Communication At Work PDF

1 Communicating at Work chapter objecti ve s chapter out l i n e The Importance of Communication After reading this chapter you should...

1 Communicating at Work chapter objecti ve s chapter out l i n e The Importance of Communication After reading this chapter you should be able to The Nature of Communication 1. Explain the role of communication in career The Process of Communication success, providing examples to support your CommunicationP rinciples claims. 2. Apply the basic elements, the process, and Ethical Dimensions of Communication key principles of communication to a specific situation, showing how each one affects the Using Communication Networks outcome of the interaction. Formal Communication Networks 3. Apply the concepts of ethical communica- InformalCom municationNetwork s tion discussed here to one or more ethically challenging situations. Face-to-Face and Electronic 4. Describe how formal and informal com- Communication Channels munication networks operate in a given Face-to-FaceCom munication situation, and how you can use various Telephone and Voice Mail networks to accomplish your goals within an organization. Teleconferencingand 5. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages Videoconferencing of various face-to-face and electronic com- InstantM essaging munication channels and choose the most Twitter and Text Messaging appropriate and effective one for a given E-mail and Written Communication situation. Which Channel to Use Review Points Key Terms Activities Resources 4 TheImpor tanceof Communication Virtually everyone communicates at work. No matter what the field, specialized knowledge alone isn’t enough to guarantee success; communication skills are also vital. Table 1–1 summarizes the results of one annual survey in which employers list the skills and qualities for their ideal candidate. Communication skills always top the list.1 Subscribers to the Harvard Business Review rated “the ability to communicate” the most Table1–1 Top Ten Qualities/Skills Employers Want 1. Communication skills 2. Strong work ethic 3. Teamwork skills (works well with others) 4. Initiative 5. Analytical skills 6. Computer skills 7. Flexibility/adaptability 8. Interpersonal skills (relates well to others) 9. Problem-solving skills 10. Technical skills Source: Reprinted from Job Outlook 2009—Student Version, from JobWeb (www.jobweb.com), with permission of the National Association of Colleges and Employers, copyright holder. 5 career tip Careers in Communication manager, account executive, floor manager, talk show host, director of broadcasting. While communication plays an important role in Journalism/publishing: reporter, editor, author, every job, it is the focus of many careers. The National writer, project manager, publisher, news service Communication Association (www.natcom.org) pub- researcher, technical writer. lishes a list of communication-related fields and some Public information/development: public infor- typical specialties within them. While a degree in com- mation officer, press agent, development officer, munication may not be mandatory for jobs like these, fund raiser, membership recruiter, media ana- academic study of the field is excellent preparation. lyst/planner, creative director, public opinion researcher. Advertising/marketing: market researcher, copy Organizational affairs: human resources specialist writer, account executive, sales manager, media or manager, director of organizational communi- planner, media buyer, creative director, media cation, industrial and labor relations representa- salesr epresentative. tive, negotiator, ombudsman, customer service Electronic media/radio-television/broadcasting: representative, newsletter editor, trainer, human archivist/librarian, community relations direc- resources manager. tor, unit manager, video editor, news director, Government/political affairs: public informa- writer, technical director, advertising sales coordi- tion officer, speech writer, legislative assistant, nator, traffic/continuity specialist, media buyer, campaign staffer/director, research specialist, announcer, disc jockey, newscaster, public rela- lobbyist,p resss ecretary. tions manager, casting director, producer, business important factor in making an executive “promotable,” more important than ambition, education, and capacity for hard work.2 The need for communication skills is important in virtually every career,3 not just those that are traditionally regarded as people-oriented. Practitioners in Big Six account- ing firms spend 80 percent of their work time communicating with others, individually and in groups.4 Likewise, engineers spend most of their professional lives speaking and listening, mostly in one-to-one and small group settings.5 Communication skills are essential for doctors, nurses, and other medical professionals.6 Technical people with good communication skills earn more, and those who are weak communicators suffer.7 William Schaffer, international business development manager for computer giant Sun Microsystems, made the point emphatically: “If there’s one skill that’s required for success in this industry, it’s communication skills.”8 Writing in The Scientist, author Jim Richman echoes this sentiment: “If I give any advice, it is that you can never do enough training around your overall communication skills.”9 Other high-tech experts back up this claim. On-the-job communication skills can even make the difference between life and death. The Los Angeles Police Department cited “bad communication” among the most common reasons for errors in shooting by its officers.10 Researchers discovered that “poor communication” was the root of over 60 percent of reported medical errors— including death, serious physical injury, and psychological trauma.11 Research published in the Journal of the American Medical Association and elsewhere revealed a significant difference between the communication skills of physicians who had no malpractice claims against them and doctors with previous claims.12 6  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 7 The importance of communication is not surprising when you consider the staggering amount of time people spend communicating on the job. One study based on responses from over 1,000 employees at Fortune 1000 companies found that workers send and receive an average of 178 messages each day via telephone, e-mail, faxes, text messages, blogs, instant messages, and face-to-face communication.13 Some experts have estimated that the average business executive spends 75 to 80 percent of the time communicating— about 45 minutes of every hour.14 According to one authority, the primary source of clogged in-boxes isn’t commercial spam, but messages from co-workers.15 TheNatu reofC ommunication Understanding the importance of communication isn’t the same thing as understanding how the process works. A close look at what happens when people try to communicate can offer clues about why some attempts succeed and others fail. The Process of Communication No matter what the setting or the number of people involved, all communication consists of the same elements. Although the process of communication is more than the total of these parts, understanding them can help explain what happens when one person tries to express an idea to others. A Model of Communication The communication process begins with a sender, the person who transmits a message. Some messages are deliberate, while others (such as sighs and yawns) may be unintentional. The sender must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message. This activity is called encoding. The channel (sometimes called the medium) is the method used to deliver a message. As a business communicator, you can often choose to write a letter or memo, send a fax or an e-mail, or deliver the message over the phone or in person. Even if a message does get to its intended receiver intact, there’s no guarantee that it will be understood as the sender intended it to be.16 The receiver must still decode it, attaching meaning to the words or symbols. Receivers don’t just absorb messages like sponges; they interpret and respond to them. The discernible response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback. Some feedback is nonverbal—smiles, sighs, and so on. Sometimes it is oral, as when you react to a colleague’s ideas with questions or com- ments. Feedback can also be written, as when you respond by writing your co-worker a memo. In many cases, no message can be a type of feedback. Failure to answer a letter or to return a phone call can suggest how the noncommunicative person feels about the sender. When we add the element of feedback to our communication model, we begin to recognize that in face-to-face settings people are simultaneously senders and receivers of information. This explains why these two roles are superimposed in the communication model pictured in Figure 1–1 on page 8. One of the greatest sources of communication problems is noise—the term commu- nication scholars use for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages. The most obvious type of noise is external (also called physical) noise. This includes sounds that distract communicators—such as the babble of voices in the next room or the annoying ring of someone’s cell phone in a meeting—an overcrowded room, or a smelly cigar. A second kind of noise is physiological: hearing disorders, illnesses, disabilities, and other factors make it difficult to send or receive messages. To appreciate the importance of physiological noise, recall how hard it is to pay attention when you are recovering from case study Google Goes Low-Tech 1. What methods of publicity for the speech would employees have expected at a firm like Google? Information industry giant Google invited author 2. How might the high-tech context at Google have Stew Friedman to speak to employees at the com- affected employees’ response to the flyers? pany’s Silicon Valley headquarters about his book Total Leadership. 