Communication Skills PDF

COMMUNICATION SKILLS Table of Contents MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION........................................................... 2 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION............................................. 2 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION......

COMMUNICATION SKILLS Table of Contents MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION........................................................... 2 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION............................................. 2 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION............................. 2 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHPS............................................................................... 3 COMMUNICATION PROCESS....................................................................................... 5 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION...................................................................................... 6 BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICAITON......................................................... 6 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION (7CS).................................................................. 8 BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE.................................................................................. 10 QUALITIES OF AN OFFICIAL LETTER...................................................................... 12 QUESTIONNARIES........................................................................................................ 13 CURRICULUM VITAE (CV).......................................................................................... 14 MEETING(S).................................................................................................................... 14 TYPES OF MEETINGS................................................................................................... 14 TERMINOLGIES USED IN MEETINGS....................................................................... 16 PREPARATION FOR A MEETING............................................................................... 18 PROCEDURE OF HOLDING......................................................................................... 19 ROLE OF THE SECRETARY......................................................................................... 19 INTERVIEWS.................................................................................................................. 21 TYPES OF INTERVIEWS............................................................................................... 21 REPORTS......................................................................................................................... 25 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE REPORT................................................... 26 ORAL/VERBAL, (NON V & VISUAL) COMMUNICATION...................................... 28 IMPORTANCE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION (ADVANTAGES)............................ 28 BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION........................................... 28 IMPORTANCE OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION............................................ 30 BARRIERS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION.................................................. 30 OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION........................ 33 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPEMNT IN COMMUNICATION................................. 33 IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION................................................ 35 1 COMMUNICATION SKILLS Objectives Explain the meaning of the term communication Explain the role of communication in an organization Explain interpersonal relations MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION Definition of communication: Communication is the process of sharing our ideas, thoughts, and feelings with other people and having those ideas, thoughts, and feelings understood by the people we are talking with. When we communicate we speak, listen, and observe. It is the process of sending and receiving message e.g. conveying a message from one place to another. A message can be information that is transmitted and received during the process of communication. Communication may be one way or two way. One way communication is when there is no feedback. In a situation where there is no feedback, communication breakdown is said to have taken place. ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION ▪ To obtain information ▪ To provide information ▪ To initiate an action ▪ To prevent an action ▪ To request for an action. ▪ To advice / consult ▪ To learn ▪ To entertain IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION For manager – employee relations: Effective communication of information and decision is an essential component for management-employee relations. The manager cannot get the work done from employees unless they are communicated effectively of what he wants to be done? He should also be 2 sure of some basic facts such as how to communicate and what results can be expected from that communication. For motivation and employee morale Communication is also a basic tool for motivation, which can improve morale of the employees in an organization. Inappropriate or faulty communication among employees or between manager and his subordinates is the major cause of conflict and low morale at work. For increase productivity With effective communication, you can maintain a good human relation in the organization and by encouraging ideas or suggestions from employees or workers and implementing them whenever possible, you can also increase production at low cost. For employees It is through the communication that employees submit their work reports, comments, grievances and suggestions to their seniors or management. Organization should have effective and speedy communication policy and procedures to avoid delays, misunderstandings, confusion or distortions of facts and to establish harmony among all the concerned people and departments. Importance of written communication Communication may be made through oral or written. In oral communication, listeners can make out what speakers is trying to say, but in written communication, text matter in the message is a reflection of your thinking. So, written communication or message should be clear, purposeful and concise with correct words, to avoid any misinterpretation of your message. Written communications provides a permanent record for future use and it also gives an opportunity to employees to put up their comments or suggestions in writing. