Comm 227 Study Guide: Teams, Leadership, and Communication - PDF

Readings study guide Chapter 12 teams- baldwin Teams vs. Groups Teams: A team is a collection of individuals who work together with a shared purpose, interdependent roles, and collective accountability. Team members often bring complementary skills, and their goal is to achiev...

Readings study guide Chapter 12 teams- baldwin Teams vs. Groups Teams: A team is a collection of individuals who work together with a shared purpose, interdependent roles, and collective accountability. Team members often bring complementary skills, and their goal is to achieve a specific objective that requires collaboration. (ex:restaurant) ○ Key Differences: Teams tend to have more coordinated effort, synergy, and shared responsibility, while groups may simply be a collection of individuals working in parallel rather than interdependently. Groups: Groups are collections of individuals who may work together but do not have the same level of interdependence or shared goals. Members of a group might be working on individual tasks that don't require close collaboration. (ex: retail) Team Effectiveness Scoreboard A Team Effectiveness Scoreboard is a tool used to assess a team's performance. It typically tracks key performance indicators (KPIs) related to team goals and behaviors. ○ Dimensions of Team Effectiveness: These may include: Team Performance: Are they achieving their goals? Team Learning and Development: Are they improving and adapting? Member Satisfaction: Are team members engaged and content? Team Cohesion and Collaboration: How well do they work together? Accountability: Are team members holding each other accountable? Five Characteristics of High-Performing Teams High-performing teams are marked by five key characteristics: 1. Shared Purpose: Teams have a clear and compelling outcome based goal 2. Mutual accountability:For members to be mutually accountable, they need to benefit (and potentially suffer) together as a team based on their performance 3. Productive team norms: Confidence, Cooperation, Coordination, Cohesion, Conflict 4. Complimentary skills: every successful team needs a mix of skills and competencies 5. Small size: 5-8 people, no more than 10 Capable and Complementary Members High-performing teams require members who have complementary skills and abilities.  ○ Capable Members: Team members must have the necessary skills and expertise to contribute effectively. They should be competent in their area of responsibility. ○ Complementary Members: Beyond individual competence, team members should have complementary skills that fill gaps and balance out the team. The diversity of skills and perspectives adds value to the team’s overall performance. ○ Balance of Skills: For example, a team may need a mix of technical experts, creative thinkers, and communicators to address different challenges.The key is not to search for people who have high levels of all skills ○ But to focus on multiple dimensions and potential interactions among people ○ Other KSAs (knowledge skill ability) : Cognitive ability, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. Conflict resolution, collaborative problem solving, communication, goal setting and performance management, planning and task coordination Shared Purpose and Performance Objectives A Shared Purpose is crucial for team success. It aligns members around a common goal and ensures everyone is working toward the same objective. ○ Clarity of Purpose: Teams with a shared, clear purpose are more focused, aligned, and motivated. Performance Objectives help define what success looks like for the team. These objectives should be: ○ Specific: Clearly define the target outcomes. ○ Measurable: Allow for tracking and assessment of progress. ○ Achievable: Realistic goals that can be reached with effort. ○ Relevant: Directly aligned with the team’s purpose. ○ Time-Bound: Set deadlines or timeframes for achieving objectives. Articulate outcome-based (specific results by which success will be determined), not just activity-based (describe activities to be completed) goals Outcome goal: Win three new accounts in the next quarter. Activity goal: Develop a plan for winning new accounts. needs to be more specific Outcome goal: Get at least A- for the group reflection paper. Activity goal: Everyone finishes their part three days before the paper is due. Productive Norms and Process Norms are the unwritten rules or shared expectations about how team members should behave. ○ Productive Norms: These are positive, constructive norms that guide members toward effective collaboration, problem-solving, and high performance. Examples include punctuality, open communication, and mutual respect. ○ Process: Teams need effective processes for managing tasks, resolving conflicts, decision-making, and coordinating efforts. Well-established processes increase efficiency and help prevent misunderstandings. 1. Confidence Explanation: Team members should have confidence in each other's abilities and the team's collective capability. Trusting one another’s skills and judgment is essential for smooth collaboration and decision-making. Importance: Confidence builds trust, which leads to a more positive, empowered atmosphere where everyone feels secure in contributing their ideas and expertise. 