CMU Communication Skills Review

# ENGLISH ## Formal Types of Communication Skills - This type of communication is also referred to as "official communication" - Covers the gamut of verbal expressions that an address a formal need ## Informal Communication - Informally known as "the (unofficial) grapevine" - Often this type of co...

# ENGLISH ## Formal Types of Communication Skills - This type of communication is also referred to as "official communication" - Covers the gamut of verbal expressions that an address a formal need ## Informal Communication - Informally known as "the (unofficial) grapevine" - Often this type of communication is by word-of-mouth - Offers unofficial yet provocative information ## Oral Communication (Face-to-face) - Most recognized type of communication - What is expressed comes directly from what is spoken - Can be formal or informal: - Friends and family - Formal meeting or seminar - Work with colleagues and boss - Community - Professional presentations ## Oral Communication (Distance) - Made the world a smaller easier place - Mobile phones, VOIP, video-conferencing, and 2-way webinars are modern expansions of distance communication - Tone of voice and pace of delivery are important ## Non-verbal Types of Communication - Subtler, yet more powerful - Includes the gamut of physical postures and gestures, tone and pace of voice, and attitude ## Written Communication - A few decades ago, written communication depended on the mailman - Now it has taken over every aspect of our world ## Kinesics or Kinesic communication - Communication through body movements, such as gestures and facial expressions - Non-verbal behavior using any part of the body - Popular culture refers to it as "body language" ## Proxemics - Study of space, how we use it and how it makes us feel more or less comfortable - Intimate space: very close, usually within one foot and sometimes touching ## Haptic communication - Branch of non-verbal communication that refers to the ways people and animals communicate and interact via the sense of touch - Touch is the most sophisticated and intimate of the five senses ## Paralanguage - Refers to the vocalized but non-verbal parts of a message ## Vocalics - Study of paralanguage - Includes vocal qualities that go along with verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers ## Chronemics - Study of the use of time in nonverbal communication - Include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions - Use of time can affect lifestyles, daily agendas, speed of speech, movements, and how long people are willing to listen ## Setting - Where and when is the story set - Represents both the physical location and the social and cultural conditions in which the characters exist # How likely are you to recommend Studocu to a friend? --- # Social journalism - Media model consisting of a hybrid of professional journalism, contributor, and reader content - Relies on community involvement, audience engagement, social newsgathering and verification, data and analytics, and relationship-building # Citizen journalism - Also known as collaborative media, participatory journalism, democratic journalism, guerrilla journalism or street journalism - Public citizens playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and information # Yellow journalism - Yellow press are American terms for journalism and associated newspapers that present little or no legitimate, well-researched news - Uses eye-catching headlines for increased sales - Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering, or sensationalism. # Adversarial journalism - Gotcha journalism - Seeks to uncover wrongdoings of public officials. - Methods include moving away from the agreed upon interview topic, or switching to an embarrassing subject that was agreed to be out-of-bounds. # Manipulatives Media - Tools that aid in hands-on learning. - Learners can manipulate in order to grasp an idea, and gain understanding or mastery of given concepts. - Examples include Abacus, Jigsaw Puzzles, Lego, Rubik's Cube. # Interactive media - Also called interactive multimedia - Computer-delivered electronic system - User can control, combine, and manipulate different types of media - text, sound, video, computer graphics, and animation. - Examples include web sites, user-generated content, interactive television, gaming, interactive advertising, blogs and mobile telephony. # Pre-Industrial Age (Before 1700's) - People had learned or discovered fire - Forged weapons and tools with stone, bronze, copper, and iron - Developed paper from plants. # Industrial Age (1700s-1930s) - People discovered the use of power steam - Developed machine tools - Established