Co A&P Ch08 Instructor Manual PDF

Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 8: Axial Skeleton Table of Contents ================= [Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter 2](#purpose-and-perspective-of-the-chapter) [Chapter Objectives 2](#chapter-objectives) [Key Terms 2](#key-term...

Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 8: Axial Skeleton Table of Contents ================= [Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter 2](#purpose-and-perspective-of-the-chapter) [Chapter Objectives 2](#chapter-objectives) [Key Terms 2](#key-terms) [Chapter Outline 2](#chapter-outline) [Discussion Questions 6](#discussion-questions) [Additional Activities and Assignments 7](#additional-activities-and-assignments) [Answers to Learning Check, Apply to Pathophysiology, and Chapter Review Questions 8](#answers-to-learning-check-apply-to-pathophysiology-and-chapter-review-questions) [Additional Resources 13](#additional-resources) [External Videos or Playlist 13](#external-videos-or-playlist) [Internet Resources 13](#internet-resources) [Appendix 14](#appendix) [Generic Rubrics 14](#generic-rubrics) [Standard Writing Rubric 14](#standard-writing-rubric) [Standard Discussion Rubric 14](#standard-discussion-rubric) Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ====================================== The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the axial division of the skeletal system. We begin by differentiating the axial and appendicular divisions of the skeletal system. Next, we review the bones and structures related to the axial division of the skeletal system. The bones of the skull and their bony markings are highlighted first. Next, we discuss the vertebral column, its various regions, curvatures, intervertebral discs, and the structure of the vertebrae. This chapter concludes with a review of the thoracic cage addressing the sternum and different types of ribs. Chapter Objectives ================== The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: **[Learning Objectives, Section 8.1]:** 8.1.1 Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeletons and list the major bones contained within each. **[Learning Objectives, Section 8.2]:** 8.2.1 Know the bones of the skull and their features. 8.2.2 List and identify the skull sutures. 8.2.3 Identify the skull sinuses and describe their functions. 8.2.4 Describe the changes to the skull throughout development and aging. **[Learning Objectives, Section 8.3]:** 8.3.1 Describe the vertebral column as a whole, including the curvatures and regions. 8.3.2 Identify major bone markings (e.g., spines, processes, foramina) on individual vertebrae. 8.3.3 Compare and contrast vertebrae from each region of the spinal column. 8.3.4 Identify and describe the intervertebral joints. **[Learning Objectives, Section 8.4]:** 8.4.1 Identify the three components of the sternum, its position in the thoracic cage, and its features. 8.4.2 Compare and contrast true ribs, false ribs, and floating ribs. 8.4.3 Identify the bony features of an individual rib. Key Terms ========= Log in to cengage.com as an instructor to download a list of key terms separated by chapter. The textbook and eBook include a detailed glossary, and the MindTap course has a glossary app. [\[return to top\]](#_top) Chapter Outline =============== I. Divisions of the Skeletal System (8.1.1) a. The Axial Skeleton (see figure 8.1) forms the vertical, central axis of the body. Functionally, it protects internal organs, allows movement of head, neck, back, and abdominal muscles, and is involved in breathing. b. The Axial Skeleton consists of 80 bones in total. The bones that make up the axial skeleton are: i. The skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum c. The Appendicular Skeleton forms the upper and lower extremities. It includes bones that attach the extremities to the axial skeleton. d. The Appendicular Skeleton consists of 126 bones in total. These bones are discussed further in Chapter 9. II. The Skull (8.2.1--8.2.4) e. The skull is composed of 22 bones divided into two groups: ii. Cranial bones---surround and protect the brain iii. Facial bones---form the face, nasal cavity, mouth, and orbit f. The skull forms openings called cavities. The cranial cavity contains the brain. Other cavities help decrease the weight of the skull and aid in voice resonation. g. The cranial bones form the cranial cavity and protect the brain. The cranial bones include: iv. The frontal bone (1), parietal bones (2), occipital bone (1), temporal bones (2), sphenoid bone (1), and the ethmoid bone (1). h. The facial bones give structure to the face. They include: v. The mandible (1), maxillae (2), lacrimal bones (2), nasal bones (2), palatine bones (2), zygomatic bones (2), inferior nasal conchae (2), and vomer (1). i. The frontal bone (see figure 8.5) forms the forehead. vi. Significant bony markings associated with the frontal bone include the glabella, supraorbital margin, and supraorbital