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHPS An interpersonal relationship is an association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring. This association may be based on limerence, love and liking, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships take place in a great variety of contexts, such as family, friends, marriage, associates, work, clubs, neighborhoods, and churches. They may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual agreement, and are the basis of social groups and society as a whole. Although humans are fundamentally social creatures, interpersonal 3 relationships are not always healthy. Examples of unhealthy relationships include abusive relationships and codependence This is defined as communication between two or more people and involves the transfer of information (or message) from one person to the other(s). The person transferring the information is called the sender or transmitter. The people receiving the message are known as receivers. The transmitter will need to send the information in a format that the receiver(s) will understand. Converting the information into a format that the receivers will understand is known as Encoding. Messages can be encoded into a variety of formats oral, written or visual. After encoding the message is transferred via a medium called a channel, for example a letter, fax, phone call, or e-mail. After transference the information will need to be interpreted by the receiver. This process of interpretation is known as decoding. Finally the receiver will send a message back to the transmitter confirming whether the information sent has been understood. This back check is known as feedback. Development of a relationship follows five stages: Acquaintance – Becoming acquainted depends on previous relationships, physical proximity, first impressions, and a variety of other factors. If two people begin to like each other, continued interactions may lead to the next stage, but acquaintance can continue indefinitely. Buildup – During this stage, people begin to trust and care about each other. The need for compatibility and such filtering agents as common background and goals will influence whether or not interaction continues. Continuation – This stage follows a mutual commitment to a long term friendship, romantic relationship, or marriage. It is generally a long, relative stable period. Nevertheless, continued growth and development will occur during this time. Mutual trust is important for sustaining the relationship. Deterioration – Not all relationships deteriorate, but those that do, tend to show signs of trouble. Boredom, resentment, and dissatisfaction may occur, and individuals may communicate less and avoid self-disclosure. Loss of trust and betrayals may take place as the downward spiral continues. Termination – The final stage marks the end of the relationship, either by death in the case of a healthy relationship, or by separation. 4 COMMUNICATION PROCESS Conceiving the message ▪ When conceiving the message, the sender tries to find out the best means of sending the message. ▪ The decision to send a message results from an impulse, a thought or external stimulus ▪ Once you send the message at the right time the receiver can get it. ▪ Before sending out the message one has to study the recipient then. Encoding the message ▪ Where the appropriate language is chosen. ▪ The sender must ensure that he message is put in a way that can be easily understood by the recipient. Choosing the medium An intelligent decision has to be made in selecting the method of transmission e.g. considering the speed, cost, availability and the distance. Decoding the message This is the procedure of receiving the message. The incoming message is given the attention it deserves. This is where also translation of the message takes place. Providing the feedback This when the recipient acknowledges the received messages. The recipient sends a reply to the sender. This is very important because it ensures success in communication. 5 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION A. Self-Action or One-Way Communication This is focused on getting the message to the receiver. Self-action treats communication as a manipulation of others. It is very message centered. There is no way to know if the meaning is shared between the sender and the receiver. B. Interaction or Two-Way Communication. This approach recognizes the role of the receiver as a communicator through feedback. It is message centered and is a very simplistic view of the communication process. Feedback allows senders to see if their message got across. C. Transaction. This approach focuses on meaning and sharing by accounting for all other factors in the communication process. It is concerned with the barriers that might affect the communication. Transaction is best described as effective communication. This is when the communication process is applied and carried out completely. The sender gives a message that is passed on to the receiver. In return, the receiver can give clear feedback that allows the sender to know whether or not the message was perceived as intended. BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICAITON Even if the steps of communication are followed successfully, several barriers may prevent an individual from communicating effectively. Communication is effective only when the receiver understands the message as intended by the sender. Interference in the process of communication that may distort and obscure the senders meaning is referred to as noise. Noise takes the form of various communication barriers an can exist between individuals as well a organizations. Noise can also be referred to as anything interfering with the flow of communication. This may occur at any stage. Barriers usually distort a message so that the message received is different from the one sent. Technical barriers By using technology, several machines and equipments may be involved in the process of communication. Machines are known to fail at any one given time. When this happens, it may result in communication breakdown. Physical barriers 6 These are natural occurrences that may cause destruction or hinder communication process. When this happens information may not reach the intended recipient or it may reduce the receiver’s concentration. Psychological barriers. As communication is taking place, interpretation of a message may depend on what is in the mind of the receiver. Attitude, perception pre-judgment may be responsible for interpreting a message in a different way that may not be intended by the sender. OVERCOMING BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION. ▪ In order to succeed in communication the following points must be considered; ▪ The message should be sent to the right person at the right time at the right place ▪ The message should originate form the right person ▪ The message should be clear and easy to understand ▪ Suitable language should be selected that can be easily understood by the receiver. ▪ Communication should be done at a maximum speed. