CMY2602 Summary Of Notes PDF

THEME 1: THE EVOLUTION, DEVELOPMENT & APPLICATION OF CRIME PREVENTION APPROACHES, MODELS AND STRUCTURES 1. PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF CRIME  Crime prevention: all measures taken by way of government policy and private initiative to prevent crime, with the exception of the criminal justice...

THEME 1: THE EVOLUTION, DEVELOPMENT & APPLICATION OF CRIME PREVENTION APPROACHES, MODELS AND STRUCTURES 1. PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF CRIME  Crime prevention: all measures taken by way of government policy and private initiative to prevent crime, with the exception of the criminal justice system.  Crime prevention models are usually based on specific theories or factors of crime that may have played a part in the commission of crime or victimization, while programs have no theoretical basis.  1971: USA established the National Crime Prevention Institute under the auspices of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration in the Department of Justice. Federal government took charge of NCPI in 1986 to involve communities in crime prevention.  England: o Local crime prevention panels existed from 1966. o 1975: Home Office Committee on Crime Prevention. o 1983: establishment of the Home Office Crime Prevention Centre and the Research and Planning Unit.  France: prevention councils have been operating at local, regional and national levels since 1983.  Sweden and Denmark: national crime prevention councils since late 1970s.  SA: National Crime Prevention Policy – 22 May 1996. Advocates an integrated, multidimensional crime prevention model for interdepartmental cooperation at central, regional and local authority levels. Four pillars: o The reduction of crime through effective environmental planning and design focusing on designing systems to reduce the opportunity for crime and increase the ease of detection and identification of criminals. o The enhancement of community values and campaigns to educate the community aimed at changing the way communities react to crime and violence. It involves programs that make use of public education and information to facilitate meaningful citizen participation in crime prevention. o Transnational crime prevention for the specific purpose of crime across the borders. o An effective and integrated criminal justice system. It must provide a sure, clear deterrent for criminals and reduce the risks of reoffending.  Factors crucial to successful crime prevention: o State and community involvement in implementing a comprehensive crime prevention policy. o A multidimensional crime prevention approach, which incorporates a number of crime prevention models and their programs. o Crime prevention models and programs based on causation theories and factors which may be operative in crime and victimization.  o Attention to the uniqueness of crime patterns and causes peculiar to a country or neighbourhood. o Proper planning and the evaluation of crime prevention programs (which must also be cost-effective).  Crime prevention approaches: o Social crime prevention model (by Graham):  Socioeconomic structures/systems (families, schools, churches, recreational facilities, jobs) are important socialization structures.  Shortcomings in these structures may contribute to crime.  Social crime prevention programs are therefore designed to help vulnerable groups, and to eradicate poor socioeconomic conditions and social inequalities. o Limiting opportunities for crime model:  Focus on potential victims, community and the physical environment.  Includes effective urban and environmental planning; publicity campaigns aimed at making people more security conscious; target reinforcement; CCTV.  Successful in preventing crimes against property and people (robbery, pickpocketing). o Community-based crime prevention model:  Make offenders aware of the risk of being caught in specific neighbourhoods.  Examples: neighbourhood watches, safe houses, etc.  Successful in preventing robbery, pickpocketing, burglary, crimes against property and car theft. o Biophysical prevention model:  Early identification and treatment (esp. in children) may play an important role in preventing crime.  Examples: vitamin supplements, diet adjustments, medication, therapy. o Psychological prevention model  Focus on inner psychological needs and disorders that may give rise to criminal behaviour.  Interpersonal problems and poor communication, particularly within the family, may contribute to criminal behaviour.  Psychological treatments: psychological tests, psychotherapy, social casework. o Integrated crime prevention models  Prevention of specific crime:  A number of factors are seen as contributing to the particular crime.  These factors are treated using appropriate crime prevention programs.  Examples: rehabilitation, training in family and social skills, psychological treatment, techniques for coping with frustration and assistance with finding employment.  Crime prevention and control by means of the criminal justice system:  Law regulates human behaviour and must, therefore, be just. o Successful programmes:  Sherman, Gottfredson, MacKenzie, Eck, Reuter and Bushway found that the following worked well in USA:  Regular home visits by nurses and other professionals, and weekly home visits by teachers of preschool children to combat child abuse.   Family therapy and parental guidance for families with at-risk youths and adolescents.  School programs, such as innovative development programs, the reinforcement of accepted norms and education in social skills.  Trade apprenticeships for former offenders.  Increased policing of crime risk areas.  Monitoring and detaining high-risk recidivists.  Arresting professional men who abuse their families.  Rehab for convicted offenders aimed at risk treatment.  Therapeutic community treatment programmes for drug users in prisons. 2. PROPERTY CRIMES 1: SHOP THEFT AND EMPLOYEE THEFT  Property crime is an umbrella term for crimes that are committed with fiscal gain as the primary motive.  Includes fraud, shop theft, employee theft, common theft, vehicle theft, theft out of vehicles, computer theft, stock theft, burglary, arson and vandalism.  Malicious shrinkage: an umbrella term relating to the losses that occur while companies are producing, distributing and eventually selling goods to customers. Includes shoplifting and employee theft.  In the case of employee theft, the following elements are identified: o Unlawfulness: authorisation is absent during the taking of the money/merchandise. o An actual deed: the taking and appropriation of a moveable corporeal thing. o The intention of depriving the employer permanently of his property.  Determinants that often lead to arrest in cases of shop theft include the value and resale price of the item, as well as whether the item was stolen in a professional and adroit manner.  Internationally, department stores and pharmacies suffer the greatest losses from shoplifting.  In SA, food retailers suffer the greatest losses, while factories suffer the least losses.  Britain has the highest worldwide level of stock losses, followed by Germany. Switzerland is the country with the least shop theft.  According to the CGCSA, there has been a definite increase in shoplifting incidents over the years, which cost the SA retail industry R6 million annually in 2004.  Research by Hollinger shows that ± a third of the employees interviewed acknowledged having stolen goods from their employers during the preceding year. More than 2/3 of the research group reported counterproductive behaviour such as alcohol or drug abuse while on duty, misuse of sick leave, prolonged breaks and lunchtimes, as well as slow or poor workmanship.  Hefter reports that: o 1 in 3 employees is actively involved in employee theft. o The majority of employees steal once a year. o 9% of employees steal from their employers between 4 and 12 times a year. o Employee theft is investigated by security managers more often than any other breach of security. o 1 in 3 bankruptcies may be directly attributed to or is a direct consequence of employee theft.   The 2001 National Retail Security Survey in the USA showed that employee theft makes up 46% of inventory shrinkage.  The most frequently occurring offence by employees was theft of cash followed by theft of merchandise.  Most likely places for staff offending: tills and back areas. 3. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHOP AND EMPLOYEE THEFT 3.1. THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHOP THEFT:  Common characteristics: o Does not contain element/threat of violence. o No need to gain unauthorised access to a building/premises. o Most commonly an opportunistic crime.  Shoplifter motives and typology: o Butler: people who shoplift are motivated by a series of socioeconomic and/or personal factors, including temptation, psychological/psychiatric problems (depression, stress, senility, effects of pregnancy, cerebral arteriosclerosis), poverty, a desire for excitement, peer pressure, and the need to outsmart adults. o Shop theft can also occur towing to political considerations – actions aimed against capitalist institutions. o Caputo’s motives: simple greed, reactions to personal crisis situations, low self-control, unemployment, drug abuse, divorce and relationship separation, perceived low risk of apprehension, and eating disorders. o According to smith, 4 types of shoplifter can be identified:  Amateur: steals on impulse, because he desires and wants to use the item (food, clothing). Easiest to detect due to lack of planning.  Juvenile: steals for thrill and status among peers. Amateurs and juveniles may eventually become professionals.  Professional: steals for economic gain. Chooses smaller items with high resale value. Frequently involved in other crimes (credit card fraud, drug use). 10% of all shoplifters.  Kleptomaniac: rare. Usually steals low-value items because of psychological urges. Often feels guilty. Essential feature is the recurrent failure to resist impulses to steal objects that are not needed for personal use or their monetary value. Items are often discarded, given away or returned.  