iron production - Manufacturing of various products (including books through the printing press) # Electronic Age (1930s-1980s) - Transistor ushered in the electronic age - Transistors led to the transistor radio, electronic circuits, and the early computers - Long distance communication became more efficient # Information Age (1900s-2000s) - Internet paved the way for faster communication and the creation of the social network - Advanced the use of microelectronics with the invention of personal computers, mobile devices, and wearable technology - Voice, image, sound, and data are digitalized - Now living in the information age # Setting - Where and when is the story set - Represents both the physical location and the social and cultural conditions in which the characters exist # Character: - Person, animal, or anything personified. - Can have one main character or many, and often secondary characters # Plot: - Consists of the events that happen in the story - Introduction, rising action, a climax, the falling action, and a resolution - Often represented as an arc # Conflict: - Every story must have a conflict - Challenge or promblem around which the plot is based - Without conflict, the story will have no purpose or trajectory # Theme: - Idea, belief, moral, lesson, or insight - Central argument that the author is trying to make the reader understand - The "why" of the story. # Point-of-view: - "Who" is telling the story? - First person ("I") or third person ("he/she/it") - Limited (one character's perspective), multiple (many characters' perspectives) or omniscient (all knowing narrator) - Second person ("you") is not often used for writing stories # Tone: - Emotional "tone" or meaning of the story. - Happy, funny, sad, depressed - Can be portrayed in multiple ways: - Word and grammar choices - Choice of theme, imagery and description, symbolism - Sound of the words in combination (i.e. rhyme, rhythm, musicality) # Style: - How things are said - Word choices, sentence structure, dialogue, metaphor, simile, hyperbole - Contributes significantly to tone # Confucianism - Ancient Chinese belief system, which focuses on the importance of personal ethics and morality - It is debated whether it is a philosophy or a religion # Mencius - (Or Meng Ke, who lived from 372 to 289 B.C.E.) - Best-known Confucian philosopher after Confucius himself # Buddhism - Faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama ("the Buddha") more than 2,500 years ago in India - Scholars consider Buddhism one of the major world religions # Indios - Native indigenous peoples in all the Spanish America and Asia possessions. - During the Spanish colonial period in the Mariana Islands (17th through 19th centuries) the Chamorros people were classified as Indios - In the Spanish racial hierarchy, Indios were the lowest-ranked group. # Evolution - Gradual changes from simple to more complex forms. - Humans are believed to have developed from simpler forms. - Hypothesized to have begun in the ocean billions of years ago - Darwin gave the theory of evolution - In his book *The Origin of Species*, Darwin stated that evolution has come through a series of natural selection - Theory emphasized the following points: - Natural Selection - Variation - Struggle To Exist - Survival of the Fittest - Evolution is the outcome of the interaction amongst the following five processes: - Mutation - Genetic Recombination - Chromosomal Abnormalities - Reproductive isolation - Natural Selection # Dryopithecus - Ancestors of both man and apes - Lived in China, Africa, Europe, and India - _Dryopithecus_ refers to the oak wood apes. - When _Dryopithecus_ was alive, the tropical lowlands which it inhabited were densely forested, so the members could have predominantly been herbivores. # Ramapithecus - First remains were discovered from the Shivalik range in Punjab and later in Africa and Saudi Arabia - Lived in open grasslands. - Two pieces of evidence confirm their Hominid status: - Thickened tooth enamel, robust jaws, and shorter canines. - Usage of hands for food and defence and extrapolations of upright posture. # Australopithecus - Fossil was first discovered in 1924 in South Africa - Lived on the ground - Used stones as weapons and walked erect. - 4 feet tall and weighed 60-80 pounds. # Homo Erectus - First fossil was found in Java in 1891 - Named as _Pithecanthropus Erectus_ - Considered as the missing link between the man and apes - Another discovery was made in China, the Peking man - Specimen had large cranial capacities and is believed to have lived in communities - Used tools comprising quartz - Also discovered tools made of bones and wood - Evidence of collective