3. Can you think of an example when an unconven- The advance publicity for Friedman’s speech tional communication channel or format would was surprisingly low-tech: Google staff had taped be risky? sheets of paper announcing the event on glass doors 4. How could you get the desired kind of attention and windows all over the company’s campus. This to a message of your own by delivering it via unconventional approach proved quite successful, a nontraditional channel or format? Give a resulting in a large audience. specifice xample. CRITICAL ANALYSIS: Answer the following ques- Based on a Harvard Business Publishing post by Stew Friedman at tions as you consider this example of unconventional http://discussionleader.hbsp.com/friedman/2008/05/what-you- channel selection. should-know-about-wha-1.html. a late-night study session or have the flu. The third type of noise is psychological—forces within the sender or receiver that interfere with understanding, such as egotism, defen- siveness, assumptions, stereotypes, biases, prejudices, hostility, preoccupation, and fear. Communication Contexts Communication always takes place in some setting, and the context in which it occurs can have a powerful effect on what happens. For example, the physical context can influence the content and quality of interaction. Imagine how discussing a problem with your boss or asking for a raise might be received differently depending on whether the conversation took place in your boss’s office or over lunch at a local restaurant. FIGURE 1±1 Noise Noise Noise Communication Model Communicator Communicator Encodes/ Encodes/ Messages decodes Channel(s) Channel(s) decodes (Sends and (Sends and receives) receives) Noise Noise Noise 8  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 9 The social context refers to the nature of the relationship between the communica- tors, as well as others whose presence may affect the nature of communication. Imagine, for instance, the difference in asking a manager for a raise if you had a long history of friendship versus one of animosity, or if your ages were close or radically different. An interesting application of how changing the social context can shape interaction occurred during a round of secret negotiations in the 1990s between Israel and the Pal- estine Liberation Organization. The hosts, the Norwegian foreign minister and his wife, invited the negotiators to their home, where they played on the floor with the hosts’ 4-year-old child. After changing the context, impasses were broken and a groundbreak- ing Mideast peace accord was hammered out.17 The chronological context refers to the ways in which time influences interaction. A sample of time-related considerations shows the importance of adapting to the chronological context: time of day (e.g., first appointment in the morning or last in the afternoon) or the time of year (e.g., holiday season, tax time). You can boost your chances for success by paying attention to chronological factors. When calling someone or requesting a person’s help, consider asking, “Is this a good time?” or “Do you have time now, or would another time be more convenient?” The cultural context of communication includes both the organizational and the ethnic and/or national backgrounds of the persons communicating. Chapter 2 discusses the role of culture in detail. For now, you can get a sense of the importance of culture by imagining how just a few differences in backgrounds might influence communication: baby boomers and generation X-ers or Y-ers, Euro-Americans and Hispanics, New York- ers and Californians, or Americans and Chinese. Communication Principles The communication model pictured in Figure 1–1 is not yet complete. It is like a still picture of a live event: All the elements are present except action. Several characteristics describe the dynamic nature of the communication process. Communication Is Unavoidable A fundamental axiom of communication is “One cannot not communicate.” As you will learn in Chapter 4, facial expression, posture, gesture, clothing, and a host of other behaviors offer cues about our attitudes. The impossibility of not communicating means that we send messages even by our absence. Failing to show up at an event or leaving the room suggests meanings to others. Because commu- nication is unavoidable, it is essential to consider the unintentional messages you send. Communication Operates on Two Lev- els Every time two or more people communicate, they exchange two kinds of messages. The most obvi- ous ones are content messages—information about the topic under discussion. But at a less apparent level, the communicators also exchange relational messages— signals indicating how they feel about one another.18 Relational messages indicate a variety of attitudes. An important one is affinity—the degree to which a communicator likes the other person in general or a 10 Part One Basics of Business and Professional Communication particular message that is being sent. Another kind of relational message deals with control—the amount of influence in that situation. Communication theorists sometimes talk about three self-explanatory distributions of control that can exist between commu- nicators: “one up,” “one down,” and “straight across.” A third type of relational message can reflect a communicator’s degree of respect for the other person or people. Note that respect and affinity aren’t always identical: It is possible to like others without respecting them and to respect them without liking them. Communication Is Irreversible At one time or another, we have all wished we could take back words we regretted uttering. Unfortunately, this isn’t possible. Our words and deeds are recorded in others’ memories, and we can’t erase them. As the old saying goes, people may forgive, but they don’t forget. In fact, often the more vigorously you try to erase an act, the more vividly it stands out. Communication Is a Process It isn’t really accurate to talk about an “act” of communication as if sending or receiving a message were an isolated event. Rather, every communication event needs to be examined as part of its communication context. Suppose, for example, your boss responds to your request for a raise by saying, “I was going to ask you to take a cut in pay!” How would you react? The answer probably depends on several factors: Is your boss a joker or a serious person? How does the com- ment fit into the history of your relationship—have your boss’s remarks been critical or supportive in the past? How does the message fit with ones you have received from other people? What mood are you in today? All these questions show that the meaning of a message depends in part on what has happened before. Each message is part of a process: It doesn’t occur in isolation. Communication Is Not a Panacea Although communication can smooth out the bumps and straighten the road to success, it won’t always get you what you want. Misunderstandings and ill feelings can arise even when people communicate carefully,19 and they can increase when people communicate badly. This helps explain why some problems grow worse the longer they are discussed. Even effective communication won’t solve all problems: There are some situations in which the parties understand one another perfectly and still disagree. These limitations are important to understand as you begin to study communication on the job. Boosting your communication skills can increase your effectiveness, but it isn’t a cure-all. 12 Part One Basics of Business and Professional Communication Using Communication Networks The story of Sundown Bakery (page 2) shows that, as organizations grow, a system for managing the flow of communication has to develop. The regular patterns of communication between people are called communication networks.25 Two kinds of networks exist: formal and informal. Formal Communication Networks Formal communication networks are systems designed by management to dictate who should talk to whom to get a job done.26 In a small organization, networks are so simple that they may hardly be noticeable; in a larger organization, they become more intricate. The most common way of describing formal communication networks is with organizational charts like the one in Figure 1–2 on page 13. Organizational charts are more than a bureaucrat’s toy; they provide a clear guideline of who is responsible for a given task and which employees are responsible for others’ performance. Downward Communication Downward communication occurs whenever superiors initiate messages to their subordinates. There are several types of downward communication: Job instructions: “Bring in receipts for items under $20 that you pay for with cash. Anything over $20, charge to the company credit card.” Job rationale: “We rotate the stock like that so the customers won’t wind up with outdatedm erchandise.” Procedures and practices: “Don’t try to argue with unhappy customers. If you can’t handle them yourself, call the manager.” Feedback: “Backing up the files on your flash drive was a great idea. That saved us a lot of grief when the laptop didn’t work.” Indoctrination: “People can buy the stuff we sell at other places, but we can bring them in here by giving them what they want quickly and pleasantly. If we do that, we’ll all come out ahead.”  