Modus operandi: o Methods of concealment: dropping items from the shelf into open bags waiting at the shoplifters feet, putting items in handbags or baby carriages, hiding items in rolled up newspapers and making use of false compartments in items of clothing (jackets, soles of shoes). o In groups, they often distract store personnel by entering the shop in a group and splitting up in different directions, or sending an employee into the stores storage area to find something.   Items most commonly shoplifted: o Products with high resale value, small size, and designer brands. o CGCSA: toiletries (esp. expensive perfumes), razor blades, camera film, batteries, videos, DVDs, CDs, tobacco products, jewellery. o Items are usually sold at flea markets. 3.2. THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EMPLOYEE THEFT  Common characteristics: Few employees who steal from employers have a long-term commitment to their employers or find themselves in dire financial straits at the time of the offence.  Motives for employee theft: o Explanations of offending differ between types of staff and their circumstances. o Debt o Opportunities that staff are exposed to in the course of daily duties o Workers who are unhappy with their working environment/circumstances have a higher tendency to offend, and rationalise the offence, lowering guilt levels. o Hollinger and Clark’s survey: feelings of unfair treatment were among the strongest predictors of employee theft. Strong link between theft and feelings of injustice in workplace. o Fischer and Green:  Revenge for (perceived) injustices.  Inadequate remuneration.  Self-enrichment (goods are easy to resell).  Assistance to others. o Offenders themselves give the following reasons (Lydon):  Awareness of other employees stealing  Personal financial difficulty  Remoteness of being caught  Belief that if they are caught they will not be prosecuted/punished. o Joubert, Maree and Hesseling-Louw:  Economic pressure  Demographic aspects (many thefts by young inexperienced part-time employees)  Opportunity  Dissatisfaction  Norms  Attitudes towards theft  Power through theft  Theft as a safety valve (working out their frustrations)  Instability (emotional) 4. EXPLANATION OF SHOP AND EMPLOYEE THEFT 4.1. THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS FOR SHOP THEFT  Rational choice perspective o Identifies the human will as a predisposing factor in the decision to commit crime. o Potential offenders calculate the costs and benefits of crime, and select the alternative with the highest utility. o Evidence of decision making: importance of means of escape; contemplation of various tactics/means of committing the crime.  Routine activity theory (by Cohen and Felson) o Also known as lifestyle approach, and is related to the rational decision-making perspective. o Likelihood of crime is increased by the presence of three variables: the motivated offender, suitable targets, and insufficient guards. o People are inherently self-centred and hedonistic.  Shoplifting as consumer behaviour o It is part of people’s conduct in their role as consumer. Shoplifting results from the coincidence of 3 factors: a motivated consumer (shoplifter), desirable products and the opportunity to steal them. o The majority of shoplifters do not have a record of prior criminal behaviour. Over 30% of respondents in self-report surveys admit to being involved in shoplifting. 4.2. THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS FOR EMPLOYEE THEFT  Social control theory o People are greedy and, therefore, steal as soon as the opportunity presents itself. o Focus on formal and informal social structures in the workplace. The role of such structures is to limit criminal behaviour by means of determination and regulation. o Normative support: the standards, perceptions and values the work group has established for itself (group norms). o Employees tend to impose their own informal normative sanctions, which, in turn, determine and regulate acceptable behaviour. Some types of theft are acceptable and not seen as theft. o The generally negative public perception of the ethical standards of business executives has contributed to the problem by helping workers feel that employee theft is simply a natural part of business. 5. PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF SHOP AND EMPLOYEE THEFT 5.1. PREVENTION OF SHOP THEFT  All shoplifters should be reported to the police in order to raise public awareness. Potential offenders may decide that the risk of the crime outweighs the benefits.  Staff should be continually alert to shoplifters’ psychological traits and patterns of behaviour (excessive nervousness, aimlessly wandering up and down aisles, looking around repeatedly, re-examining an article from time to time, repeatedly leaving and re-entering the store).   Staff should observe people with slings for broken arms, large shopping bags, parcels that apparently have to be posted, coats carried over the arm and briefcases or rucksacks.  Layout of the shop: use of mirrors, strategic positioning of checkouts, good lighting, a minimum number of cross aisles, parcel counters, avoiding high shelves which shield offenders.  Roving guards or store detectives are more effective than guards only at entrance.  Connect valuable items to an alarm system.  CCTV is effective as a deterrent, and also serves as evidence.  Notices/warnings indicating that shoplifters will be prosecuted have little effect.  The banning of free (non-biodegradable) plastic bags in SA has increased shoplifting (tripled). 5.2. PREVENTION OF EMPLOYEE THEFT  Personnel selection: o Normally be well presented, but not judged on appearance alone. o Questions should focus on inner qualities and characteristics (integrity, temperament, tact and perseverance). o Background should be carefully checked. o Ask probing questions, note incoherent/ambiguous answers. o Job experience is important. o Polygraph may be undertaken.  Personnel training: make clear the policy on employee theft and consequences. Crime prevention in the workplace may form part of follow-up in-service training.  Creating a positive work environment: o Reasonable salaries o Fairness – equal benefits. o Sound human relations – no impersonal and negative attitudes towards employees. o Employee loyalty o Reward/recognition for performance.  Reducing opportunities for theft: o Strict audit controls by external auditors. o Stringent security measures when employees leave the building. o Checking employees’ purchases (may not sell goods to themselves). o Providing all staff members with identification tags o Monitoring supervisors, deliveries, use of keys. o Surprise cash counts o Escorting visitors while on premises o Banning ‘gifts’ from suppliers o Strictly controlling stockroom areas and the receipt of goods o Develop a system of control for staff shopping and refunds, charge accounts, discounts o Clearly define staff responsibilities and organise how cash registers, safes and banking will be organised. o Operating a petty cash system (stationery, cleaning materials, etc)  o Periodic polygraph screening examinations  Determining clear policies: distribute clear written policies on ethical behaviour to each employee. Each employee should sign it, incl. owner. Employees need to know that a uniform ethical standard applies to everyone in the firm. 6. PROPERTY CRIMES I I: THEFT, BURGLARY, VEHICLE THEFT AND COMPUTER CRIME 6.1. KEY CONCEPTS  Theft: the unlawful taking, carrying, leading or driving away of property from the possession or constructive possession of another.  Snyman – four key requirements for being guilty of theft: o The act of appropriation of a o Certain kind of property which is o Committed unlawfully and o Intentionally.  Vehicle theft: actual/attempted theft of a motor vehicle (not hijacking – robbery). 6.2. THEFT  General characteristics: o Occasional offenders: opportunistic. Involvement in crime is sporadic and unsystematic. Limited skills. o Professional/career thieves: highly skilled techniques, manipulate people. Plan. Sympathetic toward other thieves. Special techniques. Lifestyle, social institution of sorts. o Typical urban habitat of professional thieves: gambling and dance halls, cheap hotels, brothels, and third-rate pubs, pawnshops, restaurants or theatres. Young women attract clients who become victims. o Professional thieves do not regard themselves as deviant/immoral. Try to avoid prison by bribes. o Fence: person who receives the stolen property and sells it after the thief has been compensated.  Selection of targets: o Form and value of possessions to be stolen are important. o Men carry more money on them than women. o Older people carry more money than young people. o White people have the most money.  Motives for stealing: o According to Merton’s anomie theory, a nation with high rates of theft has these characteristics:  An emphasis on material values  Manifestation of great material differences between the rich and poor   Prominent display of possessions by the affluent  Portrayal of the possessions of the affluent as being attainable by everyone  It is difficult, if not impossible, for many to attain these possessions legally. o Poverty can be considered a major cause of theft. o People also steal because their jobs are boring/demeaning. Want to be their own boss. o Affluence means there is more to steal. 6.3. VEHICLE THEFT  General characteristics: o USA 1980s: 91% of arrestees were men. Of these, 64% were white and the rest black. 58% were under the age of 18 years. o Car thieves are more intelligent than other offenders, show greater residential mobility, are more likely to have performed military duty or to have been detained before, and have a poor work record. o Car thieves struggle to adjust to prison life, and have high recidivism rates.  