Cognitive Psychology PDF

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JOHN MARK G. LAFAVILLA, RPM Cognition is a term for the mental processes in the brain, including thinking, attention, language, learning, memory, and perception. Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism A rationalist beli...

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JOHN MARK G. LAFAVILLA, RPM Cognition is a term for the mental processes in the brain, including thinking, attention, language, learning, memory, and perception. Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism A rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis. An empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence— that is, we obtain evidence through experience and observation. Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism Two (2) Historical Approaches to Understanding Human Mind Philosophy seeks to understand the general nature of many aspects of the world, in part through introspection, the examination of inner ideas and experiences (from intro-, “inward, within,” and aspect, “look”); Physiology seeks a scientific study of life-sustaining functions in living matter, primarily through empirical (observation-based) methods. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY- The study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information. Cognitive psychology emerged in the mid- 20th century as a response to behaviorism, which emphasized observable behaviors over internal mental processes. Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism Example: Mathematical Truths: The statement "2 + 2 = 4" is an example of rationalism. This mathematical truth is considered universally true, independent of any sensory experience. You don’t need to physically observe two objects being added to another two objects to understand and know that the result will be four. The truth of this statement is derived from reason and logical deduction. Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism Example: Learning About Fire: Imagine someone has never seen or felt fire before. According to empiricism, they would not have knowledge about the heat of fire until they actually experience it. The understanding that "fire is hot" comes from directly feeling the warmth or burn of fire, which is knowledge gained through sensory experience. Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism Descartes viewed the introspective, reflective method as being superior to empirical methods for finding truth. Descartes felt that one could not rely on one’s senses because those often proven to be deceptive. Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism Locke believed that humans are born without knowledge and therefore must seek knowledge through empirical observation. Locke’s term for this view was tabula rasa (meaning “blank slate” in Latin).  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Understanding the Structure of the Mind: Structuralism Structuralism seeks to understand the structure (configuration of elements) of the mind and its perceptions by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components (affection, attention, memory, sensation, etc.). Structuralism is an early school of thought in psychology that sought to understand the structure of the human mind by breaking down mental processes into their most basic components. It was primarily developed by Wilhelm Wundt and his student Edward B. Titchener in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Structuralism is credited with establishing psychology as a distinct scientific discipline separate from philosophy. It introduced the method of introspection, which, despite its limitations, was a significant step toward studying the mind in a systematic and experimental manner. Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was a German psychologist, viewed as the founder of structuralism in psychology  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Key Concepts of Structuralism: Introspection: Structuralists used a method called introspection, where individuals were trained to observe and report on their conscious experiences in as much detail as possible. Example: A participant might be shown an object, such as an apple, and asked to describe their sensory experiences related to the object (e.g., its color, shape, texture, and taste) without interpreting or associating it with any prior knowledge.  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Understanding the Structure of the Mind: Functionalism Functionalism seeks to understand what people do and why they do it. Functionalists held that the key to understanding the human mind and behavior was to study the processes of how and why the mind works as it does, rather than to study the structural contents and elements of the mind. Functionalism is an early school of thought in psychology that emerged as a response to the limitations of structuralism. It was primarily developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with key figures such as William James, John Dewey, and James Rowland Angell contributing to its development. Unlike structuralism, which focused on the components of consciousness, functionalism emphasizes the purpose and adaptive functions of mental processes.  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Pragmatism is a philosophical approach developed in the late 19th century, and one of its most prominent proponents was the American philosopher and psychologist William James. Pragmatism focuses on the practical consequences of ideas and beliefs, arguing that the truth of an idea is determined by its effectiveness and utility in real life. William James (1842–1910). PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Dewey believed that human beings learn through a 'hands-on' approach. This places Dewey in the educational philosophy of pragmatism. Pragmatists believe that reality must be experienced. From Dewey's educational point of view, this means that students must interact with their environment in order to adapt and learn. John Dewey  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY An Integrative Synthesis: Associationism Associationism is a theory in psychology and philosophy that explains how ideas and mental processes are connected or associated in the mind. It suggests that the mind is built up from simple associations between ideas, and these associations form the basis for more complex thoughts, memories, and behaviors. Associationism was a dominant theory in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries and laid the groundwork for later developments in psychology, including behaviorism and cognitive psychology.  