foramen. j. The parietal bones (see figure 8.6) form the superior lateral sides of the skull. k. The occipital bone (see figure 8.7) forms posterior skull and posterior base of cranial cavity. vii. Significant bony markings associated with the occipital bone are the external occipital protuberance, superior nuchal line, foramen magnum, and occipital condyles. l. The temporal bones (see figure 8.8) form the lateral sides of skull. viii. Significant bony markings associated with the temporal bones are the squamous portion, zygomatic process, mastoid process, external acoustic meatus, mandibular fossa, articular tubercle, and styloid process. m. The sphenoid bone (see figure 8.12) forms the base of the central skull and part of temples. ix. Significant bony markings associated with the sphenoid bone include the greater and lesser wings, sella turcica, and the medial and lateral pterygoid processes. n. The ethmoid bone (see figure 8.13) forms part of orbit and nasal cavity. x. Significant bony markings associated with the ethmoid bone include the perpendicular plate, superior and middle nasal conchae, crista galli, cribriform plate, and olfactory foramina. o. The mandible (see figure 8.9) forms the lower jaw. It is the only moveable bone of skull. xi. Significant bony markings associated with the mandible include the body, ramus, angle, coronoid process, condylar process, mandibular foramen, mandibular notch, and mandibular condyle. p. The maxillary bone (see figure 8.10) forms the upper jaw, roof of mouth, and part of the orbit. xii. Significant bony markings associated with the maxillary bone include the alveolar processes and infraorbital foramen. q. The lacrimal bones form part of the orbit. They also contain lacrimal glands that secrete tears. r. The palatine bones (see figure 8.14) form the posterior of the hard palate and part of the orbit. s. The zygomatic bones (see figure 8.11) are also known as the cheekbones. They form the lateral part of the orbit. xiii. The temporal process of the zygomatic bones unites with the zygomatic process of the temporal bones to form the zygomatic arch. t. The vomer forms part of the nasal septum. u. The nasal bones form the bony bridge of the nose. v. The inferior nasal conchae project into the nasal cavity to help warm, filter and moisten inhaled air. w. Sutures are immobile joints that attach cranial bones to one another. Sutures are filled with dense, fibrous connective tissue. xiv. Sagittal suture---joins the parietal bones xv. Coronal suture---joins the frontal bone to parietal bones xvi. Lambdoid suture---joins the parietal bones to occipital bone xvii. Squamous suture---joins the parietal and temporal bones x. The Orbit (see figure 8.16) protects the eyeball and muscles that move it. The frontal, zygomatic, maxilla, ethmoid, lacrimal, palatine, and sphenoid bones contribute to orbit. The optic canal posteriorly allows entry of optic nerve into the orbit. The superior orbital fissure allows entry of the blood supply. y. The nasal septum (see figure 8.17) divides the nasal cavity. It is formed by the perpendicular plate of ethmoid, vomer, and septal cartilage. The nasal conchae are covered by mucous membranes that help to warm, filter, and moisten inhaled air. z. Paranasal sinuses (see figure 8.19) are hollow, air-filled spaces in some skull bones. The sinuses connect to the nasal cavity. They help lighten the skull and allow resonance for the voice. Sinuses are found in the frontal, maxillary, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. a. The base of the skull (see figure 8.25) is divided into 3 major depressions or fossae. Each fossa contains openings and bony markings that allow the passage of nerves and blood vessels into and out of the cranial cavity. xviii. The anterior cranial fossa contains the crista galli and cribriform plates. The middle cranial fossa contains openings for blood vessels and nerves. The posterior cranial fossa contains the internal acoustic meatus, hypoglossal canal, and jugular foramen. xix. The openings of the middle cranial fossa include: 1. Optic canal---allows optic nerve to enter orbit 2. Superior orbital fissure---allows nerves to eye muscles to enter orbit 3. Foramen rotundum---exit of sensory nerve to face 4. Foramen ovale---exit of sensory nerve to face 5. Foramen spinosum---entry of blood supply into cranial cavity 6. Stylomastoid foramen---exit of nerve to muscles of the face 7. Carotid canal---entry of blood supply to brain 8. Foramen lacerum---no structures pass here b. The bones of the skull are not fused at birth. Fontanelles, also known as "soft spots," allow the skull to change shape during birth. They also allow for rapid growth of the brain during infancy. The bones do not fully fuse until adulthood. c. Bones associated with the skull include: xx. The ossicles are tiny bones located within the temporal bones. They are involved in hearing. xxi. The hyoid bone is a U-shaped bone. It is used for muscle attachment and does not articulate with any other bone. III. The