Motives for vehicle theft: o Vetter and Silverman:  Joyriding (between 15-19 years old, for fun, prestige, gang initiation)  Transportation (hitchhikers, runaways)  Profit (sell the vehicle/parts)  Use in the commission of a crime (transport to/from crime scenes). o Professionals approach car dealer for a test drive, and copy the serial number of the ignition key to have a duplicate made. Return later, steal vehicle. o In SA, we distinguish between 4 types of professional vehicle theft:  Organised theft of luxury vehicles (criminals are paid to steal the vehicles so that the owner can make a fraudulent insurance claim)  Increasing activities of both local and international crime syndicates  “Chop shops” (selling parts or rebuilding vehicles)  For use in other crimes (robbing a bank, cash-in-transit heist)  Modus operandi: o Many car thieves use keys obtained in collaboration with drivers/mechanics at service stations. o Vehicles are reported stolen fraudulently in collaboration with the owner. o Vehicle registration numbers are changed and false identification documents corresponding with those of the stolen vehicle are obtained. o Car thieves have developed a system whereby expired licence disks are collected and forged by removing certain details and inserting false details that correspond with the registration plate of the stolen vehicle. o Some scrap yards use spray painters to change the colour of stolen vehicles. 6.4. COMPUTER CRIME  Types of computer crime:  o Can be aimed at military intelligence, business links and computer fraud. o Includes physical theft and destruction of equipment, the electronic sabotage and misappropriation of data and systems, and the outright theft of money through electronic means. o Theft of hardware: basic desktop/laptop, computer terminals, printers, external modems, disks and drives. o Theft of software: operating system software, application programs. Thieves may take disks containing copies of commercial software, or steal copies of privately developed software. o Theft of data. o Sabotage by computer: incl. planting a virus in an organisation’s computer system. o Theft of assets: billions in monetary value can be stolen by diverting electronic fund transfers, directly stealing from banks and pension funds, and committing various other types of online fraud. o Phishing: online identity theft that employs an approach to a potential victim via email in order to steal both a recipient’s personal identity data and financial account credentials. o Theft of output: picking up valuable data on disk, tape or paper and walking away with it. o Unauthorised use: hackers/crackers abuse a computer system and/or intentionally damage it. Employees may also use the computer for personal use.  Computer criminals: the typical “criminal” category focuses on 2 types of criminal behaviour, namely, espionage, and fraud and abuse. o Espionage: international spies and their contractors who steal secrets from defence, academic and laboratory research facility computers. Includes industrial espionage agents who work for competitive companies or foreign governments that are willing to pay for information. o Fraud and abuse: self-explanatory. o Vandals: can be divided into two groups, namely, users and strangers. Users: authorised to use the system they abuse. Feel wronged, and attack company’s assets. Strangers: not authorised to use the system. Relatively scarce. Use password sniffers, outright extortion, or bribery of authorised users.  Prevention of computer crime: combine physical security with operations security in order to become less predictable. o Identifying risks/risk analysis: identifying threats to a system, vulnerabilities of that system, and measures that can be taken to protect the system. o Physical security: protect building, computer room and equipment. o Personnel security: includes the prevention of employee theft and workplace violence. Background checks and careful monitoring (eg routine polygraphs). o Computer security: protection of mail, fax, telephone and voicemail communications, and also data transmitted through computer network. o Operations security: incl. 2 major aspects of computer security, namely:   Ways to increase awareness among potential victims of possible computer crimes  Ways to keep computer criminals from actually committing a computer crime. 7. BURGLARY (HOUSEBREAKING) 7.1. KEY CONCEPT  Bartollos and Dinitz: unlawful access to a structure in order to commit theft.  Snyman: housebreaking with the intent to commit a crime is unlawfully and intentionally breaking into and entering a building/structure with the intention of committing some crime in it.  Conklin: unlawful entry of a building to commit a serious crime, usually the theft of property. Burglary might turn into a robbery if the burglar confronts the occupants of the building and uses force to steal, but most burglary involves no such confrontation. 7.2. BURGLARY  General characteristics: o Almost 2/3 of offenders arrested for burglary were younger than 25. o Many older burglars progress from residential burglaries to shoplifting (less risk, cost- effective). o Only 9% of burglars arrested in the USA are women. o 2/3 of burglaries occur at residential homes, and occur any time of the week. o Businesses are usually burgled at night. o Passive crime – offender selects a time and place that minimise the possibility of contact with the victim. o Burglary offers greatest chance of success with least risk. o Juveniles tend to burgle in the day (15:00-18:00). o Females usually burgle between 10:00-11:00 and 13:00-15:00. o Often enter via sliding door (lift off track with crowbar/screwdriver) or window. o Most burglars report moderate intake of alcohol prior to burglary. o More than half of arrested burglars had accomplices. o Almost 2/3 of burglars work in groups of 2+ people (usually not more than 3). Younger offenders and women use accomplices more than older males. o Burglars usually do not travel great distances to commit offences. o Amateur burglars: money/personal items for own needs. o Professional burglars: items with high resale value (electronic equipment, jewellery). Sell to fence. o Burglars often sell to pawnshops, friends/acquaintances, or exchange with strangers.  Selection of targets: o Nee and Taylor: four broad categories of indicators used by burglars:  Occupancy: post has been delivered, parked vehicles, blinds and curtains are opened and closed, and lights are turned on and off.   Affluence: appearance of house, its surroundings, quality of landscaping, visible furniture, type of vehicle.  Layout of the house: how difficult will it be to reach the house.  Security: fences, palisades, alarm systems, etc. o In addition of the above, Walker et al are of the opinion that there are various characteristics associated with elevated burglary risk, namely:  Households without security measures are 10 times more likely to be burgled.  Households in own-occupied properties have much lower risk of victimisation.  Households that are left unoccupied for more than 5 hours per day.  Households with a higher income.  Households in areas where perceived physical disorder is high. o Bennet and Wright: virtually all burglaries are planned in advance. o Burglars take two important aspects into account when selecting a target: surveillance and occupancy. Surveillance: accessibility of the house/premises, proximity of neighbours, whether or not the burglar can observe the house, esp. rear. Occupation: occupancy is indicated by lawns being mowed, mail collected, parked cars, etc. Continual occupation is deterrent. o Vulnerability: supermarkets are easy targets, exclusive male clothing stores not.  Motives for stealing: o Primary motive: financial gain. o Professional burglars: money, but also sense of self-satisfaction and accomplishment. 8. CRIMES AIMED AT PROPERTY: VANDALISM 8.1. KEY CONCEPT  Conklin: vandalism is the wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner.  Snyman: vandalism is “malicious injury to property”. A person commits malicious injury to property if he unlawfully and unintentionally damages o Movable or immovable property belonging to another; or o His or her own insured property, intending to claim the value of the property from the insurer.  The crime cannot be committed in respect of property which belongs to nobody. 8.2. MOTIVES FOR VANDALISM  Revenge  Anger  Boredom  Acquisition  Exploration  Aesthetic experience  Existential exploration   A number of factors. 8.3. TYPES OF VANDALISM  Wilson and Healy categorise vandalism as follows: o Acquisitive vandalism: to acquire money/property (damage to ATMs). o Tactical vandalism: conscious tactic to achieve another end (divert attention away from a particular area so that a crime can be committed unhindered). o Ideological vandalism: to further a cause or communicate a message (slogans on buildings). o Vindictive vandalism: revenge (breaking school windows because of unfairness). o Play vandalism: incidental or deliberate as part of a game/competition (seeing who can break the most windows). o Malicious vandalism: expression of rage/ frustration (scratching car’s paintwork). o Innocuous vandalism: damage is caused to property that is regarded by youths as being unimportant or having no value (slashing train/bus seats). 8.4. THE VANDAL  Usually boys aged 11-15, usually not alone.  Girls do commit vandalism, but boys tend to be more aggressive.  Adults also commit vandalism by littering the environment with beer cans/cigarette butts. 8.5. CAUSES OF AND AN EXPLANATION OF VANDALISM Various theories:  Intrapsychic explanation: (Levy-Leboyer) it is very difficult to identify a direct cause because of the intrapsychic or subconscious factors which are often involved. Through acts of vandalism, youths convey their disaffection with the world.  Search for adventure, excitement and identity: (Nilsson) Vandalism is not committed with the exclusive aim of causing damage but rather to derive excitement and pleasure. Adolescents also like to play pranks on people and may cause a great deal of damage to property. Adolescents leave their own unique mark and reveal their own identity through graffiti. They also test society’s reaction to their behaviour. When young people are bored, they tend to vandalise for fun.  Influence of the peer group: (Haskell and Yablonsky) Vandalism is a form of social behaviour. By committing acts of vandalism, the group’s members are tied more closely together and the individual member obtains status within the group. As a result of the interaction within the peer group, the group’s norms and values become more important than those of society. In addition, membership of the peer group ensures immunity to individual feelings of guilt.  