2. Cooperation Explanation: Team members feel psychologically safe to share information, to enhance the team's overall performance. Importance: A cooperative mindset encourages teamwork, and fosters a collaborative spirit, which enhances creativity and productivity. 3. Coordination Explanation: Teams must coordinate their efforts and tasks to ensure that everyone is working together efficiently and that there is no overlap or missed work. A process in place to ensure that all information that can enhance objective decision making is shared Importance: overcome uneven communication, “go arounds” ask direct questions to those with known interests and expertise 4. Cohesion  Explanation: Cohesion refers to the sense of unity and togetherness within the team. It’s about building strong relationships and a shared sense of belonging, which drives motivation and collective responsibility. How to build team cohesiveness: Schedule social time together, get agreement on group goals, focus attention on competition with outside groups, reward members for group results, reduce contact with other groups, create a sense of performance “crisis” 5. Conflict Explanation: Constructive conflict involves differing ideas and perspectives that are resolved in a healthy way, whereas destructive conflict can harm the team’s function and relationships. Importance:Keep constructive conflict over issues from degenerating into dysfunctional conflict between people Mutual Accountability Mutual Accountability refers to the shared responsibility for team performance. ○ All members hold themselves and each other accountable for contributing to the team’s success. ○ Peer Accountability: In addition to being accountable to the team leader, team members are responsible for holding each other to high standards of performance. ○ Benefit together and potentially suffer together as a team based on performance Cooperative reward vs competitive reward Cooperative reward; distributed equally. It is good for high interdependence tasks/ hard to identify individual contributions. ex:Team-based rewards: The team as a whole receives a reward, like a collective bonus when the team meets a shared target or completes a project successfully.Team outings or celebrations: These rewards can include things like team lunches or activities after a project milestone is reached. Competitive reward; distributed based on individual performance. It is good for low task interdependence tasks/ easy to identify individual contributions. This system encourages members to outperform one another, as rewards are given to the top performers.Recognition programs: For example, Employee of the Month awards or other recognition initiatives that focus on individuals who stand out. Managing Threats to Team Performance and Decision-Making  Teams face various threats that can undermine their effectiveness: 1. Risky Shift Definition: The risky shift phenomenon occurs when a group makes decisions that are riskier than those an individual would make on their own. Group members, feeling a sense of shared responsibility, may be more willing to take bold actions that they would avoid individually. Example: A team decides to take on an overly ambitious project or investment because of collective overconfidence. How to Manage: ○ Encourage individuals to voice their concerns about risky decisions. ○ Use a structured decision-making process to assess risks thoroughly and ensure all voices are heard. 2. Innocent Bystander Effect Definition: In a group setting, individuals may be less likely to offer help or take action, assuming others will step in. This is the bystander effect, where individuals are less likely to intervene in a problem when others are present. Example: A team notices a problem or mistake in the project but no one takes the initiative to fix it because they assume someone else will address it. How to Manage: ○ Clarify responsibilities so that team members understand who is accountable for each task. ○ Foster an environment where everyone feels responsible for the team's success and problem-solving. 3. Escalation of Commitment Definition: Escalation of commitment occurs when individuals or teams continue to invest in a failing course of action due to the time, resources, or effort already committed, even when it becomes clear that the decision was wrong. Example: A team continues to support a failing project because they have already invested a lot of resources, even when evidence suggests it's no longer viable. How to Manage: ○ Set up decision check-points where progress is evaluated, and the team can decide whether to continue or change direction. ○ Encourage a culture of learning from failure, where it's okay to change course and admit mistakes. ○ Implement regular feedback loops to reassess goals and investments. 4. Conformity and Obedience  Definition: Conformity occurs when individuals adjust their opinions, behaviors, or attitudes to align with the group’s norms. Obedience refers to following authority figures' directives without questioning them, often leading to poor decisions or unethical behavior. Example: A team member may go along with a group decision even if they disagree, or they may blindly follow a team leader's directive without offering alternative perspectives. How to Manage: ○ Encourage open dialogue where dissenting opinions are valued and actively sought. ○ Encourage a culture of questioning and critical thinking to avoid groupthink. ○ Leaders should model healthy dissent, showing that it's acceptable to disagree with decisions. 