Vertebral Column (8.3.1--8.3.4) d. There are five regions of the vertebral column (see figure 8.30). They include the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions. e. The vertebral column supports the head, neck, and upper body. It also protects the spinal cord. f. The vertebrae are connected by intervertebral discs that are located between them. g. There are four major curvatures of the vertebral column (see figure 8.31). They increase the strength, flexibility, and shock absorption of the vertebral column. The four curvatures are the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacrococcygeal. h. The general structure of a vertebra (see figure UNF 8.19) includes the vertebral body, vertebral arch, pedicles, lamina, vertebral foramen, transverse, spinous, and articular processes, and intervertebral foramen. i. There are seven cervical vertebrae (see figure 8.33). Cervical vertebrae have small vertebral bodies. They also have transverse foramina for the passage of the vertebral arteries. They have bifid spinous processes. xxii. The first and second cervical vertebrae are known as the atlas and axis (see figure 8.34). C1 and C2 allow rotation of the head. xxiii. C1 is the atlas and allows head to move in "yes" motion. xxiv. C2 is the axis. It contains a bony marking called the dens that allows the head to move in a "no" motion. j. There are 12 thoracic vertebrae (see figure 8.35). The vertebral bodies of thoracic vertebrae increase in size as you descend the spinal column. They have long, downward angled spinous processes. The thoracic vertebrae articulate with the ribs. k. There are five lumbar vertebrae (see figure 8.37). They have the largest vertebral bodies. They have short, blunt spinous processes. l. The sacrum is a triangular-shaped bone formed from five fused vertebrae (see figure 8.38). The sacral foramina allow passage of nerves. m. The coccyx is formed from four fused vertebrae. It is also known as the "tailbone". n. Intervertebral disks (see figure 8.39) are fibrocartilage pads between the vertebrae. They consist of an outer fibrous ring called the anulus fibrosus and a deeper nucleus pulposus. They anchor vertebrae to each other, provide cushioning, and allow movement. IV. The Thoracic Cage (8.4.1--8.4.3) o. The thoracic cage surrounds and protects organs such as the heart and lungs within the thoracic cavity. p. The sternum (see figure 8.40) is also known as the "breastbone." It consists of the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The clavicles and some ribs attach to the sternum. q. The ribs (see figure 8.41) are12 pairs of curved flat bones. Costal cartilage articulates some ribs to the sternum anteriorly. xxv. Bony features of the ribs include the head, neck, body, tubercle, angle of the rib, and costal groove. xxvi. There are three types of ribs: 9. True ribs (1--7)---costal cartilage directly attaches to sternum 10. False ribs (8--12)---costal cartilage does not attach to sternum 11. Floating ribs (11--12)---do not have costal cartilage [\[return to top\]](#_top) Discussion Questions ==================== You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class. 1. The skull and mummification. (Attention Getter). Duration 5--10 minutes. a. Question: If you were an ancient Egyptian mummifier and you wished to remove the brain with the least obvious disturbance of the external structures of the head, what passage way would be the easiest for you to use? Please explain your reason. i. Answer: Egyptian mummifiers broke through the ethmoid sinuses to the cribriform plate since this is such a delicate and perforated area. They then removed the brain with long hooks. 2. The sutures of the skull. (8.2.2). Duration 5--10 minutes. a. Question: Describe the location of the four most prominent sutures of the skull including the articulating bones. i. Answer: The coronal suture unites the frontal bone and both parietal bones. The sagittal suture unites the two parietal bones on the superior midline of the skull. The lambdoid suture unites the two parietal bones to the occipital bone. The squamous sutures unite the parietal and temporal bones on the lateral aspects of the skull. 3. The fontanels. (8.2.4). Duration 5--10 minutes. b. Question: Describe the six fontanels of the infant skull including their location, shape and time of closure. ii. Answer: The unpaired anterior fontanel is located at the midline between the two parietal bones and the frontal bone. It is roughly diamond shaped and is the largest fontanel. It usually closes 18--24 months after birth. The unpaired posterior fontanel is located at the midline between the two parietal bones and the occipital bone. It is smaller than the anterior fontanel and closes about 2 months after birth. The paired anterolateral fontanels are located laterally between the frontal, parietal, temporal and sphenoid bones and are smaller in shape. They close about 3 months after birth. The paired posterolateral fontanels are located laterally between the parietal, occipital and temporal bones and are irregularly shaped. They begin to close 1 to 2 months after birth, but closure is not complete until 12 months. 