Neighbourhood characteristics: Public property may have some negative symbolic meaning for the vandal, which may contribute to the building or other object being damaged. Malfunctioning of a public telephone/parking meter may cause such frustration that the object is attacked and damaged. The impersonal nature of public buildings can also  contribute to vandalism when people feel they have no share in these buildings. Neighbourhood characteristics are also determined by, among other things, the number of people per household, the number of single parent families, unemployment, the high mobility of the inhabitants, a negative attitude towards school, a preference for outdoor activities, problems within the family/school, and the abuse of alcohol. Schools that are vandalised are usually in lower socioeconomic areas. 9. CRIMES AIMED AT PROPERTY: ARSON 9.1. KEY CONCEPTS  The American Uniform Crime Reports defines arson as any wilful or malicious burning or attempt to burn with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle or aircraft, personal property of another, etc.  Snyman: A person commits arson if he/she unlawfully and intentionally sets fire to: o Immovable property belonging to another; or o His/her own immovable insured property, intending to claim the value of the property from the insurer.  SA: arson can be committed only in respect of immoveable property, such as a building. When moveable property is set on fire, it is classified as injury to property or malicious injury to property.  Pyromania: a psychological concept that refers to an irresistible urge/passion to start fires, accompanied by an intense fascination with the flames. 9.2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS  Most arsonists are young; approximately 2/3 are under 25.  Often single young males with an alcohol/drug problem.  Female arsonists: usually older than the males; history of alcohol/drug abuse; low level of education; unmarried; dependent on state support. 9.3. MOTIVES FOR ARSON  Icove and Estepp reported in 1987 that vandalism was the most common motive (49%), followed by excitement (25%), revenge (14%), concealment of the crime (2%), profit (1%) and other unspecified motives (8%).  Research shows that most juvenile arsonists are motivated by the desire for revenge against authority figures, for the status that they will gain or to satisfy a desire for excitement.  Juveniles – excitement; Adults – revenge.  Boundreau and associates identify 6 primary motives for arson: o Revenge, malice and jealousy (incl. jilted lovers, hostile neighbours, disillusioned employees, people who want to exact revenge for perceived unfair treatment, fraud  or abuse). Incl. alcohol and drugs. 2/3 of revenge arsonists had a criminal record. Females: mainly revenge; often set fire to their own accommodation. o Vandalism or wilful mischief (challenge authority, relieve boredom. Mainly juvenile). o Concealment of a crime or a diversionary tactic. 7 – 9% start fire to destroy evidence of burglary, theft, or murder. Some arsonists attempt to conceal their suicides by means of a fire so that their next of kin can claim life insurance. Concealment: mainly young male adults from low socio-economic background; use alcohol/drugs prior to crime. Virtually all arsonists of this type have previous criminal records. o Profit and insurance fraud. Includes residential dwellings, businesses, vehicles, boats and aircraft. Primary offenders: dominant personality in committing the crime. Secondary offender: “torch for hire”, usually mail aged 25-40, unemployed, criminal record for variety of offences (burglary, assault, public intoxication). o Intimidation, blackmail, terrorism and sabotage. Such arsonists are extremists intent on promoting some social, political or religious cause. o Pyromania and other psychological motives. Prior to starting fire, a pyromaniac experiences a build-up of tension. Once the fire is burning, he or she experiences intense pleasure and relief. Often leaves clear evidence at the scene. Usually mingle with the crowd at the fire. Arsonists may be classified as pyromaniacs if they deliberately started a fire on more than one occasion. Rare disorder. More common in men. Sometimes accompanied by history of enuresis (bed-wetting) and learning problems. Usually unemployed juveniles/young adults living with their parents. Socially inadequate, display poor interpersonal skills. Icove and Estepp: only two offenders out of 1016 arsonists could be classified as pyromaniacs. 9.4. THEORETICAL EXPLANTION FOR PYROMANI A  Areas to which theorists look for an explanation include the offender’s personality composition, such as inadequate/poor interpersonal skills.  People who start fires repeatedly feel that they have little control over their environments or in their personal lives. Come from socially disadvantaged backgrounds; variety of physical, mental and psychological problems; low levels of intelligence and educational achievements, leading to poor self-image; depression and suicidal tendencies.  Overall image of pyromaniac: someone who is inadequate, has failed repeatedly, is socially passive and isolated.  Pyromania is precipitated by events that exacerbated his/her poor self-image and feelings of sadness and depression.  Arson is only 1 component in the constellation of maladjusted behaviour in these individuals. Many were burnt/abused as children and learned that fire is an acceptable means of retribution.  Orthodox psychoanalytical theorists link sexual excitement to pyromania. 10. GENERAL CAUSES OF AND AN EXPLANATION FOR PROPERTY CRIMES 10.1. SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS  Crime is related to the socioeconomic conditions in the community.  Crime is higher in societies characterised by low minimum wages and high unemployment among young people.  Unemployment = poverty = lack of social standing and self-respect, feelings of helplessness and of having nothing left to lose = easier to commit crime such as theft. 10.2. RELATIVE DEPRIVATION  Poor people living in a wealthy nation resent poverty more than poor people living in a poor nation.  The highest crime rates are in cities where the differences in income between the poor and rich are the greatest.  The discrepancy between people’s expectations and their abilities may motivate them to break the law.  Relative deprivation increases as expectations rise or when the available means diminish. 10.3. OPPORTUNITY AND THE ECONOMY  Opportunity determines what can be stolen. The current market determines whether or not it is worthwhile stealing a particular article.  Property crime increases as the economy develops, perhaps due to increased opportunities to commit crimes such as theft.  According to Cohen and Felson’s opportunity theory, crime is determined by: o A motivated offender o A suitable target and o The absence of capable guardians.  Four dimensions of a suitable target: o Exposure of the target (visibility, physical accessibility) o Guardianship (people/devices preventing the crime) o Attractiveness of the target (material/symbolic value) o Proximity (physical distance between target and offender)  Lynch and Cantor: theft is largely a function of exposure, and burglary, of guardianship.  Theft is a matter of opportunity. Burglaries are planned. 10.4. THE THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION  9 principles/tenets. Developed by Edwin Sutherland.  Attempts to explain why the incidence of crime differs in different groups and why one person turns to crime while another becomes a law-abiding citizen.  First 3 principles: criminal behaviour is acquired; it takes place in interaction with other people during a process of communication; it takes place in intimate personal groups.   Professional thieves teach skills to new recruits.  Early involvement in juvenile delinquency is a prerequisite for an adult career as a professional criminal. Thieves learn as juveniles how to avoid attracting attention, and what police reaction is likely to be.  Research shows that criminal behaviour is influenced more strongly by learning from direct observation of the peer group’s behaviour than by learning from the peer group’s attitude. 10.5. SYKES AND MATZA’S NEUTRALISATION THEORY  Distinguish between 5 neutralisation techniques by which criminals try to justify their actions: o Denial of responsibility: accidental; caused by factors beyond their control (broken homes, parental neglect, poverty, dependence on alcohol and drugs); feel they’re not in control of their lives. o Denial of injury: deny that harm has been done; see victim as object/means to achieving goals, not as a human who suffers; argue that victim is insured. o Denial of the victim: crime is justified revenge against the victim, whose actions are considered wrong by the criminal. o Condemnation of the condemners: assume that the motives and behaviour of those who denounce criminals, rather than the motives and behaviour of criminals themselves, should be condemned; police brutality and political corruption are used to justify crimes; looting of shops during protest marches. o Appealing to a higher loyalty: juvenile offenders rationalise their actions by blaming them on peer pressure and the need not to let their friends down.  Tunnel: repeat offenders use neutralisation techniques before committing offences; in this way they neutralise their concerns, fears and worries.  90% of offenders interviewed by Tunnel indicated that older offenders had encouraged them by flaunting their successes.  Drugs and alcohol are also a neutralising technique.  Another neutralisation technique: discuss decision to commit crime with other offenders.  “Putting risks out of mind”: refuse to think about negative consequences.  Neutralisation techniques are incompatible with rational decision-making theories. 10.6. WILSON AND HERRNSTEIN’S THEORY  A person’s actions are guided by the anticipated consequences of the chosen action.  The possible consequences are a reward (reinforcer) or punishment.  Rewards and risks that are more certain will have a greater influence on behaviour than ones that are experienced less directly.  Individuals who commit a crime in spite of strong scruples are people who have difficulty imagining the future consequences of their present actions. Another possibility is that they are so impulsive that they disregard the anticipated future consequences of their actions. 