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION (7CS) Conciseness Effective messages use the fewest number of words possible. This brings about the aspect of being brief and to the point Completeness Messages written must be complete e.g. the receiver of a message should ask himself or herself questions after reading the message. Clarity If the message is clear, chances of misinterpretation is drastically reduced. In order to be clear, the correct sentence structure, punctuation and spelling must be used. The way the message is laid out contribute to clarity Use of visual aids may also be employed to facilitate clarity. Consistency While communicating, the receiver should be able to predict he future information basing on the past. This enhances understandability Coherence 7 There should be a sequential flow of information by starting with the obvious information as you move to the unknown. Concreteness Despite the fact that communication should be facilitated using the fewest no of worked sometimes it may be necessary to include all the additional details / information. This contributes to understanding the important information that is being passed across. Correctness Wrong information may cause confusion or lead to bad decisions. It can also bind someone or an organization into doing something that may be costly. This outline the reason as to why the information passed should always be correct. SUMMARY WRITING Definition This entails reduction Formed into a sum; summed up; reduced into a narrow compass, or into few words; short; brief; concise; compendious; as, a summary statement of facts Characteristics of a good summary ◼ Brief ◼ Complete ◼ Paraphrased ◼ Objective Steps in Writing a Summary: Prewriting ◼ Read the article carefully, making sure you understand the contents. ◼ - Understand the major supporting details ◼ Using your annotations, create an outline that shows the main organization of the article. ◼ Begin with a sentence that includes - Author’s name - Title of the article 8  - Thesis of the article ◼ According to Joe Smith in “Healthy Eating for Life,” the foods we choose to eat influence the length and quality of our lives. ◼ Joe Smith states in “Healthy Eating for Life” that the foods we choose to eat influence the length and quality of our Follow with sentences that paraphrase major supporting points ◼ Paraphrase = state in your own words ◼ Enclose any directly quoted material in quotation marks ◼ After the first sentence, refer to the author by last name or as “the author” ◼ Smith states a diet high in animal fats and sugars can lead to obesity and cardiovascular problems. ◼ Compare the summary to the original article to make sure you have included all the important points. ◼ Double check to make sure you has paraphrased the material accurately. ◼ Proofread for complete sentences, correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling. How to Condense a Summary ◼ Omit examples ◼ Omit restatements ◼ Create lists to combine key points from multiple sentences or paragraphs BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE Letters A letter is a document written down with an aim of passing information between individuals or organizations. REASONS FOR USING LETTERS ▪ They provide a convenient and cheaper means of communication without personal contact. 9  ▪ Provide evidence for the transactions carried out ▪ Provides records for future reference ▪ Provide opportunities to express goodwill by creating in the mind of the receiver a favorable impressing of the organization. ▪ Can be used to send mass mails ELEMENTS OF A FORMAL LETER Letter head Found at the top of the letter and may contain the following information; Full company name ▪ The address ▪ Telephone number ▪ Physical location ▪ Email address ▪ Company logo Address of the sender It may contain the name and the address of the person which the letter is originating from. Date I it always better to include the correct date for ease of reference Should always be written in the long format Recipients address The address of the person where the letter is going to If the recipient falls any little, the abbreviation should be added after the name in descending order e.g. Bishop, Dr. Hon Salutation Dear Sir/Madam It is used to refer to a person who may not be known Dear Sirs/Madams It is used to refer to a group of people who may not be known Dear Mr/Mrs Smith Used to refer to someone known by name Reference It contains the main subject that the letter is trying to address 10 References must always be descriptive of the main information contained in the letter. Body This is where the main issues are addressed. It may range fro one paragraph to three paragraphs. Care must be taken when summarizing he information and relevant details should not be excluded. Subscription Normally determined by the opening salutation. If the recipient is addressed by name, the correct subscription is your sincerely. Yours faithfully is normally used when the recipient is addressed using Dear Sir/Madam, The three main items that may appear in subscription Signature Name Job title. QUALITIES OF AN OFFICIAL LETTER Express the letter in a clear and simple language No spelling, grammar and punctuation errors may be allowed The tone of the letter must be official All facts and figure must be accurate and clear The letter should be free form irrelevant information The letter should be brief without sacrificing completeness The letter should be considerate and word like “I” should be avoided at all cost. MEMORANDUM ( MEMO) This is the main method of internal communication. A memo is a brief document used for routine day to day exchange of information within an organization. Memos are often used to: i) Communicate the same material to many people ii) Communicate policies and procedures. iii) Confirm oral decisions. iv) Place specific information on records v) To designate responsibility. 11 A memo should be formatted to emphasize the need of the readers who may not have time to go thorough the details A good memo should discuss one topic only Memos are constructed openly and delivered informally making them to be less private whom compared to letters. MEMO FORMAT From : THE DIRECTOR To : ALL STAFF Subject: RETRENCHEMENT Date: 07th October 2008 Due to un expected transfer of students, we are unable to maintain the current work force, and therefore we consider retrenching some staff. Dr. Winny Director of Programmes QUESTIONNARIES It is a document containing a number of questions that can be send to many individuals. Questionnaires are normally used whenever it is desirable to involve input from a large number of people e.g. when carrying out a research. A typical questionnaire must start with the heading which includes a title. It is then followed by a brief statement of purpose, the name and the telephone number of the contacted person, dateline for completion and where to return the form. The heading is followed by general instructions providing guidance and answering the questions. QUESTIONNAIRE GUIDELIENS ▪ Ensure that he questions are formulated to carry the right information ▪ Keep the questions brief and user friendly ▪ Provide clear instructions that will answer alt he anticipated questions. ▪ Arrange the questions in a logical order starting from the easiest to the hardest ▪ Allow anonymous responses because they provide better information. ▪ Phrase the questions to avoid misunderstanding by using the simplest terms possible ▪ Try not to lead the response by use of questions that gives clues to the expected answers. 