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 13 Organizational Chart FIGURE 1–2 Chris A Formal Manager Communication Network Jane Administrative Assistant Belle Office Manager Ted Claire Maria Assistant Manager Assistant Manager Assistant Manager Tara—CS Rep∗ Dawn—CS Rep Jose—CS Rep Bob—CS Rep Phil—CS Rep Steve—CS Rep Malik—CS Rep Sue—CS Rep Pam—CS Rep Todd—CS Rep Nancy—CS Rep Kate—CS Rep ∗CS Rep = Customer-Service Representative Most managers would agree—at least in principle—that downward communication is important. It’s hard to argue with the need for giving instructions, explaining rationale, describing procedures, and so on. Like their bosses, employees recognize the importance of downward communication. A study at General Electric (GE) revealed that “clear com- munication between boss and worker” was the most important factor in job satisfaction for most people. GE was so impressed with the findings of this study that it launched a program to encourage managers to communicate more, and more directly, with their employees, including holding informal meetings to encourage interaction.27 The desire for feedback is probably so strong among most employees because super- visors rarely provide enough of it. As two researchers in the field, Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn, put it: “The frequent complaint... by the individual is that he does not know where he stands with his superiors.”28 Many companies do take a more enlightened approach to feedback. Ed Carlson, former president of United Airlines, is generally credited with turning the company from a loser into a winner during his tenure. Part of his success was due to keeping United’s employees—all of them—aware of how the company was doing. “Nothing is worse for morale than a lack of information down in the ranks,” he said. “I call it NETMA—Nobody Ever Tells Me Anything—and I have tried hard to minimize that problem.”29 True to his word, Carlson passed along to the field staff information on United’s operations that was previously considered too important to circulate. career tip Getting Recognized Get your thoughts printed. Contribute quality writing in the company magazines, department by Your Bosses newsletters, or association or professional jour- nals. Distribute copies to your boss, bulletin According to Muriel Solomon, “The big secret to boards, and company blogs. getting recognized is to give creative thinking a prior- Use thoughtful gestures to build bridges. ity.” She and other career advisers recommend that Devote 5 minutes a day to raising your visibility you can showcase your talent, create interest in your by thanking people who worked on your project, work, and display your potential in several ways: calling or sending notes of thanks to the supervi- sors of those who helped you (with a blind copy Present proposals to your boss. Learn the history to the one whose help you received), and feeding of a challenge, develop a specific plan that shows your gratitude into the grapevine. creativity and understanding of the company’s Be ready to share a story about your accom- needs. Don’t wait for someone to recognize you plishments. Without bragging, be prepared to or choose you for a prime assignment. weave your accomplishments (be sure to include Volunteer for committees, to chair a commit- recent ones) into an interesting story you can tell tee, or to sponsor a workshop, hearing, or sports whenever the opportunity arises: “Something event. Create opportunities to enlarge your work- like that happened to us last week...” ing relationships with people at many levels of Sources: Peggy Klaus, The Hard Truth About Soft Skills (New York: your organization. Prepare concise summaries Collins Business, 2007), and Muriel Solomon, Getting Praised, Raised and submit reports to your boss. and Recognized (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1993). Upward Communication Messages flowing from subordinates to superiors are labeled upward communication. Virtually every organization claims to seek out upward messages, but many aren’t as open to employee opinions as they claim. In some organizations, questioning the boss can be a recipe for professional suicide. “The dis- connect between rhetoric and reality is why Scott Adams [creator of the ‘Dilbert’ comic strip] is a millionaire,” says management expert Warren Bennis.30 Businesses that really are open to upward communication can profit from the opinions of employees.31 Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart, the largest retailer in the United States, claimed that “our best ideas come from clerks and stockboys.”32 Industry observers credit the dramatic turnaround of Mattel Corporation to the openness to employee suggestions of its CEO, John Aberman.33 Upward communication can convey four types of messages:34 What subordinates are doing: “We’ll have that job done by closing time today.” Unsolved work problems: “We’re still having trouble with the air conditioner in the accountingo ffice.” Suggestions for improvement: “I think I’ve figured a way to give people the vacation schedules they want and still keep our staffing up.” As the Career Tip above sug- gests, getting recognized by your boss can pave the way to career advancement. How subordinates feel about each other and the job: “I’m having a hard time working with Louie. He seems to think I’m mad at him.” Or, “I’m getting frustrated. I’ve been in the same job for over a year now, and I’d like more responsibility.” 14  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 15 These messages can benefit both subordinates and superiors, and this explains why the most satisfied employees feel free to express dissent to their bosses.35 Bennis empha- sizes the critical role upward communication plays in the success of an organization: [T]he longer I study effective leaders, the more I am convinced of the underappreciated importance of effective followers. What makes a good follower? The single most important characteristic may well be a willingness to tell the truth. In a world of growing complexity, leaders are increasingly dependent on their subordinates for good information, whether the leaders want to or not. Followers who tell the truth, and leaders who listen, are an unbeatable combination.36 Upward communication is especially important for women. Females who engage in more interactions with their supervisors advance in the organizational hierarchy faster than those who do not spend as much time communicating upward.37 A probable explanation for this fact is that women have fewer informal connections with power- ful decision-makers in some organizations. Given this absence of connections, it makes sense that women would rely on official contacts to work efficiently and effectively. Despite the importance of upward communication, employees find participation in upward communication extremely difficult. Being frank with superiors can be risky, especially when the news isn’t what the boss wants to hear.38 Busy superiors can also be too isolated, busy, or certain of their expertise to pay attention to employees. Some organizations have developed systems to promote upward communication in the face of challenges like these. Pillsbury Corporation employees can voice their messages on an anonymous voice mail system. An independent company creates transcripts of all calls and forwards them to Pillsbury’s CEO.39 Most of the responsibility for improving upward communication rests with manag- ers. They can begin the process by announcing their willingness to hear from subordi- nates. A number of vehicles facilitate upward messages: an open-door policy, grievance procedures, periodic interviews, group meetings, and the suggestion box, to name a few. Formal channels aren’t the only way to promote upward messages. Informal contacts can often be most effective; chats during breaks, in the elevator, or at social gatherings can sometimes tell more than planned sessions. But no method will be effective unless a Dilbert: © Scott Adams/Dist. by United Feature Syndicate, Inc. Reprinted by permission. 16 Part One Basics of Business and Professional Communication manager is sincerely interested in hearing from subordinates and genuinely values their ideas. Just talking about this isn’t enough. Employees have to see evidence of a willing- ness to hear upward messages—both good and bad—before they will really open up. Horizontal Communication A third type of organizational interaction is horizontal communication (sometimes called lateral communication). It consists of messages between members of an organization with equal power.40 The most obvious type of horizontal communication goes on between members of the same division of an organization: office workers in the same department, co-workers on a construction project, and so on. In other cases, lateral communication occurs between people from different areas: accounting calls maintenance to get a machine repaired, hospital admis- sions calls intensive care to reserve a bed, and so on. Horizontal communication serves five purposes:41 Task coordination: “Let’s get together this afternoon and set up a production schedule.” Problem solving: “It takes 3 days for my department to get reports from yours. How can we speed things up?” Sharing information: “I just found out that a big convention is coming to town next week, so we ought to get ready for lots of business.” Conflict resolution: “I’ve heard that you were complaining about my work to the boss. If you’re not happy, I wish you’d tell me first.” Building rapport: “I appreciate the way you got that rush job done on time. I’d like to say thanks by buying you lunch when it’s convenient.” Research suggests that people in most organizations communicate horizontally, but the reasons for doing so in high-performing groups are different from those in less effective ones.42 Low-performing groups are likely to reach out to different parts of the organization to get information on how to follow existing procedures. For example, an engineer might contact the purchasing department to check on the status of an equip- ment order. By contrast, lateral contacts in high-performing organizations are used to get the