10.7. RATIONAL DECISION-MAKING PERSPECTIVE   Concentrates on the offender’s strategic thinking, his or her processing of information and his/her evaluation of the opportunities and alternatives.  Stresses calculated decision making and is based on the premise that the offender decides how to act after establishing the probable reward resulting from the particular behaviour, for example, burglary.  Pays special attention to specific crimes, because different crimes satisfy different needs.  People who repeatedly commit property crimes do not formally calculate the risks involved in theft or consider the legal alternatives. Their actions relate to their lifestyle (to seek pleasure with a minimum of care about duties and commitments that fall outside their social sphere). Prison is seen as a non-threatening environment.  Chronic property offenders believe they will not be apprehended, or that their prison sentences would be short. Reward Risks Money earned from crime Being apprehended and punished Loss of freedom if sentenced or a lack of money if a fine is imposed Tax free Loss of benefits from a legal profession (paid vacation leave and medical security) Excitement derived from committing the crime Time needed to acquire criminal skills Satisfaction of successfully carrying out crime Cost of equipment needed to commit crime Much free time Risk of injury in the course of committing crime (inflicted by police or victim) Reputation as a successful criminal Work involved in identifying a target and carrying out the crime Free lodgings if prison sentence is imposed Anxiety over punishment Stigma of being labelled a criminal 11. PREVENTION OF PROPERTY CRIMES 11.1. IMPROVING SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS  Look at countries with low crime rates, determine what they do differently. Try to copy their approach.  Create employment, stabilise economy, provide technical skills. Job training should include socialisation in work-related skills as well as work techniques.  Policies that reduce employee turnover and promote workplace loyalty are important in the fight against crime.  Relative deprivation needs to be lessened.   High relative deprivation leads to conventional property crimes. Policymaking should focus on reducing the emphasis on material prosperity as an indicator of personal worth.  Apartheid resulted in high levels of relative deprivation and inequality. 11.2. SITUATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION  Fairly recent concept.  Preventative approach that aims to limit (reduce) opportunities to commit crime.  Newburn suggests the following 25 techniques for situational crime prevention: Increase the Increase the risks Reduce the Reduce Remove excuses effort rewards provocations 1. target hardening 6. extended 11. conceal targets 16. reduce frustrations 21. set rules guardianship and stress  Steering column locks;  Off-street parking  Rental agreements immobilisers  Go out in groups at  Gender neutral  Efficient queues  Harassment codes  Anti-robbery screens night telephone  Polite service  Hotel registration  Tamper-proof  Leave signs of directories  Expanding seating packaging occupancy  Unmarked armoured  Soothing music or  Carry mobile phone trucks muted lighting 2. control access to 7. Assist natural 12. remove targets 17. avoid disputes 22. display instructions facilities surveillance  Removable car  Separate seating for  No parking  Entry phones  Improved street radio rival sports fans  Private property  Electric card access lighting  Women’s shelters  Reduce crowding in  Extinguish camp fires  Baggage screening  Defensible space  Pre-paid cards for bars design pay phones  Fixed taxi fares  Support whistle- blowers 3. screen exits 8. reduce anonymity 13. identify property 18. reduce temptation 23. alert conscience and arousal  ticket needed for exit  taxi driver IDs  Property marking  Roadside speed  export documents  ‘how’s my driving?’  Vehicle licensing  Controls on violent display boards  electronic deals and parts marking pornography  Signatures for merchandise tags  School uniforms  Cattle branding  Enforce good customs declarations behaviour on sports  ‘Shoplifting’ is fields stealing  Prohibit racial slurs 4. deflect offenders 9. use place managers 14. disrupt markets 19. neutralise peer 24. assist compliance pressure  street closures  CCTV for double-  Monitor pawn shops  Easy library checkout  separate bathrooms decker buses  Control on classified  ‘Idiots drink and  Public lavatories for women  Two clerks for ads drive’  Litter receptacles  disperse pubs convenience stores  Licensed street  ‘It’s OK to say No’  Reward vigilance vendors  Disperse troublemakers at school 5. control tools or 10. strengthen formal 15. deny benefits 20. discourage 25. control drugs and weapons surveillance imitation alcohol  Ink merchandise  ‘smart guns’  Infrared cameras tags  Rapid repair of  Breathalysers in bars  Disabling stolen  Burglar alarms  Graffiti cleaning vandalism  Server (waiter) mobile phones  Security guards  Disabling stolen  V-chips in TVs intervention mobile phones programmes  Restrict spray paint  Censor details of  Alcohol-free events sales to juveniles modus operandi 11.3. EFFECTIVENESS OF SITUATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION  Research has proven that situational crime prevention measures prevent theft and burglaries to a large extent.  “Achilles heel”: Critics say that situational crime prevention causes displacement (moving the crimes to another location).  Different forms of possible displacement: o Temporal: committing the intended crime at a different time. o Spatial: committing the intended crime in a different place. o Target: switching the crime focus from one target to another. o Tactical: committing the intended crime using a different method. o Functional: committing a different type of crime from the type initially intended.  Identifying displacement (or lack thereof) is difficult.  Crime deflection: when, as a result of preventative efforts, there is change in criminal activities that makes them less harmful (moving the site of a drug market/red light area for example).  Whether or not displacement is likely depends on a number of factors, including “choice structuring properties” – the differential nature of the choices faced by offenders under differing circumstances.  Preventative efforts may also have positive consequences in places that were not initially targeted (diffusion of benefits): o Security added to houses in a residential estate that had been repeatedly burgled reduced burglaries for the whole estate. o Improved street lighting in a housing estate caused crime to decline in both the estate and a nearby one. THEME 2: THE ROLE OF THE NATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION STRATEGY IN THE SUCCESSFUL PREVENTION OF CRIME 1. THE ROLE OF THE NATI ONAL CRIME PREVENTION STRATEGY IN THE SUCCESSFUL PREVENTION OF CRIME 1.1. BASIC PREMISES OF THE NATIONAL CRIME PREVENION STRATEGY  Comprehensive multi-agency approach that aims to influence the operations of the Department of Safety, Justice, Correctional Services, Welfare, Defence, Intelligence, Health and Education. This includes joint decision making by directors-general and ministers of NCPS departments.  The following issues are emphasised: o Crime prevention requires the cooperation of all roleplayers, including politicians, government departments and members of the community. o Crime prevention has to operate at various levels – state, provincial and local – in order to cater for the unique needs of the various regions and communities. o Crime prevention programmes must be based on the fundamental causes of crime. o Crime prevention programmes have to focus on the crime, the offender and the victim.  Focuses on 4 prevention models (pillars), in addition to the crime prevention models already applied by government departments.  Responsibility for implementation resides in the office of the minister charged with the National Growth and Development Strategy.  The various programmes must be evaluated on an ongoing bases.  Specific departments must be identified as being responsible for planning and implementing the programmes in cooperation with other government departments.  Fundamental shift from reactive crime control to proactive crime prevention. 1.2. FUNCTIONING OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION STRATEGY  The Minister of Safety and Security has the overall responsibility for the NCPS.  The initial participants were the Departments of Correctional Services, Social Development, Justice, Safety and Security, Defence, Intelligence and Interior, but subsequently the Departments of Art, Culture, Science and Technology, Education, Transport, Health and Provincial Affairs have also become involved.  Most of the programmes span more than one department, but a particular department takes responsibility for its overall operation by  o Identifying the roleplayers involved o Ensuring the coordination of roleplayers’ plans and compliance with the objectives of the programmes o Ensuring that the various roleplayers’ budgets make provision for the programmes o Making the necessary resources available for the programmes o Disseminating information on the programmes o Reporting to the relevant ministers and directors general as well as to the Cabinet Committee for Safety and Security.  The Ministry of Safety and Security’s main objective: ensure that all state and local institutions provide effective services at national, provincial and local levels.  1998: Cabinet decides that violent crime and corruption should be the NCPS’s focus.  Factors which play a role in crime in SA, according to the NCPS: o Disintegration of social control and the negotiated transition to democracy o The political culture of violence and crime o Justification of crime in political terms o Political conflict and rivalry o Lack of a national consensus on crime o Poverty, unemployment and relative deprivation as a result of apartheid o Particular economic developments in SA o Marginalisation of youth o Inadequate support and services for victims of crime o Vigilantism, revenge and self-defence units o Specific socio-psychological factors in SA o Free access to firearms as a result of wars of liberation in SA and neighbouring countries o Gender inequality 1.3. THE FOUR CRIME PREVENTION PILLARS OR MODELS  The integrated criminal justice model o Objectives:  To promote the effectiveness of the criminal justice system by focusing on the needs of offenders and victims to improve the credibility of the criminal justice system.  