5. Social Conformity Definition: Social conformity occurs when social pressures persuade members to conform to the perceived wishes of the group Example: A team member agrees with a decision they disagree with because they want to fit in with the group. How to Manage: ○ Create an environment of psychological safety, where team members feel comfortable voicing dissent without fear of retaliation. ○ Use anonymous feedback mechanisms to reduce social pressure and encourage honest opinions. ○ Encourage Diverse Opinions: Actively seek out different perspectives and dissenting views to avoid the dominance of any single viewpoint. ○ Anonymous Feedback: Use methods like anonymous voting or suggestion boxes to ensure that team members feel comfortable sharing their ideas without fear of judgment. ○ Devil's Advocate: Appoint someone to challenge ideas and assumptions, helping to prevent premature consensus. ○ Promote Open Dialogue: Create a safe environment where team members can voice differing opinions without fear of reprisal. 6. Groupthink Definition: Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people, where the desire for harmony and conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. Team members suppress dissenting viewpoints and fail to critically analyze alternatives. Example: A team collectively agrees on a strategy because everyone wants to avoid conflict, even though there are risks and flaws in the plan. How to Manage: ○ Appoint a devil's advocate to challenge ideas and assumptions.  ○ Promote diversity of thought by involving team members with different backgrounds and perspectives. ○ Foster a culture of open discussion and respectful debate. 7. Abilene Paradox Definition: The Abilene paradox occurs when a group of people collectively decide on a course of action that none of them individually desires because each person assumes that others want it. Example: The team agrees to take a certain approach in a meeting, even though no one really wants to, because they think everyone else is in favor of it. How to Manage: ○ Encourage individual input and anonymous voting to ensure all members feel comfortable sharing their true opinions. ○ Create an environment where team members feel comfortable expressing contrarian views and challenging the consensus. 8. Ringelmann Effect Definition: The Ringelmann effect refers to the phenomenon where individual effort decreases as group size increases. In large teams, people may contribute less because they feel less accountable. Example: A large team working on a project may have some members doing less work, relying on others to pick up the slack. How to Manage: ○ Set clear individual goals and hold each team member accountable for their own contributions. ○ Regularly track and measure individual performance and provide feedback to ensure equitable participation. Smaller Teams: Keeping teams small can help maintain individual accountability. 9. Self-Limiting Behavior Definition: Self-limiting behavior occurs when team members intentionally or unintentionally limit their contribution to a task or project, often due to a lack of confidence, fear of conflict, or assumption that others will take on the workload. Example: A team member doesn't speak up during meetings because they assume others won't listen like the last time, or that their input won't be valued. How to Manage: ○ Encourage active participation by creating a safe environment for everyone to share ideas. ○ Provide training on assertiveness and communication skills to empower individuals to contribute fully. 10. Reducing Social Loafing Definition: Social loafing occurs when individuals in a group exert less effort than they would if working alone because they believe others will pick up the slack. How to Manage: identifiability: find ways to communicate or display each members contribution to task where others can see it ○ Set clear individual goals and responsibilities for each team member. ○ Encourage regular peer evaluations to increase accountability. ○ Monitor and track progress frequently to ensure that all members are engaged and contributing. ○ Foster a culture of collaboration where each team member’s input is valued, and their efforts are recognized. Decision-Making Issues: Teams may face decision-making challenges, especially under pressure. To avoid these, teams should: ○ Encourage Diverse Opinions: Ensure that all team members contribute their perspectives. ○ Use Structured Decision-Making Processes: Techniques like brainstorming, Delphi method, or nominal group technique can help guide decision-making. ○ Encourage Critical Thinking: Team leaders should foster an environment where challenging ideas is welcome and encouraged. Effective Team Interventions Team Interventions are strategies used to improve team performance, resolve issues, or enhance team dynamics. In Baldwin's Organizational Behavior: Real Solutions to Real Challenges, he discusses several strategies to improve team performance and productivity, particularly around holding effective meetings, conducting after-action reviews and process checks, and addressing the issue of free riders. Here's a breakdown of these strategies and how they relate to team effectiveness: 1. Holding Effective Meetings Definition: Effective meetings are those that have clear goals, proper planning, and active participation. They should be structured to ensure that the team is focused, engaged, and that the time spent is productive. Baldwin’s Key Points: ○ Clear Purpose: Meetings should have a clear objective and agenda, ensuring that everyone knows the purpose and outcome expected.  ○ Ask direct questions to have all relevant info ○ Time Management: Start and end on time. Meetings that drag on without clear outcomes can lead to disengagement and inefficiency. ○ Encourage Participation: Involve everyone by actively seeking their opinions and feedback. This helps prevent dominance by a few vocal members and promotes diverse input. Stay focused on the meeting objectives ○ Action Items: Each meeting should produce specific action items with deadlines and assign to specific members ensuring that decisions made are followed through. ○ Brief review: close the meeting with an overview of what was accomplished 2. Conducting After-Action Reviews (AAR) and Process Checks Definition: After-action reviews (AAR) and process checks are tools used to evaluate the effectiveness of a project or team’s performance after a task or project is completed. These evaluations help identify what worked, what didn’t, and what could be improved for the future. Baldwin’s Key Points: ○ After-Action Reviews: These reviews help teams reflect on their actions and outcomes, identify successes, and learn from mistakes. Baldwin emphasizes that AARs should be non-punitive—the focus should be on learning and improvement rather than blame. ○ Process Checks: ○ How satisfied are you that your ideas were heard? ○ Are team outcome goals understood by all? ○ Rate the quality of the team’s decision making ○ How well did the team follow its agenda? ○ How well did the team follow its own ground rules? ○ How well did the team use people’s skill sets? ○ Rate your level of comfort in asking team members for help ○ How well did the team resolve differences of opinion? ○ How would you rate the overall quality of the team’s functioning ability? 3. Dealing with Free Riders Definition: A free rider is someone who benefits from the group’s efforts without contributing equally. Free riding often leads to frustration among team members, as the burden of work falls on those who are actively participating.  BEFORE IT HAPPENS 1. Social contracting= agree on goals, tasks and consequences of not doing the work. Create spoken norms so expectations are clear:, 2. Correctly state the issue in terms of behaviours but not generalizations about traits 3. Ask yourself whether it is legitimate to give feedback. Is the behavior affecting the team to get results? 4. Consider whether you have a balanced set of facts. Confirming facts with multiple parties involved 5. Present the concerns to the individual. Focus on specific behaviour but not the trait (e.g., you are lazy) ○ Roles should be well-defined, and individual performance should be monitored regularly. ○ Social Norms: Teams can establish norms around effort and contribution. When free riding is noticed, it's important to address it early on to prevent resentment from building up. ○ Incentive Systems: Baldwin suggests using reward systems that incentivize team collaboration and make individual contributions more visible. This can encourage everyone to pull their weight. ○ Communication: Having open discussions about team dynamics and the distribution of work can help resolve issues related to free riding. EVIDENCE Dyer ch 1-2 Definitions Claim: central idea that the author is trying to persuade you to accept Evidence: any statement that is a response to the question ‘Why this is true?’ Claim + evidence = argument Several arguments can be present in a longer piece of writing 1. The Importance of Evidence in Critical Thinking What is evidence?  ○ Evidence refers to information, facts, or data used to support or justify a claim, argument, or decision. In business and critical thinking, the quality and relevance of evidence can strengthen or weaken a position. Evaluating Evidence: ○ It's important to assess the quality and relevance of evidence. Not all evidence is equal. In a business context, weak or biased evidence can lead to poor decisions. Steps for Evaluating Evidence Step 1: Identify the claim Before evaluating evidence, clearly identify the claim being made. This will help you determine which evidence is most relevant. Step 2: Examine the Source Evaluate the credibility and trustworthiness of the source. A reliable, authoritative source strengthens the argument. Step 3: Assess the Quality of Evidence Look at each piece of evidence critically. Are there any signs of bias or selective reporting? Are statistics or data presented transparently? Step 4: Consider the Context Understand the context in which the evidence is presented. Does it make sense in the larger picture of the argument? Step 5: Check for Counterarguments Consider if there is any opposing evidence or arguments. Critical thinking involves recognizing potential weaknesses or counterpoints in the presented evidence. 2. SPAARC Framework 1. Accuracy Need an independent source of information Definition: Accuracy refers to whether the evidence correctly reflects the facts and is free from errors. Inaccurate evidence can lead to faulty reasoning and poor decision-making. 