information needed to solve complex and difficult work problems. For instance, before starting design work on a new product, the same engineer might contact the sales manager to find out what features customers want most. Top-performing organizations encourage people from different areas to get together and share ideas. At Hewlett-Packard, Worldwide Personnel Manager Barbara Waugh and her colleagues spent 5 years improving horizontal communication. “My role is to create mirrors that show the whole what the parts are doing—through coffee talks and small meetings, through building a network, through bringing people together who have similar or complementary ideas.”43 Despite the importance of good horizontal communication, several forces work to discourage communication between peers.44 Rivalry is one. Peo- ple who feel threatened by one another aren’t likely to be cooperative. The threat can come from competi- tion for a promotion, raise, or other scarce resource. Sometimes rivalry occurs over an informal role. For example, two office comedians might feel threatened  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 17 each time the other gets a laugh; that could inhibit their cooperation. Another challenge is the specialization that makes it hard for people with different technical specialties to understand one another. Information overload can also discourage employees from reach- ing out to others in different areas, and a simple lack of motivation is another problem. Finally, physical barriers can interfere with horizontal connections. Informal Communication Networks So far, we have focused on networks within organizations that are created by manage- ment. Alongside the formal networks, every organization also has informal communica- tion networks—patterns of interaction based on friendships, shared personal or career interests, and proximity. One business writer described the value of informal networks: A firm’s organizational chart will tell you about authority. It doesn’t always show how things get done or created. You know the rules, but you don’t know the ropes. For that, you need a map to the network, the corresponding informal structure that is usually invisible.45 Informal relationships within organizations operate in ways that have little to do with the formal relationships laid out in organizational charts.46 Figure 1–3 shows how the actual flow of information in one firm is quite different from its formal structure. And beyond any sort of organizational connection, people are connected with one another through informal personal networks—with friends, neighbors, family members, and all sorts of other relationships. Some informal networks arise because of personal interests. Two colleagues who are avid basketball fans or share a fascination with rare books are more likely to swap infor- mation on work than co-workers who have no such bonds. Personal friendships also cre- ate connections that can lead to increased communication. Finally, physical proximity increases the chances for interaction. Shared office space or frequent meetings around the copying machine make it likely that people will exchange information. Even sharing restrooms can lead to networking, as public relations executive James E. Lukaszewski observes in describing one anatomical difference that has benefited men. This may sound facetious, even silly, but when these meetings break, where are the women and where are the men? The guys go to the porcelain in that little room with M-E-N on the door.... The guys are standing there, facing the wall, talking and deciding things. It’s a critical opportunity for important verbal communication to take place during times of decision making.47 Functions of Informal Networks within Organizations As the follow- ing examples show, not all informal messages are idle rumors. Informal communication can serve several useful functions. FIGURE 1±3 Chris An Informal Claire Belle Communication Previous work relationship Network Jane Pam Tara Source: Adapted from Friends Mark P. Orbe and Gossip partners Carol J. Bruess, Contem- Todd Jose Malik porary Issues Interpersonal Romantically involved Communication (Los Angeles: Roxbury, Maria Kate Ted 2005), p. 309. 18 Part One Basics of Business and Professional Communication Confirming formal messages: “The boss is really serious this time about cutting down on overnight travel. I heard him yelling about it when I walked past his office.” Expanding on formal messages: “The invitation to the office party says ‘casual dress,’ but don’t make it too informal.” Expediting official messages: You might learn about openings within an organization from people in your network long before the vacancies are published. Contradicting official messages: You might learn from a friend in accounting that the deadline for purchases on this year’s budget isn’t as firm as it sounded in the comptroller’sr ecentm emo. Circumventing formal channels: Your tennis partner who works in duplicating might sneak in an occasional rush job for you instead of putting it at the end of the line. Many companies elevate informal communication to an official policy by encourag- ing open, unstructured contacts between people from various parts of the organization. For example, Hewlett-Packard’s approach to problem solving has been termed MBWA, “management by wandering around.” Some observers consider informal contacts to be the primary means of communica- tion within an organization. In one survey, 57 percent of the respondents said that the grapevine is “the only way to find out what’s really happening” in their organizations.48 A decade of research shows that engineers and scientists were five times more likely to turn to a person for information than to impersonal sources like the databases or files.49 Two well-known analysts flatly assert that as much as 90 percent of what goes on in a company has nothing to do with formal events.50 Writing in the Harvard Business Review, David Krackhardt and Jeffrey Hanson capture the difference between formal and informal networks: “If the formal organization is the skeleton of a company, the informal is the central nervous system.”51 Like the human nervous system, informal networks are faster, and often more dependable, than formal channels.52 They also provide a shortcut (and sometimes a way around) for the slower and more cumbersome formal channels, making innova- tion easier.53 This fact helps explain why organizational decision-makers tend to rely on verbal information from trusted associates.54 Smart communicators don’t just rely on informal contacts with peers for information; they take advantage of sources throughout the organization. One study revealed that general managers spent a great deal of time with people who were not direct subordinates, superiors, or peers—people with whom, according to the official chain of command, they had no need to deal. Although many of these people—secretaries, lower-level subordinates, and supervisors with little power— seemed relatively unimportant to outsiders, successful managers all seemed to cultivate such contacts.55 Enlightened organizations do everything possible to encourage constructive, infor- mal interaction. Siemens Corp. leaves overhead projectors and empty pads of paper in its factory lunchrooms to facilitate informal meetings.56 Corning Glass deliberately installed escalators in its new engineering building to boost the kind of face-to-face con- tacts that are less likely in elevators. 3M sponsors clubs for any group of employees that requests them, realizing that this sort of employee interaction is likely to encourage new ideas that will help the company. Other firms mingle workers from different depart- ments in the same office, convinced that people who rub elbows will swap ideas and see themselves as part of a companywide team. Informal networks don’t just operate within organizations. Friends, neighbors, and community members increase their effectiveness by sharing information. In some cities, chambers of commerce host networking events to encourage these ties among  on your feet Your Elevator Speech “I’m completing my accounting major this semes- ter with a 3.8 GPA and I’ve developed additional skills in tax preparation through volunteer work Often the chance to present yourself and your ideas with Tax-Help USA.” lasts less than a minute. You meet a prospective 3. Depending on your audience, state what you customer at a party. You run into your boss on the can do for others or ask for their help: street. You are introduced to a potential employer in a hallway. Whether networking opportunities like “If you or someone you know needs help with these turn out well or badly may depend on your tax preparation, I can help,” or “If you know foresight and preparation. of any openings in accounting, I’d like to hear When the opportunity arises, you can make a about them.” good impression by delivering what has been called an 4. Indicate how the person can get in touch with “elevator speech.” (This type of communication gets you or how you plan to contact this person: its name because it should be brief enough to deliver “Here’s my card with my e-mail address. I’d like in the length of an elevator ride.) Elevator speeches to hear from you.” can accomplish a variety of goals. Besides serving as introductions, they can be a tool for seeking help, While modesty is a virtue, don’t be bashful about establishing a relationship, gaining visibility, market- presenting yourself as an interesting and competent ing yourself or your organization, getting feedback, person. Whether or not you want to, you are always expanding your personal network, and doing an end- presenting yourself to others. Brevity and sincerity run around someone who is blocking your progress. are the keys to an elevator speech. Don’t overwhelm Practice your skill at