To make the courts accessible to all, especially the relatively powerless.  To promote good interdepartmental liaison, especially in the interests of preventing and controlling crimes identified as high-priority crime.  To develop an integrated management system in order to promote the successful investigation, prosecution and punishment of high priority crimes. o Recommended programmes:  Effective management and control of the criminal justice system  An inclusive crime information and intelligence service  An effective prosecution policy  Appropriate community service programmes   Diversion programmes for juveniles  The safe detention of juveniles  The coordination and rationalisation of laws  The support and empowerment of crime victims  Crime prevention by means of environmental design and control o Focus:  Restricting the opportunities to commit crimes, especially those where the rates of detection and prosecution are low  Security for homes an shopping centres, upgrading existing areas and security for new structures  Encouraging overall environmental security by means of information and publicity campaigns, especially in the media  Urban development, transport systems and residential areas o Programmes:  An effective administration and communication programme  An identification system for marking articles in order to prevent fraud and theft  A programme for combating vehicle theft  A programme that focuses on corruption and commercial crime  Promotion of community values and education o Basic premises:  Inform the community about how the criminal justice system functions  Promote community values and norms that reject crime and violence  Teach non-violent solutions to conflict in the community  Make members of the community aware of steps they themselves can take to reduce the risk of victimisation  Implement school-based programmes that teach life skills, non-violent problem-solving techniques, how the criminal justice system functions and respect for human rights o Programmes:  Public education programmes  School programmes  Information disseminated via the media  Mediation programmes  Prevention of transnational crimes o Objectives:  Control the smuggling of various commodities, such as drugs and diamonds, and to control the trade in protected species  Control the influx of illegal immigrants  Prevent organised crime  Prevent money laundering o Programmes:  Cooperation with neighbouring states and international organisations such as Interpol   Cooperation with other departments and the public  Increased policing and intelligence control 1.4. POINTS OF CRITICISM AGAINST THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION STRATEGY  There is no proper infrastructure for implementing crime prevention programmes. It is difficult to establish which department is responsible for the various programmes.  A number of problems may arise when interdepartmental cooperation is required, such as inadequate coordination, conflicting priorities, differences between experts on the nature of the problem and how to deal with it, perceived threats in issues of professional autonomy and areas of responsibility, and a lack of knowledge of the role and responsibility of each group.  Central government should provide comprehensive training for key people, focusing on planning, implementation, affordability and the evaluation of crime prevention programmes.  The feasibility of some crime prevention programmes in a relatively underdeveloped and poor country such as SA which lacks both expert human resources and funds are often questioned.  Funding of programmes is a concern. Funding has to come from the budgets of the participating departments and provincial governments, but they may not be able to fit it into their budgets, especially since they might have other priorities.  The NCPS is not linked to a time frame and this is detrimental to the implementation of crime prevention programmes. Consequently, community members may lose faith in the strategy.  Although the NCPS identifies factors that contribute to crime in SA, no attempt has been made to link these factors to the 4 crime prevention models that have been developed. The strategy also ignores the many universal factors which give rise to crime. The 4 models can be can be described as being aimed at controlling crime in order to prevent it, instead of addressing the causes.  The NCPS is narrow when compared with the large number of crime prevention models that are being applied globally.  Not enough attention is given to the involvement of youth in crime, especially violent crime. THEME 3: ROLEPLAYERS IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM: THE SOUTH AFRICAN POLICE SERVICE AND CORRECTIONAL SERVICES 1. THE DEPARTMENT OF SAFETY AND SECURITY 1.1. KEY CONCEPTS  Department of Police: government structure responsible for overseeing the SAPS and the Independent Complaints Directorate.  The South African Police Service: Safety and Security structure. Primarily responsible for crime prevention and the safeguarding of all people in SA. Regulated by the Constitution and the South African Police Service Act (Act 68 of 1995).  The Independent Complaints Directorate: governed by the SAPS Act. Responsible for ensuring the proper and effective investigation of reports of misconduct and offences by the members of the SAPS.  Police Civilian Secretariat: established by the Constitution to keep a watchful eye on the management, service delivery and the way in which resources are used by the police service. 1.2. STRUCTURES FALLING UNDER THE DEPARTMENT OF SAFETY AND S ECURITY  Department of Police (formerly known as the Secretariat for Safety and Security; government department; oversees Independent Complaints Directorate and SAPS; Minister of Police is Nathi Mthethwa).  Independent Complaints Directorate (ICD; governed by chapter 10 of the SAPS Act of 1995; reports to parliament through Minister of Safety and Security). Tasks: o Ensures that reports of offences and misconduct committed by the SAPS are investigated effectively. o Investigate all deaths in police custody or that result from police action. If there are no indications of criminal conduct by the police, the police must investigate the matter while the ICD monitors/supervises the investigation. If there is indication of criminal conduct by the police, the ICD conducts a full investigation, which may result in the ICD recommending to the Directorate of Public Prosecutions and to the SAPS management that the member be prosecuted.  South African Police Service (SAPS; internal security and crime prevention; governed by the South African Police Service Act; structured at both national and provincial levels). o Aims:   Ensuring the safety and security of all people and property in SA.  Upholding and safeguarding the fundamental rights of every person as guaranteed by Chapter 3 of the Constitution.  Ensuring cooperation between the SAPS and the communities it serves in the combating of crime.  Reflecting respect for the victims of crime and an understanding of their needs.  Ensuring the effective supervision of the SAPS. o Objectives (section 205(3) of the Constitution):  Prevent, combat and investigate crime  Maintain public order  Protect and safeguard the people (inhabitants) of the country and their property  Uphold and enforce the law  The Police Civilian Secretariat: o Established in terms of section 208 of the Constitution, and Chapter 2, section 2(1) of the South African Police Service Act 68 of 1995. o Serves as a principal advisor to the Minister. o Provides civilian oversight of the governance, service delivery and resourcing of the SAPS. o Ensures that the monitoring and evaluation of the SAPS is free from undue influence and that unbiased and transparent reporting is ensured. 1.3. THE STRUCTURE OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN POLICE SERVICE  National level o National commissioner – head of the SAPS. Responsible for its control and management. Has the power/duty/function to:  Develop a plan before the end of each financial year in which he or she sets out the priorities and objectives of policing for the following financial year.  Determine the fixed establishment of the SAPS and the number and grading of posts.  Determine, after consultation with the board (consisting of the national and provincial commissioners), where members of the SAPS should be located.  Organise/reorganise the SAPS at national level into various components, units or groups.  Establish and maintain training institutions or centres for the training of students and other members.  Establish and maintain bureaus, depots, quarters, workshops or any other institutions of any nature whatsoever which may be expedient for the general management, control and maintenance of the SAPS.  Perform any legal act or act in any legal capacity on behalf of the SAPS. o Six deputy national commissioners - responsible for the following portfolios:  Crime Intelligence and Crime Detection  Operational Services   Management, Financial and Administration Services  Human Resource Management and Legal Services  Logistical, Evaluation, Security and Protection Services  Internal Audit.  