2 ways to proceed: ○ Verify accuracy: Do your own research to check if factually correct ○ Evaluate accuracy: grammar or spelling mistakes, inaccurate quotes etc. 2. Precision Comes from numbers and quotes Definition: Precision refers to how detailed and specific the evidence is. Vague or general evidence can weaken an argument, while precise evidence provides clarity and supports the claim more effectively. Example: the attendance is good vs the attendance is 90% 3. Sufficiency Definition: Sufficiency refers to whether there is enough evidence to support the claim. One piece of evidence is often not enough to substantiate an argument; multiple pieces or a strong body of evidence are needed. Key Questions to Ask: ○ Is the amount of evidence sufficient to support the claim? ○ Are there enough examples, statistics, or data points to make the argument convincing? ○ Would the argument hold up with additional supporting evidence? 4. Representativeness Definition: Representativeness refers to whether the evidence reflects the broader population or situation it’s meant to represent. Key Questions to Ask: ○ Is the sample or evidence truly representative of the population or issue it is addressing? ○ Are there any biases in how the data was collected? ○ Does the evidence reflect a wide range of views or just one perspective? Example: A survey about customer satisfaction conducted with just 10 customers from a single location may not represent the entire customer base. A larger and more diverse sample would provide better evidence. 5. Authority Definition: Authority refers to the credibility and expertise of the source providing the evidence. Evidence from an authoritative source (e.g., an expert in the field) is generally more reliable.  Key Questions to Ask: ○ Who is providing the evidence, and what qualifications or experience do they have? ○ Is the source an expert in the field or subject matter? ○ Can the source be trusted to present accurate and unbiased information? Example: If a claim about medical research is supported by a well-known medical institution or a reputable scientist, the authority of the source increases the credibility of the evidence… or movie stars shouldnt endorse a particular diet, nutritionists should 6. Clarity of Expression Definition: Clarity of expression refers to how clearly and understandably the evidence is presented. Poorly expressed or ambiguous evidence can lead to misinterpretations. Key Questions to Ask: ○ Is the evidence presented in a clear and understandable way? ○ Are the key points easy to follow, and are any complex terms defined? ○ Is the argument well-structured, making the evidence easy to interpret? Example: If a statistical analysis is presented with jargon and no explanation of terms, it may be hard for the reader to understand its significance. Clear, well-explained evidence makes a stronger impact. Should have tables, figures subheadings, quotes that are interpreted Chapter 10: power Power: the capacity to influence others a. Reward Power Definition: The ability to grant rewards (e.g., promotions, raises, praise) to influence work to be accomplished. How it works: People will comply with requests or commands to gain positive outcomes or avoid negative ones. This power is effective when rewards are desirable and valued by employees. Example: A manager offering bonuses to employees who meet specific performance goals. b. Legitimate Power Definition: The authority that comes from a formal position within an organization. How it works: This type of power is based on the role or title a person holds. People comply because they believe that the person has the right to make demands or requests. Ex: police Example: A CEO directing their team to complete a task because they hold the authority as the top executive in the company. c. Referent Power Definition: Power that comes from personal traits or the respect others have for someone. Stems from another person admiring you or wanting to be like you (ex: celebrity) How it works: People follow individuals they admire or want to be associated with. This power is often seen in leaders who inspire loyalty, trust, and admiration. Example: A charismatic team leader who influences their team by being a role model and fostering personal relationships. d. Expert Power Definition: Power derived from having specialized knowledge, skills, or expertise. How it works: People follow and defer to experts because they trust their judgment and believe they have valuable knowledge. Example: A doctor e. Coercive Power  Definition: The ability to influence others through the threat of punishment or negative consequences. Forcing someone to do something against their will How it works: This power is based on fear. People comply to avoid undesirable outcomes like demotion, firing, or other penalties. Example: A teacher giving a test 2. Influencing Without Authority Influence tactics are strategies used to affect others' attitudes, behaviors, or perceptions, even when a person doesn't have formal authority over them. There are several common influence tactics, each with different goals and methods. 