presenting yourself briefly your audience with information; present enough and effectively by planning and delivering an elevator to make sure you create a positive impression and, speech to your classmates. Your speech should con- ideally, to be asked for more information. tain four parts and take less than a minute to deliver. For more help planning your elevator speech, see www.saleslinks.com/sideline/99c/11v1.htm and 1. State your name and your current job title or www.work.com/creating-an-elevator-pitch-for-your position. -startup-319/. “Hi. I’m Claire Yoder. I’m a senior, graduating Source: After Marie Wallace, “The Elevator Speech—It’s There for in December.” You,” retrieved June 21, 2006, from Law Library Resource Exchange 2. Describe some personal strengths or distinguish- at www.llrx.com/columns/guide18.htm. ing information. community businesses. Even without these organized contacts, most people are surprised to realize just how many people they know who can offer useful information. Consider all the networks to which you already belong: family members, friends, neighbors, social acquaintances, fellow workers, members of your religious community, professionals (doctors, dentists, accountants, attorneys, etc.), school contacts (faculty, fellow students, counselors, etc.). Cultivating Personal Networks Everyone is part of informal networks. As one writer put it, “Shared information is the foundation upon which civilization has been built.... We always networked. We just called it being ‘neighborly.’ ”57 While all of us have personal contacts, networking, as the term is usually used, has a strategic dimension that goes beyond being sociable. It is the process of deliberately meeting people and maintaining contacts to get career information, advice, and leads—and in 19 20 Part One Basics of Business and Professional Communication turn to help others. Some professionals use social networks such as Facebook for busi- ness contacts, while others are networking at sites like LinkedIn that were designed expressly for business purposes. As you explore and expand your network, keep the following tips in mind.58 View everyone as a networking prospect The Self-Assessment tool on page 22 will help you identify many people in your personal networks who can help you achieve your goals. Beyond the people you already know, almost everyone you meet has the potential to be a source of useful information. The passenger seated next to you on a plane or train might be acquainted with people who can help you. The neighbor who chats with you at a block party might have the knowledge or skill to help you solve a problem. Within an organization, the best informants are often people you might overlook. Administrative assistants are exposed to most of the information addressed to their bosses, and they usually serve as gatekeepers who can give or deny access to them. Custodial and maintenance people travel around the building and, in their rounds, see and hear many interesting things. Of course, treating everyone you deal with respectfully is ethical as well as smart. Be sensitive to personal and cultural factors While everyone you meet is a potential networking prospect, it’s important to think of each person as an individual. Some welcome the chance to share information, whereas others may object to more than occasional contacts. It’s also important to recognize that culture plays a role in networking practices. As Table 1–2 shows, the relationships you have with others can vary depending on their nationality and background. Treat your contacts with gratitude and respect Don’t make the mistake of equating networking with being dishonest or exploitive. As long as you express a genuine desire for information openly, there’s nothing to be ashamed of. Furthermore, seeking information doesn’t mean you have to stop enjoying others’ company for social reasons. Table 1–2 Chinese–Western Networking Differences Chinese Western Personal and trust-based Contract-oriented Personal relationships have organizational Clear distinction between individual and implications and vice versa organizational relationships Symbiotic relationship between networked High independence of networked organizations organizations Motivated by economic and social concerns Motivated primarily by economic concerns Flexibility and informality Formality and clearly defined roles Source: M. J. Chen, Inside Chinese Business: A Guide for Managers Worldwide. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2001, p. 64.  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 21 When others do give you information, be sure to express your appreciation. At the very least, a “thank you” is in order. Even better, let your networking contacts know exactly how the information they gave you was helpful. Help others Don’t just be an information-seeker. Whenever possible, make an effort to put people who will benefit from contact in touch with one another: “You’re looking for a new bookkeeper? I know someone who might be right for you!” Besides being the right thing to do, helping others will earn you a reputation for generosity that can serve you well.59 The Self-Assessment on page 22 offers a tool for noting ways that you can use your personal networks to help meet others’ needs. Get referrals to secondary sources The benefits of personal networks don’t stop with your personal acquaintances. Each person you know has his or her own connections, some of whom could be useful to you. Social scientists have demonstrated the “small world” phenomenon: Research on the “six degrees of separation” hypothesis involving over 45,000 messages and over 150 countries has demonstrated that the aver- age number of links separating any two people in the world is indeed a half-dozen.60 You can apply this principle to your own information by only seeking people removed from your personal network by one degree: If you ask 10 people for referrals and each of them knows 10 others who might be able to help, you have the potential of support from 100 information-givers. Secondary sources are so valuable that some online networking groups sites exist to help users find the contacts they need. For tips about how to find these groups, see the Online Learning Center Web site at www.mhhe.com/adler10e. Having a network of people who can refer you to others can be especially helpful in today’s workforce, where people often stay in a job for only a year or two. Seek a mentor A mentor is a person who acts as a guide, trainer, coach, and coun- selor; who teaches you the informal rules of an organization or a field; and who imparts the kinds of wisdom that come from firsthand experience. Many organizations have for- mal programs that match new employees with experienced ones. Other mentor–protégé relationships develop informally and unofficially. However you find one, a mentor can be invaluable. This is especially true for women, minorities, and people trying to break into nontraditional fields where “good old boy” networks can be hard to penetrate.61 A successful mentoring relationship isn’t a one-time affair. Instead, it passes through several stages.62 In the initial phase, the parties get to know one another and gain confidence in each other’s commitment to the relationship. After the initial stage, a period of cultivation occurs in which the mentor guides his or her protégé through a series of conversations and tasks with the goal of buiding knowledge, confidence, and skill. By the third phase of the relationship, the protégé can function mostly on his or her own, with occasional guidance from the mentor. Finally, the fourth stage involves either separation or a redefinition of the relationship as one of peers. Not all mentoring relationships are this involved or long-lasting; but whether they are relatively brief or ongoing, they can provide great value and satisfaction for both mentor and protégé. Whatever the relationship, some rules guide mentoring relationships.63 Look for someone with a position in a field that interests you. Don’t be bashful about aiming high: You may be surprised by the willingness of successful people to give back by helping aspiring newcomers. Approach your mentor professionally, showing that you are serious about growing in your career. See “The Career Research Interview” in Chapter 7 for guidelines on how to handle this process.  Self-Assessment Communication Network Inventory Complete the table below to get a sense of some key people who are already members of your personal networks, and who can help you be more successful in your career. After completing the inventory, develop an action plan by choosing which contacts you can pursue. Keep yourself on target by setting deadlines for contacting the people you have identified. Type of How I can information Questions I Best channel reciprocate/ this person could ask this to contact this acknowledge Name could provide person person help Family members Friends* Neighbors* Social acquaintances* Fellow workers and bosses* Members of religious and charitable community* Professionals (doctors, dentists, accountants, etc.)* School contacts (faculty, students, etc.)* Online acquaintances or friends (e.g., Facebook, MySpace) *Past and present. 