based meaning prediction, taking notes, etc.). - Metacognitive strategies: they must help the learner to develop a critical attitude towards their own learning. That attitude implies the development of abilities such as planning, reflecting, follow-up and assessment of their own learning. - Socio-affective strategies: linked to mediation and social transaction with other people, such as cooperative or collaborative work Linguistic registers 1.5.1. Introduction “A register is a variety of language used for a specific purpose with a group of language characteristics whose boundaries are usually defined by the context in which that language is used. The characteristics of a register include its lexis, syntax, and rhetorical or discourse features”. Strother (1995). 1.5.2. Classification We are going to focus on two of the ways in which registers can be classified. The first one is in terms of use according to ISO (2009) and the second one in terms of formality according to Joos (1961). ISO (2009) classifies different registers depending on their use as follows (alphabetical order): ● Bench-level register. ● Dialect register. ● Facetious register. ● Formal register. ● In-house register. ● Ironic register. ● Neutral register. ● Slang register. ● Taboo register. ● Technical register. ● Vulgar register. Joos (1961) classifies registers in terms of formality: ● Frozen: it does not change. The best examples could be religious books like the Bible or the Torah, whose quotations always remain the same and may include archaisms. ● Formal: used in formal situations like political speeches in the UN. 16 ● Consultative: a little less formal; interruptions are allowed. An example of this register is the type of language used in a teacher-learner conversation. ● Casual: it is the register used when speaking with friends. ● Intimate: the one used with family and close friends. In conclusion, the term ‘register’ refers to the different kinds of language used in every situation. These situations are determined by several factors, the most important of which are the degree of formality, the social class, the place and the field within which the speech is produced. It is essential for a learner to acquire proficiency in speaking, listening, writing and reading, and not less important to know which register to use on every occasion. English as the lingua franca of the knowledge of society 1.6.1. Introduction In this chapter we will attempt to explain why English has become the lingua franca on the ‘knowledge society’. It is an important issue in the sense that all of us are influenced by this fact and the situation is not likely to change. Nevertheless, the lingua franca has not always been English; in old times it was Greek, then Latin, and many centuries later French, until recent decades. 1.6.2. Lingua franca Definition: The meaning of this term, which originally was ‘the languages spoken by the people coming from the west’, has evolved to its current meaning, which is, according to Oxford Living Dictionary ‘a language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different’. 1.6.3. Knowledge society We are perhaps more accustomed to hearing the term ‘information society’, but it is becoming obsolete, since it only refers to the fact that there is the possibility of interchanging information. The term ‘knowledge society’ is more updated and reflects more accurately what society is like nowadays. It refers to the capacity of creating and spreading knowledge that humanity has at present thanks to information sharing tools like social media. The problem is that not all information sharing is legal or equal; taking this into account, UNESCO (2005) has proposed the following principles in order to solve the problem: • Cultural diversity. • Equal access to education. • Universal access to information (in the public domain). • Freedom of speech. Why is English our lingua franca now? - It all started with the expansion of the British Empire all over the world, which enabled the English language to be spoken in almost every continent. - The switch from French to English as the lingua franca began in World War II, but there was a diplomatic event in 1919 which set a precedent. The Versailles peace treaty was signed in French as was usual in all diplomatic relationships, but also in English. After World War II, both the USA and the Commonwealth played leading roles in the formation of the United Nations and this led to the adoption of English as the lingua franca in politics and diplomacy. 1.7. ANGLO-SAXON CULTURE AND ITS IMPACT ON NOWADAYS’ SOCIETY - The presence of the English language is so overwhelming that the number of Anglicisms has increased exponentially, and these have displaced words or expressions that already existed in other languages. We keep using economical terminology without translating it, with examples such as ‘freelance’, ‘incoterms’, ‘check in’, ‘WhatsApp’, ‘overbooking’, etc., and English is the language for military uses, international emergency protocols, etc. Information technology is an issue we cannot leave aside, as it influences every country. - On the other hand, is the audio-visual industry, ruled almost entirely by the United States. As regards cinema and TV series, the United States is the source of the most powerful productions. For decades, American films and TV series have influenced our lifestyle and have served the American government as propaganda. Also, almost every single day, almost every single person in the world listens to music, and the majority of songs are composed in English by English native speakers that unavoidably transmit some aspects of their culture through their rhythms, melodies, and mainly through their lyrics. Key concepts: - - Cognitivism, behaviorism and constructivism are learning theories that explain how a language can be learnt There are many interdisciplinary fields that shed some light on how the language skills are developed The discursive-communicative competence is the basis for Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study Linguistic registers are different varieties of the same language defined by the context in which is used