Provincial level – the functioning of the SAPS on this level is set out as follows: o Functional activities of the provincial commissioner – deputy provincial commissioners assist the provincial commissioner with his/her responsibilities within the province as determined by national directives. o Accountability – the provincial commissioner reports directly to the national commissioner. o Purpose – overall purpose of provincial commissioner is to ensure a safe and secure environment in the province by means of efficient policing as required by relevant legislation, as well as government and departmental policies and directives. o Functions of the provincial minister:  primary function of provincial commissioner is to manage the following crime combating and crime detection functions effectively in the province:  Crime prevention  Community service centres  Detective services  Crime intelligence  Secondary function of provincial commissioner is to effectively manage the following functions in support of the above primary responsibilities:  Legal services  Logistics  Financial services  Auxiliary services  Communication and liaison services  Human resource management  Management services  Evaluation services  Station level – ensure a safe and secure environment in the station area by means of efficient policing as required by relevant legislation, as well as by government and departmental policies and directives. The station commissioner is also responsible for managing the following crime combating and crime detection functions within the station area: o Crime prevention:  Visible policing  Community service centres  Detective services  A crime information analysis centre (CIAC) o Support services:  Logistics  Financial services  Administrative services   Human resource management  Management information office 1.4. FUNCTIONS OF DIVISIONS WITHIN THE SAPS Operational services respond reactively after a member of the public has reported a crime or the unit has uncovered a crime on its own initiative (crime prevention and control). Crime intelligence and crime detection services investigate crimes and give additional assistance in the investigation of such cases by providing crime intelligence. Support services such as management; financial and administration services; human resource management and legal services; and logistical, evaluation, security and protection services fulfil a support function in order to assist members of the operational and investigative units and to ensure that they have the necessary training, logistical support, finances and services to perform their functions effectively.  Crime intelligence and crime detection o Detective services:  Organised crime units (focus mainly on crime syndicates)  Commercial branches  Serious economic offences unit  Detective services at police station level  Interpol  Criminal records centre (identify criminals and offenders, verify previous convictions, identify and link firearms to crime scenes by means of the Integrated Ballistics Identification System. The Automated Fingerprint Identification System, a computerised database containing details of convicted criminals, was launched in 2002. The Morpho Touch is equipped with a scanner which scans fingerprints and compares them with prints held in the AFIS database.  Forensic Science Laboratory (IBIS, DNA Criminal Intelligence Database, Voice Comparison System Operative, National Drug Intelligence Database, and the National Photo Image System have been incorporated into the scientific support environment of the SAPS)  National Bureau for Missing Persons (render support service to investigating officer; database stores all particulars of a missing person which can be accessed by police officials) o Crime intelligence (information that the police obtain to help them combat crime):  Task: manage the crime intelligence capacity of the SAPS.  Functions: drawing up strategic crime reports and establishing crime-pattern analysis capabilities at all levels in the SAPS; establishing and maintaining the network, as well as the undercover crime intelligence-gathering capacity of the SAPS; managing and coordinating crime information by establishing crime desk support for identified clients; introducing counterintelligence measures to ensure that information and personnel are secured; managing the Secret Services Account; establishing and maintaining an effective performance  evaluation and inspection capacity; and establishing and maintaining an effective technical support capacity in the SAPS.  Operational services o Crime Prevention: Reduce opportunities to commit crime by optimising visible policing and cooperating with the Division: Operational Response Services during the policing of important events. This division is responsible for developing and maintaining a safe working environment for members of the SAPS; developing, maintaining and monitoring policy standards and directives regarding crime prevention and uniformed services in general; and running victim support programmes. It also pays special attention to the following:  Community policing  Captain crime stop and adopt-a-cop programmes  Sector policing (replaced the commando system)  Partnership policing – responsibility of the Division: Crime Prevention. This division is responbisble for monitoring the implementation of the Domestic Violence Act and for submitting biannual reports to parliament; optimising community service centres and police emergency services such as 10111 call centres, flying squad, and highway patrol.  Police safety – the Directorate: Police Safety is responsible for developing safety measures to protect the lives of police officials.  Reservists – the National Instruction for the South African Reserve Police Service focuses on all issues related to reservists. There are 4 categories of reservists:  Category A: Functional policing. Reservists will perform functions in all operational areas of policing (station, area, provincial levels).  Category B: Support services. Reservists will perform a specific support function at national, provincial, area and station level and may not be used to perform functional police duties  Category C: Specialised functional policing. Reservists must have particular skills or expertise which can be used operationally by the SAPS.  Category D: Rural and urban sector policing. Reservists will perform functions in operational facets of policing relating to sector policing in urban and rural areas at station level.  Hostage negotiation – negotiators are deployed nationally at station level and ensure quick response to suicide matters. o Operational response: include maintaining public order, managing crowds, preventing cross-border crime by policing all ports of entry into South Africa and facilitating interdepartmental cooperation. Includes:  Air-supported reaction forces (serious and violent crimes – bank robberies, hijackings, farm attacks, aerial surveillance)  Police divers and the water wing (primarily drowning incidents, but also crime prevention and community safety activities, assist in flood-stricken areas, provide support service at Midmar Mile and Berg River and Duzi canoe marathons.  o Operational coordination: manage and coordinate big events (World Summit, World Cups)  Management, financial and administration services o Aim: ensure that SAPS functions according to its mission, priorities and objectives. Management advisory services, development and maintenance of a strategic plan for the SAPS, rendering of internal and external communication and liaison services, management of information technology. o Service Delivery Improvement Process (SDIP): Aims: improving service at all levels of the organisation. Ensures availability of trained facilitators and management teams, and development of strategic and implementation plans at various levels within SAPS. Primarily station level. Purpose: develop the skills and knowledge required by members during the rendering of services, thereby enabling them to consistently provide policing services of a high standard in a responsible, confident and independent manner and to approach issues requiring policing from a client-centred and problem- solving perspective.  Human resource management and legal services o Career management: function: to render a people-centred human resource service to all personnel. Personnel planning and development, performance and remuneration management. o Personnel services: function: manage all personnel-related matters in support of the operational priorities of the SAPS. Duties: administration of employment practices; promotion of fair labour practices; prevention and effective resolution of disputes or grievances; investigation and monitoring of alleged incidents of discrimination and racism. o Training: duties: all training. Examples: optimisation of crime statistics, detective training, crime intelligence, crime prevention, operational response and human resource development. o Legal services: duties: implementation of government legislation and the enforcement of government policy. Ensure that SAPS regulates its members’ conduct.  Logistical, evaluation, security and protection services o Security and protection services: Functions: render strict (close) protection services and static guard duties. o Logistics: Functions: ensure that procurement and inventory are managed in a cost effective way; manage accommodation and radio communication; construction support and expert services for the SAPS; ensure that SAPS’s vehicle fleet is managed in a cost-effective way. o Evaluation services: Functions: evaluating the quality of service rendered by the SAPS (evaluate operational and organisational functions of SAPS, report findings and recommendations on remedial measures directly to top management, undertake internal investigation of priority cases of misconduct by SAPS members, investigate complaints of poor service delivery, perform internal audits and inspections with regard to occupational health and safety standards within the SAPS). 1.5. RANK STRUCTURE OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN POLICE SERVICE  Non-commissioned officers: o Constable o Sergeant o Warrant officer  Commissioned officers: o Lieutenant o Captain o Major o Lieutenant-colonel o Colonel o Brigadier-general o Major-general o Lieutenant-general o general 2. THE DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTIONAL SERVICES  34 000 staff responsible for 165 230 inmates in 239 facilities.  8 female centres, 13 youth centres, 130 male centres, 86 mixed centres.  There are 2 private prisons in SA.  Minister of Correctional Services: Ms Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula. 2.1. VISION  To be one of the best in the world in delivering correctional services with integrity and commitment to excellence. 