22  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 23 Once you have found a mentor, show respect for his or her time by keeping most of your contacts to regularly scheduled times. Be sure to follow up on your mentor’s suggestions about reading, checking Web sites, and attending activities. Realize that a mentoring relationship should be primarily professional. If you have serious personal problems, turn to a counselor. A mentor may be able to help you with some personal problems as they affect your work life, but a mentor should not become an emotional crutch. Remember that any personal insights shared by mentors and protégés should be kept confidential. Finally, don’t expect a mentor to grant you special favors, intervene on your behalf with your boss, or boost your chances for promotion. The advice you receive should be reward enough. Face-to-Facean dE lectronic Communication Channels As a business communicator, you often can choose how to deliver a message. Deciding which communication channel to use isn’t a trivial matter; communication researchers have studied extensively the factors that lead to good channel choice.64 Sometimes a written message succeeds where an oral one fails; at other times, talking to the recipi- ent will produce results that the printed word can’t match. An understanding of these two channels will help you make the best choice about how to deliver your important messages. Face-to-Face Communication Talking to others in person has several apparent advantages: Richness.65 Richness refers to the number of channels available: facial expression, tone of voice, eye and body movement. In person, a wide array of nonverbal cues help you better understand another person. Is the customer in a hurry? Is your boss angry? Is a colleague joking or serious? Seeing and hearing others can help you answer questions like these. Speed. Once you make contact with your audience, there’s no time lag between the transmission of a message and its reception. If you need a price or have to have the funds in an account released now, putting your request in a letter or memo won’t be much help. Control. You might spend hours drafting a memo, letter, or report only to have the recipient scan it superficially or not read it at all. In a personal contact, however, you have much more command over the receiver’s attention. Another enormous advantage of face-to-face communication is that it permits instantaneous feedback. You can respond to questions as soon as they arise and rephrase or elaborate as necessary. Personal quality. Face-to-face contact has the potential to create personal bonds that are more difficult in other types of communication. One corporate manager, whose company spends over $4 million annually on employee travel, makes the case for face-to-face contact: “Nothing takes the place of a handshake, going to lunch, seeing their eyes.”66 Although face-to-face communication has many advantages, it isn’t always the best approach. The biggest drawback of personal contacts is the difficulty in arranging them. Even when communicators are in the same building, scheduling a meeting can be career tip Voice Mail Cell Phone and Voice Mail Know the schedule of the person you’re trying Do’s and Dont’s to reach. Doing so can boost the odds of reach- ing (or not reaching) the person you’re seeking Cell Phone (or avoiding). Know your company’s policy regarding personal Leave the name of the person for whom the cell phone calls in the office. Also, be sensitive message is directed if the mailbox is shared by to the informal norms about cell phone use in more than one person. Don’t make the recipi- your work group. ent guess who you’re trying to reach. Avoid using your cell phone where others will State your name and phone number and your be forced to overhear you. If you must receive company at the beginning of the message, and calls, use the phone’s vibrate function and move again at the end if the recipient doesn’t know to a more private place to talk. you well. Doing so will save the recipient from having to replay the whole message to figure Don’t interrupt an ongoing face-to-face conversa- out who you are. If there’s any possibility of tion to speak on the phone. It gives the impres- misunderstanding, spell your last name. sion that those you are talking with are not as Organize your message in advance. Don’t con- important as the caller. If you know you will be fuse the recipient by leaving a rambling message receiving a business-related call that you must that makes you sound muddle-headed and is take, forewarn the others and take only that call, likely to annoy the recipient. not other calls. If you must respond to a caller, Keep the message as short as possible. If you excuse yourself and make it short—less than 30 have a great deal to say, consider alerting your seconds. receiver to the main points, and then send the Avoid using potentially annoying ringtones. details via fax, memo, or e-mail. If possible, use the vibrate function or a plain Speak slowly and clearly. The vocal fidelity of ring. some voice mail systems is poor, and you don’t want your message to be misunderstood. difficult and frustrating. A crosstown trip for a half-hour meeting can take most of the morning or afternoon. Personal factors can also be problematic in some relationships. Distance notwithstanding, a personal encounter might also be unproductive if it involves incompatible personalities or a sore subject. In cases like these, less confrontational forms of communication might be better. Telephone and Voice Mail While a phone conversation lacks the rich visual feedback that often reveals how your message is getting across, vocal cues—tone of voice, pauses, interruptions, pitch, and rate—can give you a good idea of the other person’s reaction to your message. As with face-to-face conversations, timing is important in phone communication. Your chances of having a successful conversation will drop if the other person is hurried, angry, or distracted. For this reason, it’s smart to ask, “Is this a good time?” before launching into your conversation. Voice mail might seem like a poor alternative to a real phone conversation, and it does have its potential drawbacks. (See the Career Tip box on this page.) But sometimes 24  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 25 leaving a message can be preferable to a real conversation. If you’re rushing to meet a deadline and don’t have time to talk, voice mails can allow you to touch base without getting involved in long, unproductive conversations. And a voice mail message can give the recipient a chance to digest bad news before you discuss it in person or over the phone. Services like Slydial (www.slydial.com) allow callers to avoid unwanted conversa- tions by sending messages directly to the receiver’s voice mail box without ever ringing his or her phone. Despite its advantages, oral communication isn’t a perfect medium. Possibly the great- est disadvantage of speech is its transience. Listeners quickly forget much of what they hear—half of a message almost immediately and half of the remainder 2 days later. Thus, a customer might forget three of the five product features you mentioned, or your boss might forget exactly why you need more staff support and recall only the dollar amount you requested. Even if they remember an oral message, listeners are likely to distort it. Some details drop out with each telling of a story. Facts and figures change. The farther the message travels in space and time from its original sender, the greater the chance of distortion. Teleconferencing and Videoconferencing Teleconferencing allows more than two participants to talk with each other via tele- phones, while videoconferencing lets people both speak with and see each other. With a fast Internet connection and a simple microphone and webcam, many conferencing services allow users all over the world to communicate with one another at no cost. Chapter 9 offers tips on how to set up and communicate effectively in teleconferences andv ideoconferences. Instant Messaging Instant messaging (IM) lets you exchange messages in real time via your computer. IM isn’t just a tool for recreation: The technology has real utility on the job. For example, peo- ple who IM at work report being interrupted less often than non-users, and they engage in more frequent computer-mediated communication than non-users—work-related as well as personal.67 Instant messaging allows users to send urgent information or queries to others currently logged on to the network or online. For example, customer support agents at many companies can instantly get help from their colleagues when stumped by a customer’s problem. When speed is important, instant messaging can beat both e-mail and telephones in efficiency. Connecting is almost instantaneous, and there is less need to socialize when time is of the essence. “One thing about the telephone is the first thing you’re supposed to say is ‘how’s the wife and kids?’ With instant messaging you can just say, ‘I want this.’ ”68 In one poll of 50 Fortune 1000 companies, 36 percent had employees who used instant messaging to keep in touch.69 Another survey revealed that almost a quarter of American workers use instant messaging on the job, often informally.70 Along with its advantages, instant messaging does have drawbacks. Typing is certainly more cumbersome than talking on the phone, and text-only messages lack the richness of spoken conversations. For better or worse, instant messaging can make you available to others almost constantly. Failure to respond quickly to others’ messages can be perceived by senders as lack of interest, especially if they know you are logged on at your computer. technology tip Instant Messaging at Work open a door. For long conversations, delicate issues, or complex transactions, use the phone, e-mail, or have a face-to-face conversation. Instant messaging (IM) is less intrusive than a phone call and more immediate than e-mail. It can be a Keep messages brief and to the point. business blessing or curse, depending on its use. Use IMs for short, nonconfrontational messages, Follow these guidelines for respectful and effective not for arguments or heated discussions. IM communication:71 Don’t write anything you wouldn’t put on company letterhead because IMs can be permanent and they Check your organization’s policy on IM software. are easy to forward. Make sure it allows IM-ing on the job and that it authorizes you to download the software you want Avoid acronyms that may not be widely understood to use. by your correspondent. TTFN (“Ta ta for now”) Ask whether the other person is available to IM might be fine for casual personal exchanges; at work, rather than assuming he or she is. Respect others’ this approach may not create the impression you responses that they are busy. want. Save yourself from interruptions by using the “busy” Avoid poor grammar or general sloppiness that could or “away” feature to tell others you aren’t available. create a bad impression of you and your company. Don’t make IM your main form of communication. Focus on what you’re doing. Too much multitasking It can be the right channel for a quick answer or to can lead to major slip-ups and embarrassments. Twitter and Text Messaging Twitter and similar services let users send short messages (“tweets”) to interested parties who can read and reply to them via mobile phone, instant message, or the Web. At first, Twitter was criticized as a narcissistic form of microblogging (“Who cares what you are doing?”). Over time, though, business and professional applications have emerged. A small sample suggests the value of this medium: Communicate with customers: “See our Web site for new products!” Send messages to work teams: “Deadline for equipment requests is Friday at 5:00p.m.” Swap ideas with others in your field: “Great article on cost cutting in today’s Wall St. Journal.” Extend invitations: “Please come to our grand opening party tonight.” Express appreciation: “Thanks to all our volunteers. Great job!” Coordinate with those in your network: “Anybody going to the conference in Austin?” Monitor what people are saying about your organization, its product, and you via Twitter’ss earchf eature. Text messaging (or texting) is the common term for sending brief text messages via mobile phones and personal digital assistants. Whereas Twitter is typically used to send messages to many recipients, most texting is aimed at just one receiver. Texting is a useful tool when you don’t want to interrupt the other person with a phone call, and the textual nature of your message provides a record that can be easier to manage than a voice mail message. 26  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 27 E-mail and Written Communication Written communication comes in a variety of forms. Letters, memos, bulletins, and reports are familiar fixtures in almost everybody’s career. Written messages have a set of advantages and drawbacks differ- ent from their spoken counterparts. Unlike speech, written commu- nication is permanent. Once your words are down on paper, they are saved for future reference—either to your delight or to your undying embarrassment and chagrin. While people may have trouble accu- rately recalling what you said a few hours ago, they can refer to your written remarks years later. Even if the receiver has lost or forgotten your message, you can always supply a copy from your files. Along with its permanence, written communication can be eas- ier to understand than speech. Readers can study complex passages as many times as necessary, a luxury they do not have when the same message is delivered orally. They can take a break if their interest wanes and, after a cup of coffee or a quick stretch, come back to what they were reading refreshed and ready to go on. Perhaps the greatest advantage of written communication is that you can compose it in advance. You can take as much time as necessary to shape a message just as you want it, pondering every word if neces- sary. You can try out several versions on test readers to anticipate the reactions of your real audience, and you can make changes until you get the desired response. Finally, written messages are less prone to errors. Even the best-rehearsed oral presentations can go awry. You can misplace an important set of papers or forget to mention a key idea. Furthermore, the spontaneity that makes spoken communication so effective can backfire. Your attempt to improvise might sound confusing or lame, and the joke you thought would make the perfect ice-breaker might fall flat. Every speaker has thought, hours after a conversation, “If only I’d said...” When you communicate in writing, you have time to choose exactly the right words. E-mail has become the most-used communication tool on the job. According to one survey, 71 percent of managers use e-mail as their primary form of communication. By comparison, only 13 percent of managers polled use the telephone most often and just 14 percent rely on face-to-face meetings.72 Just because e-mail is used commonly, it isn’t always used well. For example, the length of time it takes a recipient to respond to a message can have serious consequences,73 and a cordial tone can contribute to a positive communication climate, while an impersonal one can lower morale.74 Like voice mail, e-mail is asynchronous, so you can leave messages for others to pick up at their convenience. Because your ideas appear in writing, e-mail (like letters and faxes) makes it easier to comprehend lengthy, detailed messages. Along with speed and convenience, e-mail provides an astonishing degree of access to people you otherwise might not be able to reach. The speed and easy-to-use nature of e-mail also make it a tool for improving personal relationships on the job.75 Speeding up routine communication leaves more time for personal contacts, which the medium also makes more likely. Technology consultant Beau Carr explains: “It may sound backwards, but people who refuse to learn about technology are the ones losing the human touch.... Users can focus more energy and attention on relating to other people and at the same time deliver products and services faster, better, and probably less expensively.”76 technology tip Think Before Blogging Be sure you understand any boundaries about content that involve the organization, and whether any topics are off-limits. Free speech is a cornerstone of democratic society. But when it comes to your career, speaking freely can 2. Don’t blog on company time. You are safer have serious costs. The information you publish on a if you create and post content with your own personal blog or social networking site may come to equipment on your own time. Using com- the attention of employers—sometimes with shocking pany resources can increase your exposure to results. According to media sources, employees have discipline. been fired after opinionated blogging at a number of 3. Think about what you say. A blog is an exten- companies, including Starbucks, Wells Fargo, Kmart, sion of your own voice to a potentially enormous and Silicon Valley firms Google and Friendster. audience, so be sure you won’t regret anything Firms are most likely to discipline employees when you post. If you wouldn’t make a comment in posts bring discredit on the company. Delta Airlines person to a large audience, don’t do so in a terminated a flight attendant who posted suggestive blog. photos of herself in uniform, and Microsoft dis- 4. Be prepared for controversy. Sooner or later it’s missed a contractor who embarrassed the company likely that something you say will displease read- by posting photos of Apple computers being deliv- ers. Your choice, then, is whether to play it safe ered at a Microsoft loading dock. and keep your thoughts to yourself, or accept Before posting information on a blog, consider the risks that come from having a public voice. the following guidelines: Sources: CNN, “Avoid Getting Fired for Blogging,” www.cnn 1. Understand company policy. Ask about your.com/2005/US/Careers/04/05/blogging/, and CBS News, “Fired employer’s policy regarding blogging. Many for Blogging,” www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/03/07/tech/ firms support, and even host, employee blogs. main678554.shtml. Along with its advantages, e-mail can easily become a drain on your productivity. The technology is so quick and easy that it is prone to overuse: Your in-box can fill up with unimportant messages, and you can go overboard in sending mail to others. At computer chip maker Intel Corp., employees spend an average of 2.5 hours per day sending and receiving e-mails.77 See the appendix for more guidelines on composing and managing e-mail messages. Which Channel to Use New technologies have given businesspeople a wider range of choices for communica- tion than ever before, and choosing the most efficient and effective way to communicate a message can mean the difference between success and failure. The question is not which communication channel to use, but when to use each one most effectively.78 As Table 1–3 shows, each communication channel has both advantages and drawbacks. Despite these pros and cons, there are guidelines that will help you decide how to deliver your message most effectively. Following these guide- lines can produce dramatic results. In one survey, managers who were identified as “media sensitive”—those who matched the channel to the message—were almost twice as likely to receive top ratings in their performance reviews when compared with less media-sensitive peers.79 28  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 29 Table 1–3 Considerations in Choosing a Communication Channel Time Sender' s Control required Richness of control over over Effectiveness for information how message receiver' s for detailed feedback conveyed is composed attention messages Face-to-Face Immediate High Moderate Highest Weak Telephone Immediate Moderate Moderate Moderate Weak Teleconferencing, and Videoconferencing Voice Mail Delayed Moderate High Low Weak E-Mail Varies Low High Low High Instant Messaging Varies Low High Varies Weak Text Messaging and Can be Low High (given Low Good for brief Twitter immediate briefness of messages message) Hard Copy (e.g., Delayed Low High Low High handwritten