4. The paranasal sinuses. (8.2.3) Duration 5--10 minutes. c. Question: Describe the function of the paranasal sinuses. iii. Answer: The sinuses lighten the skull and contain a mucous membrane lining that helps moisten and clean inspired air. The sinuses also aid in enhancing the quality of the voice by acting as resonating chambers. 5. The vertebral column. (8.3.1). Duration 5--10 minutes. d. Question: List and describe the number of bones found in all the regions of the adult vertebral column. iv. Answer: There are seven cervical vertebrae in the neck region. There are 12 thoracic vertebrae posterior to the thoracic cavity. The five lumbar vertebrae support the lower back. There is one sacrum consisting of five fused sacral vertebrae. There is one coccyx (tail bone) consisting of four fused coccygeal vertebrae. [\[return to top\]](#_top) Additional Activities and Assignments ===================================== 1. **\[Understanding the terminology of bones\]**: \[This activity ties to 8.2.1. The students will investigate the meaning of Latin and Greek word roots to understand how bones are named.\] a. \[Divide the students into several groups so that they have to work together. Have the students disassemble the names of the bones so that they can research the meanings of the words. For example, cribri- (i.e., sieve) + -form (i.e., shape) = shaped like a sieve as in the cribriform plate. This activity can be adjusted for an online classroom by using a discussion board or breakout rooms for the groups if your meeting software allows.\] 2. **\[Visualizing the skull**\]: \[This activity ties to 8.2.1. The students will investigate the anatomy of the skull and work on building their own mental 3-dimensional image of the skull.\] b. Obtain models of the human skull from your resource center or labs. Divide the students into small groups so the they can work together during this activity. Have the students use images from the text to find each bone of the skull and also identify bony markings related to those bones. To expand their knowledge, provide them with yellow pipe cleaners to represent nerves, blue pipe cleaners for vein, and red pipe cleaners for arteries. Have them place the pipe cleaners in the openings of the skull to represent the arteries, veins, and nerves that pass through them. This activity could be adapted for an online course by using images of a human skull or a three-dimensional modeling program. 3. **\[Comparing mammalian skulls.\]**: \[This activity ties to 8.2.1. The students will investigate some of the differences in mammalian skulls and relate those differences to functions.\] c. Obtain the bones of deer or other mammals. The skeletons do not have to be complete. The nasal conchae (i.e., turbinate bones) are especially interesting in comparison to those of humans. Other mammals depend so much more on their sense of smell than we do and the sizes of their conchae reflect this. This activity can be adapted for an online course by using comparative images of a human skull and other mammalian skulls. 4. **\[Visualizing the vertebral column\]**: \[This activity ties to 8.3.1. The students will use models to the vertebral column to identify structures and components of the vertebral column. d. Divide the students into several groups. Provide each group with a model of the vertebral column from your resource center or lab. Have each group identify the positions of the intervertebral disks, vertebral arteries, spinal nerve cord, and the spinal nerves. This activity can be adapted for an online course by using unlabeled images. 5. **\[Identifying fontanels.\]** \[This activity ties to 8.2.4. The students will identify the locations of fontanels related to the fetal skull.\] e. Obtain models of a fetal skull from your resource center or labs. Divide the students into small groups so they can work together during this activity. Have the students practice identifying the locations of the major fontanels on the model of the fetal skulls. To adapt this activity to the online classroom, use images of the fetal skull instead. 6. **\[The thoracic cage.\]** \[This activity ties to 8.4.2. The students will identify the thoracic cage and differentiate between true, false, and floating ribs.\] f. Obtain complete skeleton models or models of the thoracic cage from your resource center or lab. Have the students identify the location of the sternum, ribs and vertebral column that make up the thoracic cage. Next, have them note the differences in the costal cartilage. Based on these differences, have the students identify true, false, and floating ribs. This activity could be adapted for an online course by using images of the thoracic cage or a three-dimensional modeling program. 7. **\[Skull identification quiz.\]** \[This activity ties to 8.2.1. The students will use a Sporcle quiz to assess their understanding of the bones of the skull.