12  ▪ Limit the use of open ended questions that would be difficult to tabulate ▪ Questions should require short answers where possible ▪ Limit the use of questions that can raise negative concerns ▪ Include a section at the end of questionnaire for general comments ▪ Test the questionnaire whenever possible before finalizing it. ▪ The respondent should be tanked for the cooperation and should be assured that he information given is strictly confidential. CURRICULUM VITAE (CV) This is a document that brief and precisely summarized the personal academic, professional and working details among other details of the author of the document. There are no sets standards for writing a CV. but however a typical CV may include the following ▪ Title ▪ Personal details ▪ Career objective ▪ Academic qualifications ▪ Experience ▪ Achievements /award ▪ Hobbies / interests ▪ Referees MEETING(S) Definition A meeting is an assembly of persons gathering with accordance to legally defined rules and procedures to discuss an agenda. A committee is a small group of people usually selected or elected by a group of people to meet and conduct an agreement business on behalf of the people. TYPES OF MEETINGS Managerial meetings This is a gathering of people within an organization with a clearly defined inter-personal relationships meeting to exchange view and attitudes on information with an aim of making decisions and constituting actions. 13 Normally occur between individuals of the some level to exchange opinions, gives advices or exchange / share information. Advisory meeting An assembly of people meeting to formulate advice, suggestions so proposals for submission to a higher executive body for ratification purposes Statutory meetings Involves coming together of at least two or more people with an aim of discussing legal issues. Executive meetings An assembly of people normally made up of the highest members of the organization whose purpose is to arrive at a decision and institute some actions. Briefing meeting An assembly of people reporting the progress of some activities that could be going on. Normally sermoning to receive, accept and comply with the requirements formulated. This group of people retains information for use relative to them by a person in authority over them. Task force meeting An assembly of people drawn from various levels and sectors of an organization brought together to find a solution to a problem by working outside the normal administrative structure. Brain storming meting It is an informal meeting of people whose aim is to generate ideas, suggestions or approaches to organizational activities from a non restricted interchange of views, opinions and ideas. Adhoc meeting Is a group of people meeting for a specific purpose and once the purpose is accomplished the committee is disbanded. Standing committee meeting Is a permanent committee meeting, members may change but he committee remains PURPOSE OF HOLDING MEETINGS ▪ To collect and obtain information form a group ▪ To bring together knowledge and experiences that may aid in solving a problem ▪ To influence attitude and develop cooperation 14  ▪ To air agreements ▪ To tell a group about a decision or some action already taken ▪ To collect facts and opinions form a group of people before reaching a conscious ▪ To generate ideas ▪ TO make decisions TERMINOLOGIES USED IN MEETINGS Agenda These are the topics to be discussed during the meeting Minutes A record of all the activities taking place in a meeting Quorum Minimum number of people that must be present in order for a meeting to take place as outlined in the constitution Constitution Rules and regulations that are legally binding and must be followed by a group In attendance- any guest who is not a member of the group who may be invited to discuss about an issue Ad hoc: from Latin, meaning 'for the purpose of', as for example, when a sub-committee is set up specially to organize a works outing. Adjourn: to hold a meeting over until a later date. Adopt minutes: minutes are 'adopted' when accepted by members and signed up by the chairman. Advisory: providing advice or suggestion, not taking action AGM: Annual General Meeting: all members are usually eligible to attend Apologies: excuses given in advance for inability to attend a meeting Articles of Association: rules required by Company law which govern a company's activities Attendance list: in some committees a list is passed round to be signed as a record of attendance By-laws: rules regulating an organization’s activities 15 Casting vote: by convention, some committee chairmen may use a 'casting vote' to reach a decision, if votes are equally divided Chairman: leader or person given authority to conduct a meeting Chairman's Agenda: based upon the committee agenda, but containing explanatory notes Collective Responsibility: a convention by which all committee members agree to abide by a majority decision Committee: a group of people usually elected or appointed who meet to conduct agreed business and report to a senior body Consensus: agreement by general consent, no formal vote being taken Convene: to call a meeting Decision: resolution minutes are sometimes called 'decision minutes' Eject: remove someone (by force if necessary) from a meeting Executive: having the power to act upon taken decisions Extraordinary Meeting: a meeting called for all members to discuss a serious issue affecting all is called an Extraordinary General Meeting; otherwise a non-routine meeting called for a specific purpose Ex officio: given powers or rights by reason of office Guillotine: cut short a debate – usually in Parliament Honorary post: a duty performed without payment, e.g. Honorary Secretary Information, Point of: the drawing of attention in a meeting to a relevant item of fact Intra vires: within the power of the committee or meeting to discuss, carry out Lie on the table: leave item to be considered instead at the next meeting (see table) Lobbying: a practice of seeking members' support before a meeting Motion: the name given to a 'proposal' when it is being discussed at a meeting Mover: one who speaks on behalf of a motion Nem con: from Latin, literally, 'no one speaking against' Opposer: one who speaks against a motion Order, point of: the drawing of attention to a breach of rules or procedures 16 Other business: either items left over from a previous meeting, or items discussed after the main business of a meeting Point of order: proceedings may be interrupted on a 'point of order' if procedures or rules are not being kept to in a meeting Proposal: the name given to a submitted item for discussion (usually written) before a meeting takes place Proxy: literally 'on behalf of another person' - proxy vote Refer back: to pass an item back for further consideration Resolution: the name given to a 'motion' which has been passed or carried; used after the decision has been reached Seconder: one who supports the 'proposer' of a motion or proposal by 'seconding' it Secretary: committee official responsible for the internal and external administration of a committee Secret ballot: a system of voting in secret Shelve: to drop a motion which has no support Sine die: from Latin, literally, 'without a day', that is to say indefinitely, e.g. 