huntings - Evidence of the use of fire - Dwelt in caves # Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis - _Homo Erectus_ evolved into _Homo Sapiens_ - During evolution, two sub-species of _Homo Sapiens_ were identified - _Homo sapien Neanderthal_ and _Homo sapiens sapiens_ - Cranial capacity of _Neanderthal_ grew from 1200 to 1600 cc - Some small hand axes had also been discovered - Could hunt big names such as mammoths # Homo Sapiens - Remains were first discovered in Europe and were named Cro-Magnon - Jaws are quite reduced - Skull was rounded - Cranial capacity was about 1350 cc - Gathered food through hunting - Art first appeared during this time # Media literacy - Ability to identify different types of media and the messages they are sending - Print media - Theatrical presentations - Tweets - Radio broadcasts # Information literacy - Ability to find, evaluate, organize, use, and communicate information in all its various formats - Requires decision making, problem solving, or the acquisition of knowledge - Technology literacy is the ability of an individual, working independently and with others, to responsibly, appropriately and effectively use technology tools to access, manage, integrate, evaluate, create and communicate information. # Sender: - Initiates the conversation and has conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to others # Encoding - uses certain words or non-verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information into a message - Sender's knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great impact on the success of the message # Message: - Once encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he intends to convey - Can be written, oral, symbolic, or non-verbal such as body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or any other signal. # Communication Channel: - Medium through which the sender wants to convey his message to the recipient - Must be selected carefully to make the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. - The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal relationships between the sender and the receiver and also on the urgency of the message being sent. - Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used communication mediums. # Receiver: - Person for whom the message is intended or targeted - Tries to comprehend the message in the best possible manner - Decoding: The receiver interprets the sender's message and tries to understand it. - Effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the message in exactly the same way as it was intended by the sender. # Feedback: - The receiver has received the message and interpreted it correctly. - Increases the effectiveness of the communication - Allows the sender to know the efficacy of his message - Response of the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal - Noise: Shows the barriers in communications. There are chances when the message sent by the sender is not received by the recipient. # Modus Ponens (MP): - Also known as Modus Ponendo Ponens (Latin for "mode that by affirming affirms") or implication elimination or affirming the antecedent. - Deductive argument form and rule of inference. # Modus Tollens: - Valid argument form in propositional calculus where P and Q are propositions. If P implies Q, and Q is false, then P is false. - Also known as an indirect proof or a proof by contrapositive. # Direct Proof: - Way of showing the truth or falsehood of a given statement by a straightforward combination of established facts, usually axioms, existing lemmas and theorems, without making any further assumptions. # Indirect Proof: - Relies on a contradiction to prove a given conjecture by assuming the conjecture is not true, and then running into a contradiction proving that the conjecture must be true. # Normal Distribution: - Sometimes called the bell curve - Distribution that occurs naturally in many situations - Seen in tests such as the SAT and GRE # Inverse: - Usually shown by putting a little "-1" after the function name - f'(y) We say "f inverse of y" - So, the inverse of f(x) = 2x+3 is written: f'(y) = (y-3)/2. # Diameter of a Circle: - D=2xr # Circumference of a Circle: - C = 2 × × # Area of a Circle: - A = πr² # Square: - 4 x side # Rectangle: - 2 x (length + width) # Parallelogram: - 2x (side1 + side2) # Triangle: - side1 + side2 + side3 # Regular n-polygon: - n x side # Trapezoid: - height x (base1 + base2) / 2 # Trapezoid: - base1 + base2 + height x [csc(theta1) + csc(theta2)] # Square: - side^2 # Rectangle: - length x width # Parallelogram: - base × height # Triangle: - basex height/2 # Regular n-polygon: - (1/4) x nx side2x cot(pi/n) # Trapezoid: - height x (base1 + base2) / 2 # Cube: - side^3 # Rectangular Prism: - side1 x side2 x side3 # Two-valued logic: - Every statement is either True or False - Law of the Excluded Middle # Statement in sentential logic: - Built from simple statements using the logical connectives, , , , and . - Truth or falsity of a statement built with these connective depends on the truth or falsity of its components. # Truth table: - Shows how the truth or falsity of a compound statement depends on the truth or falsity of the simple statements from which it's constructed. # Negation (-P): - P - -P - T - F - F - T - P is true, its negation P is false. If P is false, then-P is true. # Conjunction (P^Q): - P ^ Q should be true when both P and Q are true, and false otherwise. - P - Q - P^Q - T - T - T - T - F - F - F - T - F - F - F - F # Disjunction (PvQ): - PvQ is true if either P is true or Q is true (or both - remember that we're using "or" in the inclusive sense). - It's only false if both P and Q are false. - P - Q - PvQ - T - T - T - T - F - T - F - T - T - F - F - F # Implication (P→Q): - P - Q - P→Q - T - T - T - T - F - F - F - T - T - F - F - T # Bi-conditional (P↔Q): - P↔Q means that P and Q are equivalent. - Double implication is true if P and Q are both true or if P and Q are both false; otherwise, the double implication is false. # Bond: - Contract between two companies. - Companies or governments issue bonds because they need to borrow large amounts of money - Investors buy them (thereby giving the people who issued the bond money). - Maturity date. - Issuer has to pay back the money to investors. - They also have to pay the investors a little bit more than they paid for the bond. # Amortization: - Process of spreading out a loan into a series of fixed payments. - Loan is paid off at the end of the payment schedule. - Some of each payment goes toward interest costs and some goes toward your loan balance. - Over time, you pay less in interest and more toward your balance. # Annuity: - Long-term agreement (contract) between you and an insurance company - Allows you accumulate funds on a tax-deferred basis for ater payout in the form of a guaranteed income. # Shares: - Units of equity ownership interest in a corporation - Exist as a financial asset providing for an equal distribution in any residual profits, if any are declared, in the form of dividends. - Shareholders may also enjoy capital gains if the value of the company rises. # Stock: - General term used to describe the ownership certificates of any company. - Share refers to the stock certificate of a particular company. - Holding a particular company's share makes you a shareholder. - Stocks are of two types-common and preferred. # Ho: The null hypothesis: - Statement about the population that either is believed to be true or is used to put forth an argument unless it can be shown to be incorrect beyond a reasonable doubt. # H₂: The alternative hypothesis: - Claim about the population that is contradictory to Ho and what we conclude when we reject Ho. - Null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory. # Decision when examining evidence: - Reject Ho if the sample information favors the alternative hypothesis - Do not reject Ho or decline to reject Ho if the sample information is insufficient to reject the null hypothesis. # Mathematical Symbols Used in Ho and H₂ | Ho | H | |:-------|:------| | = | ≠ | | ≥ | < | | ≤ | > | # Note: - Ho always has a symbol with an equal in it. - H₂ never has a symbol with an equal in it. - Choice of symbol depends on the wording of the hypothesis test. - Many researchers use = in the null hypothesis, even with > or < as the symbol in the alternative hypothesis. - This practice is acceptable because we only make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis. # Asymptote: - Line that a grap of a function approaches as either x or y go to positive or negative infinity. - Three types: vertical, horizontal, and oblique. # Vertical asymptote: - Vertical line, x=a # Horizontal asymptote: - Horizontal line, y=a # Oblique or slant asymptote: - Asymptote along a line mx+b, where m≠0. - Occur when the degree of the denominator of a rational function is one less than the degree of the numerator. # Probability distribution: - Statistical function - Describes all the possible values and likelihoods that a random variable can take within a given range # Standard deviation: - Number used to tell how measurements for a group are spread out from the average (mean or expected value). - Low standard deviation means that most of the numbers are close to the average, while a high standard deviation means that the numbers are more spread