\] g. The activity will require the students to use a Sporcle quiz to identify and label the bones of the skull. The images in the quiz are similar to those found in the text. Students will get practice using a fill in the blank quiz to reinforce the spelling of terms. This activity can be used individually or as an activity for in-class participation. h. [Sporcle skull bone quiz](https://www.sporcle.com/games/Line/human_skull) 8. **\[MT Case Study Collaborative Activity\]: \[This activity ties to the MindTap Case Study for Chapter 8.\]** i. This case study discusses the clinical condition of hydrocephalus. Divide students into small groups for this activity. To adapt this activity to an online classroom, use breakout rooms in your online meeting software or discussion boards in your learning management system. Begin by having each group define hydrocephalus and identify the signs and symptoms associated with it. Hydrocephalus is a buildup of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that can lead to enlargement of the head in children. Have each group discuss why this enlargement of the head can occur in children. They answer should mention the fact that the cranial bones are not completely fused and this allows for the increase in size of the head. Finally, have the groups differentiate the bones of the skull that may be affected by hydrocephalus from those that should not be affected. Since hydrocephalus occurs around the brain, the cranial bones are most likely to be affected while the facial bones are least likely to be affected. [\[return to top\]](%5Cl) Answers to Learning Check, Apply to Pathophysiology, and Chapter Review Questions ================================================================================= **[Learning Check Questions, Section 8.1b:]** 1. a\. Ribs b\. Skull Bloom's level: Remember Rationale: The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes all the bones of the head, neck, torso, and back. These bones include the skull and ribs. 2. a\. Axial skeleton Bloom's level: Remember Rationale: The ear ossicles (three small bones in the middle ear) are considered part of the axial skeleton because they are located in the skull. 3. b\. Appendicular skeleton Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: The humerus is one of the bones of your upper limb; therefore, it is part of the appendicular skeleton. **[Learning Check Questions, Section 8.2a:]** 1. a\. Superior Bloom's level: Analyze Rationale: This is the superior view; you are looking at the structure from the top. 2. c\. Ethmoid bone Bloom's level: Analyze Rationale: Choice A is pointing to the ethmoid bone. 3. b\. Sphenoid bone Bloom's level: Analyze Rationale: Choice B is pointing to the sphenoid bone. 4. d\. Occipital bone Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: Choice C is pointing to the occipital bone, which makes up part of the posterior surface and part of the inferior surface of the skull. 5. b\. Nasal bone Bloom's level: Analyze Rationale: The nasal bone sits in front of the sphenoid and ethmoid bones, projecting outwards. This is an image of inside the skull looking down; therefore, you cannot see the nasal bone. **[Learning Check Questions, Section 8.2g:]** 1. d\. Lateral view of the right side of the skull Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: The anterior surface of the skull is facing the right; therefore, you are looking at the lateral view of the right side of the skull. 2. c\. Zygomatic arch Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: Choice A is pointing to the zygomatic arch, which forms a portion of the "cheek bones." 3. a\. Zygomatic process of the temporal bone and temporal process of the zygomatic bone Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: Choice A is pointing to the zygomatic arch, which is composed of the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the temporal process of the zygomatic bone. Both processes are known for the structures with which they articulate. Because the zygomatic bone articulates with the temporal bone, the posterior projection of the zygomatic bone is called the *temporal process*. Similarly, the temporal bone articulates with the zygomatic bone, so the anterior projection of the temporal bone is called the *zygomatic process*. 4. a\. Sphenoid bone c\. Maxilla Bloom's level: Analyze Rationale: The eye orbit is made up of many bones. The sphenoid bone comprises the posterior surface, the zygomatic bone makes up the lateral surfaces, the maxilla makes up the inferior surfaces, the ethmoid bone comprises the medial surfaces, and the frontal bone makes up the superior surfaces. **[Apply to Pathophysiology Questions, Section 8.3c: Aging Spines:]** 1. c\. Figure (C) Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: Kyphosis is an exaggerated thoracic curvature of the spine. This occurs in some older adults, especially those with osteoporosis. It is sometimes referred to as a "humpback" appearance. 