'adjourned sine die'. Standing Committee: a committee which has an indefinite term of office Standing Orders: rules of procedure governing public sector meetings Table: to introduce a paper or schedule for noting Taken as read: to save time, it is assumed the members have already read the minutes Treasurer: committee official responsible for its financial records and transactions Ultra vires: beyond the authority of the meeting to consider Unanimous: all being in favour PREPARATION FOR A MEETING The following factors should be considered before holding any meetings; ▪ Rules and regulations ▪ Venue ▪ Agenda 17  ▪ Recording of minutes ▪ Time management ▪ Follow-up PROCEDURE OF HOLDING Role of the chairperson. Before the meeting ▪ Establish and understand the items of business to be discussed ▪ Drafting the agenda ▪ Ensure members are notified about time, place purpose of the meeting and issue the agenda if possible During the meeting ▪ Ensue that meeting starts on time ▪ Introduce the topics very clearly ▪ Obtain valid contributions ▪ Maintain law and order ▪ Obtain decisions effectively. After the meeting ▪ Verity a draft copy of the minutes prepared by the secretary ▪ Monitor the progress of he activities to be performed. ROLE OF THE SECRETARY Before the meeting Obtain the materials of the previous meeting Draft the agenda to logical order of priorities Circulate the notice of the meting and agenda During the meeting Attend before time Get the room ready for the meeting Ensure that all the necessary documents are available Write down the proceedings (minutes) Assist the chairperson After the meeting Produce a final copy of the minutes 18  Distribute to members copies of the minutes Issue instructions arising from the minutes and monitor if necessary ROLE OF THE MEMBERS Before the meeting Notify the secretary or chairperson on the items of the agenda. During the meeting Make meaningful contribution Take note of all the decision made and the respective actins to be taken After the meeting Read and verify the minutes Carryout any action required if necessary Advantage of meetings Meetings shares he benefits of face to face communication including immediate feedback It has the potential of group synergy (winning combination)The combined effort in a group often generates better solutions when compared to an individual working alone or communication through letters email It can stimulate creativity It can increase motivation Disadvantages of meetings Meetings often loose direction leading to non related topics. Badly ran meeting may generate bad decisions. Messages criss cross around the meeting room and highly vulnerable to noise and misinterpretation A lot of time is wasted since members may be having different opinions, ideas and feelings Discussions and arguments may become highly personalized. 19 INTERVIEWS Definition An interview is a face to face encounter which employs oral communication. A telephone conversation may be used to facilitate an interview Questions in all interviews may be oral or written. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS Employment interviews Take place regularly at different organization The main objective is to make a decision on whether a potential employee is qualified for the job. Such interviews are facilitated and eventually the best candidate is employed. Disciplinary interviews They are carried out by a senior employee when a junior employee has been accused of breaking the organizations rules and regulations. The main priority is to establish the truth. The interview must be conducted basing on the facts to avoid being biased against the employee. The interviewing should always remain calm and objective. This should not result in personal abuse. Instructional interview They are normally used to issue instructions about new procedure to individuals within an organization. The procedure concern is demonstrated and shown very clearly. Questions may be asked to test employees understanding and procedure. Grievance interview. Normally takes place when an employee feels that he or she has been mistreated in an organization. They should always be conducted on the basic of the actual knowledge. The objective is to arrive at an conclusion so that appropriate action may be taken Decision making interview Usually small meetings between employees of the same status. 20 The views of all the present are expressed and considered in detail before a decision is reached. Promotional interview Takes place when an employee has applied for a job of a higher level within an organization. They are conducted in a manner to employment interviews Aim is to disserve whether the applicant is eligible for promotion. PREPARATION FOR AN INTERVIEW Study the original advert and the letter informing you about selection by extracting carefully all the necessary information. Think about all the possible questions that you may be asked so that he answer may be prepared in advance. Obtain as much background information about the organization before the interview. This demonstrates an interest on the organization. Be prepared to talk fully about yourself example your past and future ambitions. Be smart for the interviews to have a positive first impression. Be confident about yourself. If you are successfully short listed for an interview, then you are a possible candidate for the position. Conducting interviews The following should be observed during an interview session The interview commences / starts as soon as you enter the interview room enter with confidence. Wait until you are given a hand to shake or be invited to sit down. Assume a posture that is both comfortable and alert. Listen before you speak and anticipate where the questions are leading to. Maintain an eye contact because it is a sign of honesty and assurance. Facial express in, gesture and posture provides a reliable insight about the interviewee. This is facilitated by paying attention. Use a clear loud voice but don’t shout. The words you say and the way you express yourself may reveal much about your intelligence, judgment and common sense. Observe the reaction of the interviewer by checking whether the interviewer is satisfied with the answers. Make an effort to ask question where possible. WHAT TO AVOID IN AN INTERVIEW 21  i. Avoid unclear voice. Aloud voice may make an interviewer feels threatened while a low voice may be monotonous. ii. Avoid nervousness. Being nervous can make an individual to be less responsible. iii. Avoid the use of “Yes” and “No” when answering questions expand your answers where possible. iv. Avoid un-natural posture v. Avoid making remarks that may create negative impression for the rest of the interviews. PURPOSE OF AN INTERVIEW The main purpose of the interview could be any of the following: A meeting to match your needs with the wants of an employer. The final stage in the recruitment process for a new job. A chance to sell yourself; skills, experiences, strengths and so on.. A chance to see the reality of the company - is it for you? A spotlight to be interrogated under or a stage to show your abilities? An opportunity to make them realize how they need you in their organization. A chance to show who you are. CHALLENGES OF AN INTERVIEW 1. Difficult Interviewers