Coherence and Cohesion PDF

# What Makes a Good Paragraph? ## Cohesion and Coherence Dr. Phil. Muhammad Almaliki ## Problems in Paragraph Writing 1. Lack of connections of ideas - jumping from one topic to another 2. Lack of linking words or transitions 3. Lack of synonyms 4. Misuse of pronouns 5. Misuse of articles...

# What Makes a Good Paragraph? ## Cohesion and Coherence Dr. Phil. Muhammad Almaliki ## Problems in Paragraph Writing 1. Lack of connections of ideas - jumping from one topic to another 2. Lack of linking words or transitions 3. Lack of synonyms 4. Misuse of pronouns 5. Misuse of articles ## Effective Paragraph 1. Topic sentence: Main Idea 2. Unity: single focus 3. Coherence: systematic connection 4. Adequate development: sufficient examples, details ## Topic Sentence * Contains the main idea * Has main idea and controlling idea * Is the focus of the paragraph * Usually in the beginning of the paragraph (the first or second sentence) ## Coherence * All sentences in the paragraph should have a single focus * The topic sentence guides the development of sentences in the paragraph * The sentences in the paragraph should be relevant to and support the topic sentence. ## Cohesion * In an effective paragraph, the sentences are well connected with one another. * Parallel constructions * Pronouns * Synonyms * Repetition of key words * Transitional words * Systematic sentence organization ## Adequate Development * An effective paragraph is sufficiently developed/explained using: * Examples and illustrations * Data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others) * Definition terms in the paragraph * Comparison and contrast * Causes and reasons * Effects and consequences * Descriptions or details * Chronology of an event (time segments) * Steps * Logical divisions ## Example: My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many shady willow trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Second, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous, because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used as stairs. There are no trees around this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and can be seen from many miles away. If you visit Wheaton Hill you should try the nice restaurant at Wheaton Hill hotel. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place. ## Paragraph Analysis * The topic sentence is: Sentence 1. * Irrelevant sentence: Sentence 8. * The paragraph also shows coherence by the use of: * Parallel constructions: Present tense * Pronouns: this, these * Synonyms: natural features = landmarks * Paraphrasing of phrase/sentence: sentence I is paraphrased in sentence II. * Repetition of key words: river, hill, rocks. * Transitional words: on the other side, even though, so, because. * Methods of development/sentence organization used: * Examples/illustrations: - * Comparison and contrast: sentences 3 (comparison - on either side) and 6 (even though) * Causes and reasons: sentences 5, 6 and 7 (so, because) * Descriptions or details of each landmark * Logical divisions: First, Second, The third amazing feature ## Practice Exercise: ## PARAGRAPH ANALYSIS ## Number 1 * Each of the U.S. manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. For example, the Mercury project was designed to test whether or not human beings could survive and function in outer space. In addition, the Mercury project tested rockets with the new Mercury space capsule, which could hold one person. As another example, the Gemini project was intended to find out whether two people could work in the weightless environment of space. One way of doing this was by having Gemini astronauts take ‘spacewalks’, That is, they floated outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit, connected to it by a tether. This type of walk was developed into the famous dancing move called ‘moonwalk’ by Michael Jackson. Finally, the Apollo project, with three astronauts, had the goal of testing spacecraft and skills so that people could actually fly to the Moon and land on it. Other goals included performing scientific experiments on the lunar surface and collecting rocks for study on Earth.. These three space projects have different goals with different lessons for human beings. *(Adapted from source: http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/cohere.html#unity)* ## Number 2 * Dogs have an extreme antagonism toward cats. The enmity between these two species can be traced back to the time of the early Egyptian dynasties. Archaeologists in recent years have discovered Egyptian texts in which there are detailed accounts of dogs brutally attacking cats. Today this type of cruelty between these two domestic pets can be witnessed in regions as close as your own neighborhood. For example, when dogs are walked by their masters, and they happen to catch sight of a stray cat, they will pull with all their strength on their leash until the master is forced to yield; the typical result is that a cat is chased up a tree. The two types of animals are the most popular pets in modern homes; The hatred between dogs and cats has lasted for so many centuries; it is unlikely that this conflict will ever end. *(Adapted from Source: http://www.wheaton.edu/learnres/writectr/Resources/coherence.htm)* ## Checking for Cohesion and Coherence: 1. The topic sentence? 2. Irrelevant sentence? 3. Does the paragraph show coherence? How does it show coherence? 4. What method of organization does it use? 5. What do you like from the paragraph? ## Practice Exercise 2: ## PARAGRAPH WRITING ## Paragraph Writing * Write a paragraph. * Don't forget to make sure that your paragraph has unity and coherence! ## Practice Exercise 3: ## PARAGRAPH CHECKING ## Peer Evaluation Check your friend's paragraph if it has the following elements: 1. The topic sentence? 2. Irrelevant sentence? 3. Does the paragraph show coherence? How does it show coherence? 4.What method of organization does it use? 5. What do you like from the paragraph? 6. Your comments for improvement? ## Writing Devices ### Coherence #### What is coherence? When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along easily, and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly. #### How to be coherent? There are four basic mechanical considerations in providing transitions between ideas: 1. using transitional expressions 2. repeating key words and phrases 3. using pronoun reference 4. using parallel form #### Transitional words cue readers to the relationship between sentences. eg. I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year too. *Caution: Do not include in your text with transitional expressions casually. They must appear naturally, where they belong.* More words: however, therefore, in addition, etc. #### Repetition of words helps to focus your ideas and to keep your reader on track. eg. The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most people. Contemporary art is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the viewer wondering what she is looking at. #### Pronouns are used to refer back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are referring to is clear. eg. When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often considered failures until some other scientist tries them again. #### Parallel sentence patterns can help the reader follow along and keep ideas tied together. eg. And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country. ### Unity and Coherence (1) Freedom, another basic need, is often in conflict with power. (2) The more power you have, even if you use it for my benefit, the less freedom I have. (3) It seems that there has to be a counterforce to power; unbridled power would be destructive to the survival of the species. (4) Therefore, almost everything said about power could also be reworded into the vocabulary of freedom. (5) For example, we may be inherently competitive, but we want to be free to lose without losing too much. (6) And as much as a child may love her parents, she also wants the freedom to branch out on her own. (7) So you can see that freedom can be in conflict not only with power but also with belonging. (8) *For example,* if you want me around too much, I claim you stifle me, but if you aren't constantly giving me attention, I may claim you don't love me. *(Para. 10)* ***Analysis:*** In this paragraph, the first sentence is the topic sentence. In the following sentences 2, 3, 4 and 7, the author gives specific information on the topic and uses examples in sentences 5, 6 and 8 to support the ideas. At the same time, the author repeats the key words "freedom" and "power" in the whole paragraph to focus the attention on the topic. He also uses transitional words and pronouns to glue the whole paragraph together. In this way, the author achieves the paragraph unity and coherence.