2.2. MISSION  In partnership with external stakeholders, to place rehabilitation at the centre of all activities of the Department through o “the integrated application and direction of all departmental resources to focus on the correction of offending behaviour, the promotion of social responsibility and the overall development of the person under correction; o The cost effective provision of correctional facilities that will promote efficient security, corrections, care and development services within an enabling human rights environment; o Progressive and ethical management and staff practices within which every correctional official performs an effective and encouraging role” 2.3. BUSINESS PHILOSOPHY   Ensure the safe custody of offenders  Ensure the effective management of risks  Ensure that human rights are upheld and that the principle of human dignity is acknowledged  The development of offenders based on the belief that they have the potential to function as law-abiding citizens. 2.4. PURPOSE  To contribute to maintaining and protecting a just, peaceful and safe society by enforcing sentences in the prescribed manner, detaining prisoners in safe custody and respecting their human dignity, and by contributing to the social responsibility and development of all prisoners.  In 2003 the DCS published a draft White Paper. It’s objectives are the: o Safe custody of prisoners o Supervision and control of probationers and parolees in the community o Humane detention and treatment of prisoners o Provision of development services o Reintegration of prisoners into the community o Effective utilisation and management of resources  Projects based on the White Paper: o Infrastructure development (procure and manage new facilities and maintain all facilities) o Social reintegration (strengthen offenders’ support system for effective reintegration) o Offender rehabilitation path (analyse infrastructure of identified areas in terms of the human resources (HR), policies, procedures and budget needed to implement the offender rehabilitation path requirements) o Security enhancement (improve safety and security for offenders, personnel, service providers and the public) o Management of awaiting trial detainees (to improve safety and management of remand detainees) o Monitoring, evaluation and reporting (to develop a monitoring, evaluation and support system for the DCS) o Seven-day establishment and job-refinement (provide the necessary capacity to HR) o Centres of excellence (provide holistic, integrated and needs-based services that are aimed at creating socially responsible people). 2.5. STRUCTURE  The Department is headed by a commissioner, who reports directly to the Minister of CS.  Commissioner is assisted by 3 chief deputy commissioners at the national level (who have specific chief directorates allocated to them).  Commissioner is also assisted by 9 commissioners at the provincial (executive) level, who are responsible for the implementation and execution of policy in their provinces.   Heads of prisons: administration of prisons.  Heads of community corrections offices: administration of said offices.  Compliance Improvement Plan: regional offices must submit bimonthly reports on the performance of their areas.  3 main subdivisions in DCS: o CDC Functional Services  Offender control section: control of prison administration, physical care of prisoners, control of the system of correctional supervision, operation of juvenile offender services.  Development programmes section: psychological and social services, education and religious care. o CDC Operational Support  Ensure that support services are provided and that the Department is evaluated by means of inspections and special investigations.  Judicial Inspectorate (independent office, under control of inspecting judge) facilitates the inspection of prisons to ensure that offenders’ rights are respected. Reports on corrupt/dishonest practices.  Inspecting Judge reports the findings of the Judicial Inspectorate to the Minister of Correctional Services.  Support services section: promote department’s image, provide legal and logistical services, promote efficiency within department. o CDC Resource Management  Purpose: manage resources by providing skilled personnel  Human resources management section: development and training of personnel; effective deployment and maintenance of staff.  Integrated Human Resource Strategy: effective work organisation, recruitment and retention and the development of employees.  The Asset Procurement and Operating Partnership Systems: part of a public- private partnership initiative which involves a contract between the public and the private sectors. A private sector organisation designs, builds, finances and operates a prison, and is paid by government for the available prisoner accommodation. 2.6. UNIT MANAGEMENT APPROACH  Divides prisons into smaller, more manageable units, allowing better control over prisoners and promoting interaction between inmates and officials.  Each unit comprises 40 inmates who are directly supervised by a single member of staff at any given time. The member of staff can see all cells that comprise a unit from any position within the unit.  UMA promotes a holistic management approach: o More effective observation of prisoner activities with problems being identified in a timely manner  o Increasing prisoners’ involvement in their own development and encouraging accountability o Providing programmes and interventions that deal with every prisoner’s unique needs o Institutional adjustment is targeted, and vocational skills and community reintegration mechanisms are acquired.  Benefits of UMA: o Less guards are needed to guard the inmates. o All problems are confined to the unit in which they originate. o The approach is cost effective. o It reduces the levels of gangsterism and corruption. 2.7. SPECIAL CATEGORI ES OF PEOPLE IN PRISON  Includes: child offenders, female offenders, the disabled, the aged, the mentally disabled, first offenders, those with long or life sentences, detained offenders who are foreign nationals.  Children in detention o In terms of section 28(I) of the South African Constitution children have a right:  “not to be detained except as a measure of last resort;  If detained, to be detained only for the shortest period of time;  To be kept separately from detained persons over the age of 18 years;  To be treated in a manner, and kept in conditions, that take account of their age;  To have a legal practitioner assigned to them by the state, and at state expense, in civil proceedings affecting them, if substantial injustice would otherwise result.” o Children with serious behavioural problems and who pose a risk to others should be detained separately for behaviour management. o The Department endeavours to:  Establish separate facilities for young offenders  Foster the co-responsibility of parents or peers and other significant people  Promote a culture of development and learning  Follow a holistic approach aimed at the total development of the young person  Follow a structured daily programme  Develop detention packages that accommodate the specific needs and interests of young offenders  Follow a unit management approach with direct supervision  Foster personal responsibility  Foster leadership  Make use of community resources  Establish effective human resource components o Development programmes for youths in detention:   Education (mainstream and ABET)  Occupational skills training  Vocational training  Entrepreneurial skills development  Recreational programmes  Library services  Social work services  Psychological services  Religious care programmes o Special measures: distinct uniform for children, as well as a nutrition package specifically tailored for a growing person.  Female offenders o The new Act, the Correctional Services Amendment Bill (2007), provides for the incarceration of women with babies in facilities which are separate from those of other females. Child-friendly surroundings are conducive to physical, social and mental care. o Institutionalisation: due to being exposed to ‘prison life’. Example: a child’s preoccupation with keys, which are used to open doors in prison so that they can pass from one area to another. o Mothers with infants are allowed to keep their babies with them up to the age of 2 years. o DCS introduced the Early Child Development Programme for these babies.  Prisoners with HIV/AIDS o If a prisoner is housed separately, their right to privacy might be encroached upon. Separation may also restrict their access to work, education and recreation programmes, religious services, etc. o Programmes should be aimed at reducing high-risk activity and providing better access to medical care for those who gradually become more ill and frail. o There are 16 facilities accredited for the provision of ARVs. 2.8. FUNCTIONS OF THE DCS  Managing offenders o The safe custody of prisoners o The supervision and control of probationers and parolees in the community o The human detention and treatment of prisoners o The provision of development services o The reintegration of prisoners into the community  Safe custody of prisoners o Prison security:  Layout, CCTV, security fences, alarms and detection systems.  New security fencing (since 1996): outer electric fencing with alarm detection system and security lighting, which is linked to a central control centre. Walk-  through metal detectors and x-ray scanners will be installed at certain identified high-risk prisons.  By mid-2009, security fences with motion detectors and CCTV had been installed at 46 centres. o Classification of prisoners:  Prisoners are categorised according to the risk they pose to other prisoners, staff and the community.  Custodial classification: Maximum, medium, or minimum security categories.  In addition to the above, prisoners are further classified into privilege groups, with prisoners in group A receiving most privileges and group D the least.  Prisons are overcrowded, and there is a lack of maximum prisons.  DCS also introduced the following categories of prisons: Closed Maximum Security Unit (C-Max) and Super Maximum Prison (Super Max).  Pollsmoor Prison (Western Cape): biggest maximum security prison in SA.  The rehabilitation and development of prisoners o Health and physical care services:  Upon admission prisoners are screened for early identification of ill-health and treatment.  If necessary, the prisoner can be hospitalised within the prison or referred to external public health