Interviewers come in all shapes and sizes and have many different personalities. It is important to remember no matter how tough the interviewer is you must remember why you are there and match up your skills and background with the open position. You will need to change tactics depending on the type of interviewer you get. Difficult interviewers generally fall in to the following categories. Talks too much A disorganized interviewer probably has no idea on how to stop talking. They go on and on an on. In some way you can use this to your advantage however you still need to get across the message of your suitability for the position. This can be conveyed by choosing your moments carefully when you in to the conversation without obviously cutting off the interviewer. A chatterbox likes nothing 22 less than being cut off in mid sentence. Ask specific questions to show the interviewer how your background matches his needs. Disorganized Interview A disorganized interviewer probably has no idea on how to conduct an interview and probably bases his hiring decision on very little that is relevant to the open position. It is entirely possible to take advantage of this situation and take the lead on the interview. Keep talking about your strengths and ability and how well they match the requirements of the open position. Serious, Unemotional Interviewer It can be very difficult to get a read on a serious or unemotional interviewer as you do not get a reaction when your respond to a question or ask a question. It is best to tone down your overall tone with this type of interviewer and don't be put of by the lack of response. Present your case, your strengths and ability to do the job and give less attention to the outward response of the interviewer. Game Players There are also interviewers who like to play games to see how you react. These games include.. Placing the chair you are to sit in direct sunlight. It is appropriate to tell the interviewer you are moving the chair due to the sunlight in your face. Placing you in a chair that is either very uncomfortable or too comfortable. You can ask to move. They may be trying to see how assertive you are. Challenging your answers to see what kind of reaction they get. Keep calm and stick to your answers. 2. Interviews with more than one interviewer Interviews where there is more than one interviewer can be very challenging. You have to direct your responses to a group of people. The insight you gain from this is that the company places high value on teamwork. You may however get mixed messages on what the desired background for the position is from the questions the different interviewers ask. This can tell you they are not all in sync which can be very challenging to deal with. The following are some tips you can keep in mind should you find yourself faced with more than one interviewer. Don't avoid or ignore anybody. Remember just because someone is quiet does not mean they do not make decisions. Try to get a feel for who is the key decision maker. 23 Respond to each interviewer. Don't look on the interviewers as one group (which they are!) but as individuals with different needs so respond to the person asking the questions however making eye contact with the other interviews at the same time. Don't break down if you did not know beforehand there would be more than one interviewer. Stick to your guns. Your objective remains the same. Always ask for clarification for questions that need it and don't hurry with your answers. 3. Interviews over a meal some interviews may take place over lunch or dinner or even coffee. Don't be misguided and think that you can be more relaxed. This is still an interview and you need to be on your best behavior and you also nee dot use your best table manners. Order a meal that is easy to eat and not messy and do not order the most expensive item on the menu. 4. Improper Questions There are questions an interviewer should never ask and are not permitted by federal law to ask. So what are these questions or subject that should be off limits to interviewers. They include … Religion Age Sexuality Ethnicity Race REPORTS Definition A report is written document providing an account of an idea or activity which has been examined and witnessed It is an investigating together with recommendation used to convey information that provides a basis for decision making. CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE REPORT An effective report must be: Appropriate to its audience and purpose Accurate Logical Clear and conscience 24  Well organized with clear headings. TYPE OF REPORTS Simple reports eg accident reports, disciplinary reports Routine reports eg sales, medical, progress Special commission reports eg investigation, market research personnel STRUCTURE OF A REPORT Title A report must have a title The title should describe the information contained in the report Aims and objectives This is a statement of the writer’s purpose in producing the report Summary and procedures This is a very short and precise summary of the entire report It provides the reader with a general idea of the content of the report It may also contain a brief description of the means by which the findings were obtained. Findings It is the main body / discussion f the report It may have several parts including the research carried out, methods of data collection, advantages and disadvantages, observations and other findings. Conclusions and recommendations A report must always lead to a conclusion-This might be a statement of facts of which the report has made It can also include personal opinions form the facilitator. Reference It contains supportive information where an individual may be able to obtain additional resources covered in the report. Technical terms may also be explained at this point. PROCEDURE FOR REPORT WRITING The following is a suggestion as to how you might proceed in compiling and presenting the report Planning. 25  ▪ Define the purpose ▪ Define the audience ▪ Establish parameters ( scope) ▪ Collect the information Writing; It follows 3 stages in the following orders ▪ Body / findings ▪ Summary ▪ Supplementary materials Formatting It’s also known as revising or proof reading. During this stage the following the following checklist may be used: a. Is purpose of the report fulfilled: b. Is it written at a level appropriate to the audience? c. Are all the facts correct d. Is it comprehensive e. Is all the included information relevant f. Is the layout and the presentation well organized g. Is the style clear, concise and professional h. Does it give an abstract summary? i. Does the good adequately introduced the discussion j. Is the discussion organized logically k. Does the conclusion section interpret, analyze, and evaluate he report l. Are the recommendations reasonable m. Does the table of contents correspond to the actual contents n. Are all the sources of information correct and acknowledge o. Are spellings, grammar and punctuations checked p. Is the final draft carefully proof read ORAL/VERBAL COMMUNICATION Definition: It involves speaking and listening Speaking entails the use of word of mouth to communicate while listening involves hearing what other people have