or typed message) Consider the Desired Tone In general, oral communication is best for messages that require a personal dimension. For example, relationships improve and problems decline when physicians and the administrators of hospitals and health care systems meet in person instead of exchanging messages through less personal chan- nels.80 Oral channels are also best for ideas that have a strong need for visual support— demonstration, photos or slides, and so on. Spoken communication is also especially useful when there is a need for immediate feedback, such as question-and-answer sessions or a quick reply to your ideas. Written communication (with the exception of e-mail) works best when you want to create a relatively formal tone. Writing is almost always the best medium when you must choose your words carefully. Writing is also better than speaking when you want to convey complicated ideas that are likely to require much study and thought by the receiver. It is also smart to put your message in writing when you want it to be the final word, with no feedback or discussion. Finally, writing is best for any message if you want a record to exist. In business and the professions, sending confirming letters and memo- randa is common practice, as is keeping minutes of meetings. These steps guarantee that what is said will be a matter of record, useful in case of later misunderstandings or disputes and in case anyone wants to review the history of an issue. Handwritten notes of thanks or sympathy express thoughtfulness and add a personal touch that typed messagesl ose. 30 Part One Basics of Business and Professional Communication Consider the Organization' s Culture Besides message-related considera- tions, the culture of the organization in which you work may favor some communica- tion channels over others.81 For example, Microsoft Corporation is so e-mail intensive that some voice mail greetings include the directive “If you’re from Microsoft, please try to send electronic mail.” In other organizations, voice mail is the preferred channel. Kirk Froggatt, a vice president at Silicon Graphics, offers one explanation: “There’s something fundamentally more personal about voice mail. You can get the tone of voice, the passion. People like that.”82 A recent study even indicated that employees who followed corporate norms for e-mail and IM use received higher performance evaluations.83 Along with an organization’s overall preference for some channels, it’s important to consider the preferences of departments, or even individuals. For example, the computer support staff in some organizations respond to e-mails, while in other companies a phone call to the help desk is the best way to get a quick response. And, if you know a co-worker or your boss responds only to face-to-face reminders, your best bet is to use that approach. Consider Using Multiple Channels In many cases, it is wise to send a message using both oral and written channels. This kind of redundancy captures the best of both media, and it works in a variety of settings: Distribute a written text or outline that parallels your presentation. Follow a letter, fax, or e-mail message with a phone call, or call first and then write. Send a report or proposal and then make appointments with your readers to discussi t. You won’t always have the luxury of choosing the communication channel. But when you do, the right decision can make your message clearer and more effective. The Career Tip on page 24 and the Technology Tips on pages 26 and 28 can help you use electronic channelsw ithc ivilitya nde ffectiveness. review points Communication occupies more time and is more crucial to success than other work activities. The process of communication involves people in different environments, specific contexts (physical, social, psychological, cultural), various channels, and verbal and nonverbal feedback. Noise can be physical, physiological, or psychological and can be present in the sender, receiver, message, or channel. To improve communication choose the most credible sender, pick the optimal receivers and address their needs, develop messages strategically, structure them clearly, minimize noise, and utilize feedback. Understand various ethical frameworks to make principled decisions around ethical challenges. Formal communication networks (flowcharts and organizational charts) represent management’s view of organizational relationships: upward, downward, horizontal.  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 31 Informal networks, based on proximity, shared interests, or friendships, serve to con- firm, expand, expedite, contradict, circumvent, or supplement formal communication so effective communicators cultivate and use informal networks. Messages are exchanged face-to-face or electronically via oral and/or written channels. Each channel’s advantages and drawbacks can have a strong influence on the effective- ness of a message. Communicators can choose the best channel by considering the situation, the nature of the message, the organizational culture, and the desired tone. key terms Te your understanding of these key terms by visiting the Online Learning Center Web site at Test ➜ www.mhhe.com/adler10e. ww channel 7 lateralc ommunication 16 communicationn etworks 12 message 7 contentm essages 9 networking 19 context 8 noise 7 decoding 7 organizationalc harts 12 downwardc ommunication 12 receiver 7 e-mail 27 relationalm essages 9 encoding 7 sender 7 feedback 7 teleconferencing 25 formalc ommunicationn etworks 12 textm essaging 26 horizontalc ommunication 16 Twitter 26 informalc ommunicationn etworks 17 upwardc ommunication 14 instantm essaging( IM) 25 videoconferencing 25 activities Go to the self-quizzes at the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/adler10e to test your knowledge ➜ of chapter concepts. 1. Invitation to Insight 2. Invitation to Insight Keep a log of your work- (or school-) related com- Think about a situation you have experienced in munication over a 3-day period. Include who you which communication went wrong. Diagnose the have communicated with (superior, subordinate, problem by finding the parts of the communication peer, external) and your level of satisfaction. Based process that contributed to the trouble. Suggest a on your findings, analyze remedy for each problem you identify: a. How much time you spend a. Sender: Did the wrong person send the communicating. message? b. With whom you communicate. b. Encoding: Did the sender use words c. Your level of satisfaction. or nonverbal cues that were confusing, d. Areas where improving your communica- inappropriate,o ri rrelevant? tions killsw ouldb ed esirable. 32 Part One Basics of Business and Professional Communication c. Message: Was the message too short or meaning, envision the context in which it might too long? Were there too many messages? have been stated. Based on your chosen context, Was the timing wrong? decide which relational dimensions the message d. Channel: Was the most appropriate involves: affinity, control, and/or respect. channelc hosen? a. What’s the matter with you? e. Receiver: Was there no receiver at all? b. It’s about time! Was the message poorly formulated for c. I spent two days on this job. the person(s) at whom it was aimed? d. I’d rather do it this way... Was it received by the wrong person? e. Let me pick up the lunch check. f. Decoding: Did the receiver read in mean- f. You were a half-hour late. Is something ings that were not intended? wrong? g. Feedback: Was feedback adequate to g. Give me a call sometime. ensure understanding? What impact did the feedback have on the sender? h. Noise: Did external, physiological, or 4. Invitation to Insight psychological noise distort the message? Learn about upward communication in the Provides pecifice xamples. workplace by asking several employees what types i. Context: In what ways did physical, social, of information they share with their supervisors. chronological, and cultural contexts What types of information do they avoid sharing impedet hei nteraction? with their supervisors? How does the organization encourage or discourage accurate upward 3. Skill Builder communication? Identify at least two possible relational meanings for the following statements. For each relational  Communicating at Work Chapter 1 33 5. Skill Builder 6. Skill Builder Develop your skill at cultivating informal communi- With your group members, formulate a hypotheti- cation networks by following these instructions: cal context for each message below. Then use the a. Choose one of the following information information on pages 28–30 to decide which com- goals, or identify a school- or work-related munication channel would be best for each mes- goal of your own. sage. Use the criteria from Table 1–3 to explain 1. Decidew hichi nstructorsa nd/or your choice: courses in an academic department of a. Informing your supervisor about difficul- your institution are worth seeking out ties with a co-worker. and which you might want to avoid. b. Asking for a few days of leave from work to 2. Identify the qualities that would help attend a special reunion. you get the job of your dreams. c. Training a new employee to operate a 3. Determine which software program complicatedc omputerp rogram. best suits your needs for a given appli- d. Notifying the manager of a local business cation (e.g., word processing, database) that you still haven’t received the refund and context (e.g., customer tracking, you were promised. reportw riting). e. Reminding your busy boss about a long b. Identify the people who can help you overdue reimbursement for out-of-pocket acquire the information you are seeking. expenses. Locate people from a variety of positions f. Apologizing to a customer for a mistake within the organization so you will gain your company made. a complete perspe