1. Rational Persuasion Most common Most effective Definition: Using logical arguments, facts, and data to persuade others. How it works: This is one of the most effective influence tactics, particularly when the person you are trying to influence values facts and data. Example: may i go to the head of the line because i have copies to make? 2. Pressure (Coercive) Less effective resistance Definition: Using threats or demands to influence others, often in the form of "do this or else" scenarios. “Frequent checking” How it works: It’s an attempt to exert control over someone through stress, urgency, or fear of negative consequences. Example: A manager telling an employee they must meet a deadline or face disciplinary action. 3. Personal Appeal Expert and referent power Elicit commitment Definition: Influencing others by appealing to their feelings of loyalty, friendship, or personal relationships. How it works: This tactic works best when there’s an established personal connection between the influencer and the target. Example: i help you because i like you 4. Exchange Evokes emotion Rational evidence Definition: Offering something in return to get what you want How it works: This tactic involves making a deal where both parties stand to benefit from the arrangement. Example: "If you help me with this project, I’ll cover your shift next week." 5. Ingratiation Evokes emotion Rational evidence Definition: Using flattery or praise to influence others' behaviors or decisions. How it works: This tactic works by making the other person feel good about themselves, which can make them more likely to agree with your requests. Example: Complimenting a manager's leadership skills before asking for a favor or help with a project. 6. Coalition (coercive) Resistance Less effective Definition: Gaining support from others to back up your position or request. How it works: This tactic involves building alliances or support groups to amplify your influence and make your case stronger. Example: Getting a few colleagues to sign a petition or support a new initiative to help convince leadership to approve it. 7. Legitimizing (coercive) Resistance Less effective Definition: Making a request seem appropriate by citing authority, rules, or policies. How it works: This tactic relies on the formal or informal rules of the organization or a recognized authority to justify your actions or requests. Example: Saying, “According to company policy, we need to complete this report by the end of the day.” 8. Consultation Expert and referent power Elicit commitment Definition: Involving others in the decision-making process or asking for their input to gain their support.  How it works: By consulting others, you make them feel valued and increase the likelihood that they’ll agree with your ideas or plans. Example: Asking for input from team members before finalizing a proposal, which encourages buy-in and collaboration. 9. Inspirational Appeal Expert and referent power Elicit commitment Definition: Trying to influence others by appealing to their emotions, values, or ideals. How it works: This tactic motivates others by connecting the request to their personal values, hopes, or aspirations. Example: A leader inspiring a team to work hard by highlighting how their efforts will contribute to the greater good of the organization or society. 10. Apprising Expert and referent power Elicit commitment Definition: Explaining how a decision or request will benefit the individual or group. How it works: You make it clear how complying with a request will lead to a positive outcome for the person you're trying to influence. Example: Explaining to a team member that taking on a leadership role will provide career growth opportunities. 11. Collaboration Expert and referent power Elicit commitment Definition: Offering to help others achieve their goals or providing resources to make it easier for them to comply. How it works: This tactic is based on cooperation and mutual benefit. It’s often used when trying to motivate someone by offering assistance in completing a task. Example: Offering to help a colleague with their workload in exchange for their support on your project. Social influence weapons 6 principles: Liking: People are more likely to be influenced by others who they like How it works: If we like someone, we are more likely to comply with their requests or be influenced by them. If we think they are similar to us or if they flatter us  Commitment and consistency: Once people commit to something, they are more likely to follow through with it in order to remain consistent with their previous actions or beliefs. How it works: If they publicly commit to something (even in a small way), they are more likely to honor that commitment later on. Different types: Foot-in-the-door Make a small request, and when it’s granted, make larger request Lowballing An offer is agreed upon but then other unattractive details are added Bait-and-switch The deal is switched with another deal (e.g., advertised item no longer exists but only the upgraded model) Scarcity: Items or opportunities become more desirable when they are perceived as scarce or limited in availability. How it works: People are motivated by the fear of missing out (FOMO). If something is rare or in limited supply, we value it more. This principle leverages the idea that we tend to make decisions based on perceived urgency or fear of loss. Example: "Limited time offer" or "Only a few items left in stock" are common marketing tactics that create a sense of