to say. The following are some of the examples where oral communication may be applicable. ▪ Unplanned exchanged ▪ Planned informal talk 26  ▪ Meeting ▪ Teachings ▪ Interview ▪ Coaching ▪ Telephone call ▪ Interrogations ▪ Story telling ▪ Press conference ▪ Presentations ▪ Sales presentations ▪ Group discussions ▪ Debates ▪ Speeches ▪ Critiques ▪ Panel discussions IMPORTANCE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION (ADVANTAGES) There is always immediate feedback It is fast It is cheap Secure to confidential information It reduces the chance of misinterpretation Persuasion can be easily done It can involve a large group of people BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION Communicating at the wrong time It is always important to know when to communicate just like choosing the right media. Language barrier It is about using the language which may not be understood by the receiver. It an occur when one uses a different language or using repetitive phrases e.g. oK, you know, ooh Motivational barriers People may need to understand how they will benefit from the information passed across. Un understanding of motivation and persuasion is essential to those preparing for business communications. Perception 27 This is an individual’s interpretation of the sensory environment. There is a difference in the way people view thing sand this may bar effective communication. NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC) Definition This involves the use of communication without using spoken words. TYPES OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION Body language Facial expression Gestural expression Walking style Yarning Dressing code Staggering Hand shake Laughing Written language Notice Memo CVs Posters Advert Magazines Reports Letter 28 Sign language It is a specialized language used by the deaf people to communicate eg Kenyan Sign language. IMPORTANCE OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION a. It saves time b. It simplifies spoken words c. It provides a direct feedback d. It is not affected by noise e. It is more believable f. Reinforces a messages g. May be kept for future reference h. Can be used to communicate confidential information i. May be used for analysis j. Large volumes of data can be communicated k. Can be used to send messages over along distance. l. It is more accurate because of minimal misinterpretation m. It can be used to confirm, interpret clarity oral communication. BARRIERS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION Organizational barriers It occurs when the communication structure within an organization ( or ) fail to allow communication to take place accurately eg a junior employee may not be allowed to talk directly to the manager. Human relation barriers It is always advisable to put personal feelings to the back of your mind while working in a business environment. However in some occupations human relation problems may be beyond control. In this situation individuals may be unable to work together in harmony and this may affect he mode of communication. Poorly defined aim 29 There must be a clear idea of what the communication is supposed to achieve before encoding your message. Similarly the information forming the basis of your message must be clear and accurate. If the two are not clear the message may be inaccurate and may result in communication breakdowns. Distortion This is the name given to barriers which may arise at he encoding and decoding stages. If the sender was danguige or some signs which don’t convey the intended message to the receiver distortion is likely to happen. AUDIO VISUAL COMMUNICATION Definitions Audio communication Involves communicating by use of spoken words e.g. making a phone call. Visual communication It involves passing information through what is seen e.g. diagrams, maps, charts, pictures etc Audio visual communication Comprises of both audio and visual forms of communication e.g. TV, Video, internet chatting, cinemas, movies, video conference, cartoons, DVDs, theater shows etc. EXAMPLES OF AUDIO COMMUNICATION Telephone call Radio Conversations Radio calls BARRIERS OF AUDIO COMMUNICATION Physical barriers Those are common destructions that may annoy the process of communication by reducing the receiver’s concentration and attention. Wrong medium Choosing the wrong medium during communication can be disastrous compared to conveying inaccurate information. Such misunderstandings can be avoided by careful selection of the media. Information overload 30 When listening, the listeners may be tired at some point and may not be able to concentrate through out the exercise. It is always advisable for the speaker to find out when the listener are tired. This may mean that he information passed may be terminated prematurely. Pre-judgment When decoding information it is not always advisable to jump to the conclusions. Instead focus on the message and not the messenger. Carefully identify the information that is relevant to your needs. Destructions When listening the speaker may influence the attitude of the either. In this case do not be destructed by the speaker’s way of listening, talking and vocabulary skills instead use your own reading and speaking skills OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS OF AUDIO COMMUNICATION ▪ Focus on the objectives e.g. the purpose of the message and what the desired to accomplish ▪ Understand the other party ▪ Be organized ▪ Make intelligent use of grapevine communication. ▪ Determined an individuals perception or communication climates ▪ Understand the roles and the functions of others. VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS e.g. pictures, drawings, maps, charts, banners, billboards, chalkboards, marker boards, flip charts , electronic screens, projectors. BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE VISUAL COMMUNICATION 1. Failure to analyze the receiver and his or her needs. 2. The amount of information that the source may be having pertaining to the subject of study. 3. Too much knowledge about he subject e.g. the source may over explain the message making it to be too detail, complex and confusing. 4. Failure to decide about how to present the information e.g. what should be included and the manner of presentation. 31 OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION 1. Carry out al audit of communication activities 2. Apply all the visibility skills whenever you are making observations. 3. Seek feedback where necessary eg ask questions, be descriptive instead of being evaluative. 4. Keep the channels of communication open by keeping an open mind. BARRIERS OF AUDIO – VISUAL COMMUNICATION i. Lack of experience e.g. when making a presentation ii. Poor listening skills or receivers failure to pay attention. iii. Receives failure to understand the message iv. Cultural barriers e.g. trying to communicate to a person from a different culture v. Body language e.g. repeated actions which may be annoying. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPEMNT IN COMMUNICATION Definition. Technology is an inclusive term including any communication devise on application. It may consist of radio, TV, mobile phones, computers, satellite systems etc. i) Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) These are rules and regulations used for transmission of voice through the internet. Voice over internet protocol is often used as an abstract term referring to the actual transmission of voice through the telephone lines connected to a computer ii) Teleconferencing The basic meaning is to hold a conference through a telephone network communication Once a teleconference is established the group can share applications and make some common conclusions. There are several teleconferencing application that can be used over the network eg Microsoft net meeting. iii) Electronic mail It is an improvised version of a telephone exchange which uses a telephone line to convey a message which appears on the screen of the receivers compute terminal. The sender types the message which is entered in the memory of the receivers’ computer. It 32 may then be displayed on the screen of he receiver so as printed copy may be produced if the receiver comp is connected to a printer. iv) FAX This is an abbreviation of facsimile (copy) Fax machines operate like two photocopier joined by a telephone line. The message to be communicated is placed on a sender’s machine. It may then be transmitted to the receivers’ machine where a copy is produced. Using this method, confidential information and detailed designs maybe send over along distance safety and rapidly. V) INTERNET This is a term referring to a collection of interconnected network. On the other hand, a network is a group of computers connected together so that they can share information and other useful resources. USES OF INTERNET Telnet (Telecomm unity) This involves carrying out job operations while at home premises For the operation to take place the following may be required Computer both at home and workplace Internet connection and Management software FILE SHARING Involves dynamic exchange of files from one compute to another. The operating is mostly effective in presence of internet connections. News groups A collection of individuals who may subscribe in order to be given regular updates pertaining to some kinds of information. Web browsing Mainly involves general web accessibly moving form one website to another in order to obtain general information Searching 33 This is looking for particular information on internet. To carry out this operation powerful search engines maybe involved where one may type the search question in order to obtain some response eg using Google search Electronic commerce Involves buying and selling through the internet. To carry out the operation the products, services and ideas that are being sold most be displayed in a certain website where potential consumers maybe able to visit. Upon request of such product, the payment may be submitted by use of electronic money transfer systems. Entertainment A great deal of entertainment can be achieved from the internet eg listening to music, watching movies playing game etc. Downloading / uploading While assessing information on the internet a user may decide to transfer a file located in the internet to the users’ computer. This is called downloading. Uploading is where the user may transfer a file from the users’ computer to the internet. Others are e.g. ▪ Globalization ▪ Sending and receiving mails ▪ Socialization ▪ E-learning ▪ Research ▪ E-marketing ▪ Job search IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION Positive ▪ Machine are known to work better in comparison to human begins. ▪ Superior services have been guaranteed e.g. use of ATM Machine. ▪ It has led to foundation of knowledge e.g. through extensive research. ▪ Technology controls the Ruth e.g. paternal DAN test ▪ Improved communication speed e.g. use of mobile phones ▪ Technology may be used to indicate uncertain variables e.g. weather forecast NEGATIVE IMPATS ▪ Technology related equipments are very expensive to buy and maintain 34  ▪ It has led to arise in fraudulence and other related crimes ▪ Unwanted distribution of private information ▪ Exposure to inappropriate materials ▪ Child abuse ▪ Poor performance in schools ▪ Unemployment ▪ Marriage breakups EMERGING TRENDS IN COMMUNICATION Computers Powerful computers are being manufactured with high processing speeds and large memory capacity. This enables communication to take place effectively and efficiently, by use of various internet applications. Mobile phones They are used for communication over short and long distances. They may also have additional features which can be used to obtain other functionalities e.g. internet aces, games, camera, voice and video recorder, intra red, blue tooth. Wireless networks By use of technology different equipment scan be able to share information without direct physical connection e.g. making a call through boosters, internet access without cables, security alarms without connections etc Robotics With advanced technology equipments are now crated which can act like human beings e.g. reason talk, small and respond to external stimulants. Graphic design It is possible to represent images in 3 dimensions. These images can be able to act like the ones in the real environment. With the technology virtual reality is able to be made by use of complex graphic design tools. Internet By use of internet, individuals can be able to perform duties and communicate whenever and wherever they need to do so. 35 Crime Since technology is being facilitated by human beings the same technology can be sued to bring about serious criminal operations eg stealing money by use of different technology based application. Security Technology has improved security operations by coming up with features that can be used to track criminals and also obtaining accurate information during investigation. Complex software Technological equipments are driven by instructions. These instructions has gone through several improvement in the current society complex instructions can be able to solve problem which maybe beyond the reasoning of human beings REFERENCE Berlo, D. K. (1960). The process of communication. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston Byrne, D. (1961). Interpersonal attraction and attitude similarity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 713–715 Mehrabian, Albert (1971). Silent Messages (1st ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Debunking the 55%, 38%, 7% Rule, by Judith E. Pearson Montana, Patrick J. & Charnov, Bruce H. 2008. Management. 4th ed. New York. Barron's Educational Series, Inc. Pg 333. th Ober, S. (2006). Contemporary Business Communication. (6 Ed). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Prepared by Dr. Amal Malek, Assistant Professor, DETE.Fall 2007 Roy M. Berko, et al., Communicating. 11th ed. (Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc., 2010) 9-12 Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press 36 Schramm, W. (1954). How communication works. In W. Schramm (Ed.), The process and effects of communication (pp. 3-26). Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication theory (2nd ed., pp47-57). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction. 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