2. a\. Sally's vertebrae are collapsing anteriorly, making more space among her spinous processes. Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: Sally's vertebrae are collapsing anteriorly, increasing the space between the spinous processes. The vertebral body makes up the anterior portion of a vertebra. When several vertebral bodies degenerate, their vertical height is decreased. This increases the thoracic curvature of the vertebral column, causing the spinous processes that make up the posterior portion of the vertebrae to spread apart. 3. c\. Lumbar Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: Compression fractures are most likely to occur in the lumbar region of the spine. Sally's pain occurs in response to weight-bearing activities. The lumbar region is much more weight-bearing than the cervical and thoracic regions. **[Apply to Pathophysiology Questions, Section 8.3e: Herniated Disc:]** 1. c\. **Lumbar spine** Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: Phillip has pain in his lower back, which is the location of the lumbar spine. The cervical spine is in the neck region, the thoracic spine is in the chest region, and the sacral spine is in the hip region. 2. a\. **Strong, rectangular spinous processes** Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: The spinous processes of lumbar vertebrae are strong and rectangular. The spinous processes of cervical vertebrae are small and bifid, and those of the thoracic vertebrae are thin. The spinous processes of the sacral vertebrae fuse to form the median sacral crest. 3. b\. **Thick vertebral bodies** Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: The vertebral bodies of lumbar vertebrae are thick because these vertebrae are weight-bearing. The bodies of the cervical and lumbar vertebrae are thinner than those of the lumbar vertebrae. The vertebral bodies of the five sacral vertebrae fuse as the sacrum becomes a single structure. 4. d\. **The nucleus comes in contact with the spinal nerves and cord.** Bloom's level: Analyze Rationale: Phillip is in more pain when he extends his back than when he flexes it because the nucleus comes in contact with the spinal nerves and spinal cord when he is in this position. The spinous process of the vertebra is not affected by the herniated disc. **[Learning Check Questions, Section 8.4b:]** 1. a\. Cervical Bloom's level: Remember Rationale: The cervical region has bifid spinous processes, while the thoracic region has long, pointed spinous process, and the lumbar region has large rectangular spinous processes. 2. a\. Axis Bloom's level: Remember Rationale: The C2 vertebra contains the dens, which the bony ring of the C1 vertebra revolves around. The C2 vertebra is often called the *axis* because it is the axis of rotation for the C1 vertebra. 3. c\. Lumbar Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: The lumbar region bears the most weight; therefore, the vertebral bodies are thicker than those of the cervical and thoracic regions. The spinous processes of lumbar vertebrae are also the site of attachment for many muscles, which contributes to the region's large weight-bearing status. 4. d\. 4 Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: A rib articulates three times with a vertebra: (1) at the inferior costal facet, (2) the superior costal facet, and (3) the transverse process. A rib also articulates with the sternum via a costal cartilage. 5. d\. Angle of the rib Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: The angle of a rib is the lateral aspect of the rib and is found where the rib angles anteriorly from the lateral aspect of the thorax. The head and neck of a rib are located more posteriorly than the armpit. The costal groove runs on the posterior and inferior surface of the ribs; it houses the abdominal arteries, veins, and nerves. **[Chapter Review Questions, Section 8.1:]** 1. c\. Femur d\. Scapula Bloom's level: Remember Rationale: The appendicular skeleton includes all the bones of the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton. The femur is the thigh bone in your legs and the scapula attaches your arm to the axial skeleton, making both bones part of your appendicular skeleton. Learning Objective: 8.1.1 **[Chapter Review Questions, Section 8.2:]** 1. a\. Vomer b\. Ethmoid Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: The nasal cavity is made up of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone, the vomer, the nasal bone, and the maxilla. Learning Objective: 8.2.1 2. a\. Parietal d\. Frontal Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: The coronal suture runs over the top of the skull along the coronal plane. It connects the frontal and parietal bones. Learning Objective: 8.2.2 3. c\. The mucus prevents air from bouncing within the sinus, decreasing the resonance. Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: The mucus buildup in the sinus cavity makes the fluid thicker, decreasing the ability of air to bounce around the sinus during talking. This decreases the amount of resonance in the tone of the voice, leading to the characteristic nasal sound when you are congested. Learning Objective: 8.2.3 4. b\. The skull bones are developed through intramembranous ossification, while facial bones are developed through endochondral ossification. Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: The skull bones are developed via intramembranous ossification, while facial bones are developed via endochondral ossification. This allows the skull to adapt to the forces placed on it during birth and to expand as the brain develops. Learning Objective: 8.2.4 **[Chapter Review Questions, Section 8.3:]** 1. b\. The cervical and lumbar regions have posterior (lordotic) curves. c\. The thoracic region contains the largest number of vertebrae in the vertebral column. Bloom's level: Remember Rationale: The cervical and lumbar regions of the vertebral column have posterior (lordotic) curves, while the thoracic and sacrococcygeal regions have anterior (kyphotic) curves. The thoracic region contains the largest number of vertebrae in the vertebral column (12). The only regions in which vertebral fusion occurs are the sacral and coccygeal regions; this begins at age 20 and is completed by middle age. In the rest of the regions, fusion does not occur and vertebrae are separated by interverbal discs throughout life. Learning Objective: 8.3.1 **[Chapter Review Questions, Section 8.3 (Mini Case 1: Low Back Pain):]** 1. a\. It would create more space in the vertebral foramen. Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: Spinal stenosis is the compression of the spinal cord, so by removing the lamina, you are creating space posteriorly to alleviate that compression on the spinal canal. Learning Objective: 8.3.2 2. c\. Cervical vertebrae contain transverse foramina, but lumbar vertebrae do not. d\. The spinous processes of cervical and lumbar vertebrae are bifid. Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: Cervical vertebrae are the only vertebrae that contain transverse foramina; thoracic and lumbar vertebrae do not contain them. Some cervical vertebrae contain bifid spinous processes, but the spinous processes of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae are not bifid. Lumbar vertebrae are much larger than cervical vertebrae because they are weight-bearing. Cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae all contain transverse processes. Learning Objective: 8.3.3 3. a\. Intervertebral discs between adjacent vertebrae d\. Joints formed by the superior and inferior articular processes of adjacent vertebrae Bloom's level: Analyze Rationale: Intervertebral discs form cartilaginous joints between the vertebral bodies of adjacent vertebrae. There are also joints between the superior and inferior articular processes of adjacent vertebrae, which provide for certain movements of the spine. Transverse foramina are the side openings in cervical vertebrae, which provide a canal to transport the vertebral arteries and veins; they do not form joints. The spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae lie in close proximity, but they also do not form joints. Learning Objective: 8.3.4 **[Chapter Review Questions, Section 8.4:]** 1. b\. Suprasternal notch Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: The suprasternal notch is the U-shaped border that is found in the center of the chest between the clavicles. Learning Objective: 8.4.1 2. b\. False rib c\. Floating rib Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: Ribs 1--7 are called *true ribs* because their costal cartilages attach them directly to the sternum. Ribs 8--12 are called *false ribs* because they do not connect directly to the sternum via their own costal cartilages. Ribs 11--12 are also called *floating ribs* because they have no attachment to the sternum. Ribs 11 and 12 can therefore be classified as both false ribs and floating ribs. Learning Objective: 8.4.2 3. c\. Tubercle Bloom's level: Remember Rationale: The tubercle is a little bump on the posterior neck of the rib that articulates with the transverse process of the same numbered vertebrae. Learning Objective: 8.4.3 [\[return to top\]](#_top) Additional Resources ==================== External Videos or Playlist --------------------------- - [Cengage A&P YouTube Playlist](https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PL0pE7CqIwDiOjaAFLYSpD0f0bqxC6dS7P) Internet Resources ------------------ - [*Scoliosis*, MedLine Plus article](https://medlineplus.gov/scoliosis.html) - [*Spina bifida,* Mayo Clinic article](https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/spina-bifida/symptoms-causes/syc-20377860) - [*Herniated disk*, Mayo Clinic article](https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/herniated-disk/symptoms-causes/syc-20354095) [\[return to top\]](%5Cl) Appendix ======== Generic Rubrics --------------- Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments. Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students' work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubric templates as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points. Standard Writing Rubric ----------------------- +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Criteria** | **Meets | **Needs | **Incomplete** | | | Requirements** | Improvement** | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Content | The assignment | The assignment | The assignment | | | clearly and | partially | does not | | | comprehensively | addresses some | address the | | | addresses all | or all | questions in | | | questions in | questions in | the assignment. | | | the assignment. | the assignment. | | | | | | 0 points | | | 15 points | 8 points | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Organization | The assignment | The assignment | The assignment | | and Clarity | presents ideas | presents ideas | does not | | | in a clear | in a mostly | present ideas | | | manner and with | clear manner | in a clear | | | strong | and with a | manner and with | | | organizational | mostly strong | strong | | | structure. The | organizational | organizational | | | assignment | structure. The | structure. The | | | includes an | assignment | assignment | | | appropriate | includes an | includes an | | | introduction, | appropriate | introduction, | | | content, and | introduction, | content, and | | | conclusion. | content, and | conclusion, but | | | Coverage of | conclusion. | coverage of | | | facts, | Coverage of | facts, | | | arguments, and | facts, | arguments, and | | | conclusions are | arguments, and | conclusions are | | | logically | conclusions are | not logically | | | related and | mostly | related and | | | consistent. | logically | consistent. | | | | related and | | | | 10 points | consistent. | 0 points | | | | | | | | | 7 points | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Research | The assignment | The assignment | The assignment | | | is based upon | is based upon | is not based | | | appropriate and | adequate | upon | | | adequate | academic | appropriate and | | | academic | literature but | adequate | | | literature, | does not | academic | | | including peer- | include | literature and | | | reviewed | peer-reviewed | does not | | | journals and | journals and | include | | | other scholarly | other scholarly | peer-reviewed | | | work. | work. | journals and | | | | | other scholarly | | | 5 points | 3 points | work. | | | | | | | | | | 0 points | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Citation | The assignment | The assignment | The assignment | | | follows the | follows some of | does not follow | | | required | the required | the required | | | citation | citation | citation | | | guidelines. | guidelines. | guidelines. | | | | | | | | 5 points | 3 points | 0 points | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Grammar and | The assignment | The assignment | The assignment | | Spelling | has two or | has three to | is incomplete | | | fewer | five | or | | | grammatical and | grammatical and | unintelligible. | | | spelling | spelling | | | | errors. | errors. | 0 points | | | | | | | | 5 points | 3 points | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ [\[return to top\]](#_top) Standard Discussion Rubric -------------------------- +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Criteria** | **Meets | **Needs | **Incomplete** | | | Requirements** | Improvement** | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Participation | Submits or | Does not | Does not | | | participates in | participate or | participate in | | | discussion by | submit | discussion. | | | the posted | discussion by | | | | deadlines. | the posted | 0 points | | | Follows all | deadlines. Does | | | | assignment | not follow | | | | instructions | instructions | | | | for initial | for initial | | | | post and | post and | | | | responses. | responses. | | | | | | | | | 5 points | 3 points | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Contribution | Comments stay | Comments may | Does not | | Quality | on task. | not stay on | participate in | | | Comments add | task. Comments | discussion. | | | value to | may not add | | | | discussion | value to | 0 points | | | topic. Comments | discussion | | | | motivate other | topic. Comments | | | | students to | may not | | | | respond. | motivate other | | | | | students to | | | | 20 points | respond. | | | | | | | | | | 10 points | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Etiquette | Maintains | Does not always | Does not | | | appropriate | maintain | participate in | | | language. | appropriate | discussion. | | | Offers | language. | | | | criticism in a | Offers | 0 points | | | constructive | criticism in an | | | | manner. | offensive | | | | Provides both | manner. | | | | positive and | Provides only | | | | negative | negative | | | | feedback. | feedback. | | | | | | | | | 5 points | 3 points | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ \[return to top\]