urgency, compelling customers to act quickly. Reciprocity:People feel obligated to return favors or concessions. When someone does something for us, we feel a natural urge to reciprocate. “Door in the face. ”Example: A company might send you a free sample of a product. In return, you might feel compelled to purchase the full-size product or share your positive experience. Ask for a very large request, when the person says no, you lower the request and they tend to reciprocate Social proof: : People tend to look to others for guidance, especially in uncertain situations. If they see others doing something, they are more likely to do it themselves. Most influential under 2 conditions: uncertainty – when the situation is unclear we are more likely to look to others for guidance similarity – we follow the lead of people who are most like us Appeals to authority: People are more likely to follow the advice or commands of someone they perceive as an authority figure or expert in a given field. How it works: Authority figures, due to their expertise, experience, or position, are often seen as trustworthy sources of information. Their influence increases when they display visible symbols of authority (e.g., titles, uniforms, credentials). Example: A doctor giving health advice or a professor giving academic recommendations—people tend to trust and follow the guidance of those in positions of authority. Influencing Up: refers to the process of influencing those in positions of higher authority or seniority, such as bosses, managers, or executives. How to? Know your boss. Do they like emails? What is the communication preference? Do they like highly detailed info or bullet points? What are my bosses goals? What is the primary decision making approach? Essential actions to influence up 1. Always Offer Solutions to Real Problems (Organizationally Relevant) Identify the real issue: It’s essential to understand the root cause of a problem Tailor solutions to organizational goals: Solutions should be aligned with the company’s strategic goals, values, and priorities. If your boss is focused on increasing efficiency or cutting costs, for example, offer a solution that directly contributes to that outcome. Show the impact: Clearly demonstrate how your solution will solve the problem at hand. 2. Do Not Confuse Raw Data with Useful Information While data is essential for decision-making, raw data doesn’t always tell the full story. When influencing up, make sure you're providing useful, context-driven information. Step 1: provide context behind the data Ste 2: provide actions that can be taken based on the data Step 3: Highlight the most relevant data points that directly influence the issue at hand and present them in an easily digestible format. 3. Outline Both Costs and Benefits, Being Specific and Realistic When proposing solutions, balance the costs and benefits and be as specific and realistic as possible. 4. Make a Recommendation After presenting your analysis, always make a clear, actionable recommendation. Avoid leaving your superior in a position where they must interpret what you want or need. Be clear, be specific Outline different solutions to solve the problem Focus on the “why” Make sure to communicate the urgency of the problem being solved. Chapter 11 - leadership ▪ The ability to influence people to set aside their personal concerns and support a larger agenda - Not All Leaders Are Managers, But Effective Managers Are Leaders: Leadership is about influence, not necessarily authority. There are plenty of people in organizations who do not hold managerial titles but can still lead through their actions, ideas, and influence. These individuals may not have direct reports, but they inspire and motivate others by setting an example, communicating a vision, or demonstrating expertise. To be effective, managers also need leadership qualities such as vision, the ability to motivate others, and the capacity to influence team members. Personal characteristics of leaders The Great Man Theory suggested that certain individuals are born with qualities that naturally predispose them to become leaders, like: IQ, dominance, sociability, self-monitoring, high energy, self-confidence, tolerance for ambiguity These traits were believed to make leaders more capable and to separate them from others. However, later research has shown that the relationship between these traits and effective leadership is not as strong as once thought. WHY? 1. The effectiveness of a leader often depends on a specific context 2. leadership research has shifted toward the idea that behaviors, not just inherent traits, are key drivers. Behaviors like communication skills, decision-making, empathy, and adaptability have a far stronger relationship with leadership effectiveness than traits like dominance or IQ alone. Leader emergence vs leader effectiveness Leader emergence: individuals are perceived as leaders, regardless of their actual ability to lead effectively. They have traits that looks like leaders ex: dominant, sociable etc Leader effectiveness: the actual ability to lead that achieves desired outcomes. Bottom line: It is leaders’ behaviors that make a difference The central role of LMX Leader-member exchange (LMX) = having a positive, constructive relationships between employee and manager Transactional leadership is based