out. # Confidence Intervals: - Range of values around a statistic that are believed to contain, with a certain probability, the true value of that statistic. - Strictly speaking a 95% confidence interval means that 95 out of 100 confidence intervals will contain the true mean value (μ). # Interest rate: - Percentage charged on the total amount you borrow or save. - Even a small change in interest rates can have a big impact. # Ocean: - Covers more than 70 percent of the Earth's surface - Half of those waters are at least 1.86 miles (3 km) deep. - Deepest point is 36,200 feet (11,000 m or almost 7 miles) deep - Average depth is about 12,100 feet (3,688 m) deep. - Animals living in the bathypelagic zone or deeper never see sunlight - Vampire squid and humpback anglerfish produce their own light - More than 99 percent of Earth's inhabitable space is in the open ocean. - Divided into five zones: - **Epipelagic zone (upper open ocean)**: surface to 650 feet deep - **Mesopelagic zone (middle open ocean)**: 650-3,300 feet deep - **Bathypelagic zone (lower open ocean)**: 3,300-13,000 feet deep - **Abyssopelagic zone (abyss)**: 13,000-20,000 feet deep - **Hadopelagic zone (deep ocean trenches)**: feet and deeper - Produces more than 50 percent of the air we breathe - Humans have only explored 5 percent of the world's oceans. - Humans have impacted every part of the ocean with waste and chemical pollution - Ecosystem: Community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with each other in a specific environment. # The Skin: - Largest organ of the body, equaling 15-20% of our total body mass. - Acts as a barrier to physical, chemical, and biological agents - Prevents water loss and regulates body temperature. - Transmits the senses of touch, pain, and pleasure. - Hair lubricates the scalp, which secretes pheromones and cools or warms our heads - Nails protect our fingers - The skin leaves us most vulnerable when it is compromised by open wounds, allowing infectious agents into the body. # Musculoskeletal System ## Skeletal System: - Supports and protects the body's internal organs - Ribs protect the abdominal organs - Skull protects our brains - Provides the framework and shape to our bodies - Connects to our major muscles to allow movement - Store minerals such as calcium - Creates blood cells in the soft bone tissue called marrow - Diseases and disorders include: - Arthritis - Cancers - Scoliosis - Osteoporosis - Gout - Bursitis - Fractures and breaks - Amputations - Human skeleton is made up of 206 bones ## Muscular System: - Cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscles - Cardiac muscles maintain blood flow through our body - Smooth muscles are found in the heart and organs - Skeletal muscles are responsible for carrying out the actions and movements caused by messages sent from our brains through our nervous system - Maintain posture - Produce heat. - Diseases and disorders include: - Muscular dystrophy - Fibromyalgia - Tendinitis - Multiple sclerosis - Muscle strain or sprains - Hernias. # Lymphatic System: - Transpots clean fluids in our body back to the blood - Drains excess fluids and debris from the tissues and cells of the body. - Houses the white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in protecting our bodies from infection - Diseases and disorders include: - Anemias - Leukemia - Tuberculosis of the lymph nodes - Hodgkin's disease - Other blood disorders # Respiratory System: - Maintains our breathing - Supplies the body with oxygen for cellular respiration by collecting oxygen in the lungs and disposes of carbon dioxide by breathing out the waste product - Provides our functions of speech and smell - Diseases and disorders include: - Allergies - Rhinitis and sinusitis - Laryngitis - COPD - Pleurisy - Bronchitis - Emphysema - Asthma - Sarcoidosis - Fibrosis - Asbestosis - Pulmonary vascular diseases - Fungal or bacterial infections of the lungs - Sleep apnea - Tuberculosis of the respiratory system - Lung, throat, and other respiratory cancers # Digestive system: - Responsible for the breaking down and absorption of nutrients and the elimination of the waste not utilized by the body - Identifies which minerals, vitamins, and other essentials from the foods we eat can be absorbed and utilized or stored by the body and which are to be disposed of, and carrying out those functions. - Diseases and disorders include: - Diverticulitis - Gastritis - Pancreatitis - Cholecystitis - Cirrhosis - Hepatitis - Liver cancer - Irritable bowel or colon syndromes - Crone's disease - Hemorrhoids # Nervous System: - Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves - Central Nervous System (CNS) - Peripheral nervous