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Basic Principles of Association: Contiguity: Ideas or experiences that occur close together in time or space are likely to be associated. For example, if you often see lightning before hearing thunder, you may begin to associate the two events. Similarity: Ideas that are similar to each other are likely to be associated. For instance, the idea of a cat might bring to mind the idea of a dog because they are both types of pets. Contrast: Ideas that are opposite in nature can also become associated. For example, thinking of the concept of hot may bring to mind the concept of cold.  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Hermann Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist and philosopher who pioneered the scientific study of memory. Until Ebbinghaus published his book (1885/1964), experimental psychology had confined itself to exploring the nature of sensation and perception. Some consider him the founder of Memory. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Another influential associationist, Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949), held that the role of “satisfaction” is the key to forming associations. Thorndike termed this principle the law of effect (1905): A stimulus will tend to produce a certain response over time if an organism is rewarded for that response. Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949)  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY From Associationism to Behaviorism Behaviorism focuses only on the relation between observable behavior and environmental events or stimuli. In Russia, Nobel Prize–winning physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) studied involuntary learning behavior called classical conditioning. o Classical conditioning involves more than just an association based on temporal contiguity (e.g., the food and the conditioned stimulus occurring at about the same time; Ginns, 2006; Rescorla, 1967). Effective conditioning requires contingency (e.g., the presentation of food being contingent on the presentation of the conditioned stimulus; Rescorla & Wagner, 1972; Wagner & Rescorla, 1972).  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY The “father” of radical behaviorism is John Watson (1878–1958). Watson had no use for internal mental contents or mechanisms. He believed that psychologists should concentrate only on the study of observable behavior (Doyle, 2000). Also known for the little Albert experiment. John B. Watson  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY He is widely recognized for his groundbreaking research on classical conditioning, which has left an indelible mark on the field. Pavlov's theory, often referred to as Pavlovian conditioning, centers around the concept of associative learning. He sought to explore how organisms, including humans, acquire new behaviors and responses through repeated associations between stimuli. Ivan Pavlov  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), a radical behaviorist, believed that virtually all forms of human behavior, not just learning, could be explained by behavior emitted in reaction to the environment. Skinner conducted research primarily with non-human animals. He rejected mental mechanisms. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY "Gestalt" is German for "unified whole". German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler created the Gestalt Principles in the 1920s. According to this, the mind "informs" what the eye sees by perceiving a series of individual elements as a whole. Max Wertheirmer  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY The Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts: Gestalt Psychology Gestalt psychology states that we best understand psychological phenomena when we view them as organized, structured wholes. According to this view, we cannot fully understand behavior when we only break phenomena down into smaller parts. The maxim “the whole is more than the sum of its parts” aptly sums up the Gestalt perspective. To understand the perception of a flower, for example, we would have to take into account the whole of the experience. We could not understand such a perception merely in terms of a description of forms, colors, sizes, and so on.  PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Laws of Perceptual Organization: Law of Prägnanz (Simplicity): We tend to perceive the simplest and most stable shape possible. Law of Similarity: Objects that are similar to each other are often perceived as part of a group or pattern. Law of Proximity: Objects that are close to each other in space are perceived as belonging together. Law of Continuity: We perceive elements as part of a continuous pattern or direction, even if the pattern is interrupted. Law of Closure: We tend to fill in gaps in an incomplete image to perceive a whole object. EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Karl Spencer Lashley (1890–1958), brashly challenged the behaviorist view that the human brain is a passive organ merely responding to environmental contingencies outside the individual (Gardner, 1985). Instead, Lashley considered the brain to be an active, dynamic organizer of behavior. Donald Hebb (1949) proposed the concept of cell assemblies as the basis for learning in the brain. Cell assemblies are coordinated neural structures that develop through frequent stimulation. Linguist Noam Chomsky (1959) wrote a scathing review of Skinner’s ideas. In his article, Chomsky stressed both the biological basis and the creative potential of language. He pointed out the infinite numbers of sentences we can produce with ease. He thereby defied behaviorist notions that we learn language by reinforcement. Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering, Computation, and Applied Cognitive Psychology EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Alan Turing (1950) suggested that soon it would be hard to distinguish the communication of machines from that of humans. He suggested a test, now called the “Turing test,” by which a computer program would be judged as successful to the extent that its output was indistinguishable, by humans, from the output of humans (Cummins & Cummins, 2000). Artificial intelligence (AI) is the attempt by humans to construct systems that show intelligence and, particularly, the intelligent processing of information (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2003). Information theory, which sought to understand people’s behavior in terms of how they process the kinds of bits of information processed by computers (Shannon & Weaver, 1963), also grew out of problems in engineering and informatics. EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY In Ulric Neisser’s book of Cognitive Psychology (Neisser, 1967), he defined cognitive psychology as the study of how people learn, structure, store, and use knowledge. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon (1972) proposed detailed models of human thinking and problem-solving from the most basic levels to the most complex. By the 1970s cognitive psychology was recognized widely as a major field of psychological study with a distinctive set of research methods. In the 1970s, Jerry Fodor (1973) popularized the concept of the modularity of mind. He argued that the mind has distinct modules, or special-purpose systems, to deal with linguistic and, possibly, other kinds of information  COGNITION AND INTELLIGENCE What is Intelligence? Intelligence is the capacity to learn from experience, using metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability to adapt to the surrounding environment. In 1921, when the editors of the Journal of Educational Psychology asked 14 famous psychologists that question, the responses varied but generally embraced these two themes. Intelligence involves: o the capacity to learn from experience, and o the ability to adapt to the surrounding environment.  COGNITION AND INTELLIGENCE Contemporary experts also more heavily emphasized the role of culture. They pointed out that what is considered intelligent in one culture may be considered stupid in another culture (Serpell, 2000). Example: Memorization vs. Critical Thinking, Humility vs. Self-promotion o This field explores what is termed cultural intelligence, or CQ. This term is used to describe a person’s ability to adapt to a variety of challenges in diverse cultures (Ang et al., 2010; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2006; Triandis, 2006). THREE (3) COGNITIVE MODELS OF INTELLIGENCE John B Carroll: Three-Stratum Model of Intelligence. According to the three-stratum model of intelligence, intelligence comprises a hierarchy of cognitive abilities comprising three strata (Carroll, 1993): Stratum I includes many narrow, specific abilities (e.g., spelling ability, speed of reasoning). THREE (3) COGNITIVE MODELS OF INTELLIGENCE Stratum II includes various broad abilities 1. Fluid intelligence (Gf): The ability to reason and solve new problems. 2. Crystallized intelligence (Gc): Accumulated knowledge and skills acquired through experience. 3. General memory and learning (Gy): The ability to acquire, store, and retrieve information. 4. Broad visual perception (Gv): The ability to perceive visual information accurately and rapidly. 5. Broad auditory perception (Gu): The ability to perceive auditory information accurately and rapidly. 6. Broad retrieval ability (Gr): The ability to retrieve information from long-term memory. 7. Broad cognitive speediness (Gs): The speed at which mental operations can be performed. 8. Processing speed (Gt): The speed of basic information processing. THREE (3) COGNITIVE MODELS OF INTELLIGENCE Stratum III is just a single general intelligence (sometimes called g). This is the top level of the hierarchy, representing overall intellectual ability. The model emphasizes the hierarchical nature of intelligence, with specific abilities contributing to broader abilities, which in turn contribute to general intelligence. It integrates various aspects of intelligence, including fluid and crystallized intelligence, into a comprehensive framework. THREE (3) COGNITIVE MODELS OF INTELLIGENCE Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Howard Gardner (1983, 1993b, 1999, 2006) has proposed a theory of multiple intelligences, in which intelligence comprises multiple independent constructs, not just a single, unitary construct. This theory distinguishes eight distinct intelligences that are relatively independent of each other (Table 1.1). THREE (3) COGNITIVE MODELS OF INTELLIGENCE Sternberg: The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. Robert Sternberg's Triarchic theory of human intelligence, intelligence comprises three aspects: creative, analytical, and practical. o Creative abilities are used to generate novel ideas. o Analytical abilities ascertain whether your ideas (and those of others) are good ones. o Practical abilities are used to implement the ideas and persuade others of their value. THREE (3) COGNITIVE MODELS OF INTELLIGENCE According to the theory, cognition is at the center of intelligence. Information processing in cognition can be viewed in terms of three different kinds of components. First are meta components— higher-order executive processes (i.e., metacognition) used to plan, monitor, and evaluate problem-solving. Second, are performance components—lower-order processes used for implementing the commands of theme components. And third, are knowledge-acquisition components—the processes used for learning how to solve the problems in the first place. The components are highly interdependent.