on the principle of an exchange between the leader and the follower, where leaders provide rewards or punishment based on the follower's performance Transformational leadership takes a different approach. Transformational leaders inspire and motivate followers by creating a vision, fostering creativity, and focusing on personal growth. Satisfy needs and motivates others to accomplish more than what they would've thought possible. Transactional Leadership: ○ Focus on structure, tasks, and performance. ○ Short-term goals, reward, and punishment systems. ○ Emphasis on maintaining efficiency and stability. ○ Example: A manager who enforces strict deadlines and rewards employees with bonuses for meeting those deadlines. Transformational Leadership: Articulating a vision : behavior that allows a leader to identify new opportunities for his or her group and talk positively about what that means for them. Examples: Explain the significance of the vision Appeal to the audience’s values (e.g., Steve Jobs: A computer for the rest of us) Use metaphors (e.g., Stanford U: Becomes the Harvard of the West) Use emotional appeals Speak in positive terms Use the term “we” instead of “I” Providing an appropriate model : behavior that sets an example for employees to follow that is consistent with the leader’s values. Examples: Be clear about your expectations of other people Hold yourself to the same standards to which you hold others Be consistent in your display of the desired behavior (e.g., “Success through wasting nothing” but CEO not frugal) Remember that small indiscretions can have major consequences Perform desired behaviors where people can see them Fostering the acceptance of group goals : behavior promoting cooperation among employees and getting them to work together toward a common goal. Examples: Set a goal that requires people to cooperate (e.g., get an A on a team project) Make sure the goal is “SMART” (specific, measurable, actionable, realistic, timely)  Encourage people to work together (e.g., lunches, afterwork gathering) Continually remind people that everyone is “in it together” Communicating high-performance expectations : behavior demonstrating the leader’s expectations for excellence, quality, and high performance on the part of followers. Examples: Pygmalion effect = self-fulfilling prophecy We form certain expectations of people We communicate those expectations to others through behavioral cues People tend to respond to those behavioral cues by adjusting their behavior to match them The result is that the original expectation comes true E.g., if you truly think a person will succeed or fail, she generally will Providing individualized support : behavior showing that the leader respects followers and is concerned about their personal feelings and needs. Examples: Genuinely caring and showing compassion Encouraging continuous development Making interpersonal connections with employees Sending the message “I care about you and am looking out for your best interest” Being sympathetic to the problems faced by employees Providing intellectual stimulation : behavior challenging followers to reexamine assumptions about their work and rethink how it can be performed. Examples: Put idea gathering on your agenda Make it safe for others to experiment Create an environment where new ideas are encouraged and implemented Don’t douse good ideas with reasons why they will fail (firehosing) Honor your risk takers Debrief every failure and success Encourage “What if?” thinking Send this message: “If we change our assumptions, then…” Servant Leadership The servant leader seeks to serve others, helping them grow, succeed, and contribute to the overall success of the organization. Melissa Reiff, the former CEO of The Container Store, provides a great example of servant leadership in action. As she mentions: “Nothing makes someone feel more a part of a team than knowing everything has been communicated to them. We know that some information we share could fall into competitors' hands, but the advantages outweigh the risks.” key aspects of servant leadership: 1. Communication and Transparency: ○ By openly sharing information with employees, Reiff is empowering her team members with the knowledge they need to make informed decisions and feel like valued members of the organization. ○ Servant leaders prioritize clear and open communication, even if it involves risks.  2. Building Trust: ○ Sharing sensitive information with employees, especially in a competitive environment, demonstrates trust in the team. It shows that leaders have confidence in their people and view them as partners in the organization’s success. 3. Team Unity and Belonging: ○ Reiff’s statement highlights the importance of team cohesion. By involving employees in decision-making and making them feel involved in the organization’s success, servant leaders create a culture where employees are more likely to stay engaged and loyal. Situational leadership emphasizes the importance of adapting one's leadership style based on the situation, including the task at hand and the maturity level of the followers. Leaders should not apply a one-size-fits-all approach. Instead, they need to assess the competence and commitment of their followers and adjust their behavior accordingly. Tannenbaum & Schmidt: How to choose a leadership pattern -- concept map