system - Controls all of he other systems of the body - Responds to internal and external changes - Transmits information to the brain, such as pain and external sensations - Diseases and disorders include: - Paralysis - Parkinson's Disease - Palsy - Embolisms - Thrombosis - Arteriosclerosis - Polio - Myelitis - ALS - Meningitis - Multiple Sclerosis - Muscular tics - Huntington's Disease - Cancers of the brain, spinal cord or nerves. - Epilepsy - Seizure disorders - Narcolepsy - Migraine headaches - Peripheral neuropathy - Traumatic brain injury. # Endocrine System: - Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Thymus, Adrenal Gland, Pancreas, Ovary, Testis - Glands secrete chemicals called hormones - Regulate most of the processes in our bodies such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, and even the control of the amount of glucose in our blood. - Diseases and disorders include: - Type 1 & Type 2 Diabetes - Hypoglycemia - Addison's disease - Cushing's syndrome - Hyper/hypothyroidism - Thyroid cancer. - Other active cancers of the endocrine glands. # Cardiovascular (Circulatory) System: - Heart, Blood Vessels - Heart pumps blood and blood vessels transport the blood to every part of our body - Blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste, and more - Diseases and disorders include: - Myocardial infarction - Coronary bypass surgery - Arrhythmias - Valve replacements - Pacemakers - Transplants - Heart diseases (ischemic; hypertensive; arteriosclerotic) - Hypertension - Aneurysms - Fistulas - Arteriosclerosis - Anaphylaxis shock - Varicose veins - Cold weather injuries - Sarcomas of the blood vessels # Urinary System: - Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder, Urethra - Eliminating waste products of metabolism and other materials from the body that are of no use - Regulating the amount of water that is excreted, maintaining the balanced fluid volume in our bodies - Maintaining the concentrations of electrolytes, and normal pH levels of the blood. - Diseases and disorders include: - Nephrosis - Bladder cancer - Urethritis - Bedwetting (enuresis) - Urinary and kidney stones and infections - Renal failure - Incontinence - Blood in the urine - Interstitial cystitis # Reproductive Systems: ## **MALE** - prostate gland, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens ## **FEMALE** - Mammary glands, ovary, uterus, vagina, fallopian tube - Reproductive system mainly functions to create human life. - Ovaries produce female sex hormones and eggs - Eggs are fertilized in the fallopian tube by sperm then travel to the uterus - Uterus provides the site for growth. - Mammary glands produce milk for the newborn - Diseases and disorders include: - Breast cancer - Removal of breast or lumpectomy - Hysterectomy - Pregnancy complications - Endometriosis - Ovarian or cervical cancers - Diseases or injuries of the vulva, vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, or ovaries # Igneous rocks: - Formed from the solidification of molten rock material. - Some form below Earth's surface. - Some form on or above Earth's surface. - **Intrusive igneous rocks:** Crystallize below Earth's surface. Slow cooling allows for large crystals to form. - Examples: diabase, diorite, gabbro, granite, pegmatite, and peridotite. - **Extrusive igneous rocks:** Erupt onto the surface. Cool quickly to form small crystals. - Examples: andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff. # Metamorphic rocks: - Modified by heat, pressure, and chemical processes. - Usually buried deep below Earth's surface. - Exposure to these extreme conditions has altered the mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition of the rocks. - **Foliated metamorphic rocks:** Layered or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure. - gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate - **Non-foliated metamorphic rocks:** Do not have a layered or banded appearance. - hornfels, marble, novaculite, quartzite, and skarn. # Sedimentary rocks: - Formed by the acumulation of sediments. - There are three basic types: - **Clastic sedimentary rocks:** From the accumulation of mechanical weathering debris. - Examples: breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale - **Chemical sedimentary rocks:** Dissolved materials precipitate from solution. - Examples: chert, some dolomites, flint, iron ore, limestones, and rock salt. - **Organic sedimentary rocks:** From the accumulation of plant or animal debris. - Examples: chalk, coal, diatomite, some dolomites, and some limestones. # Erosion: - Geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural forces such as wind or water. # Weathering: - Breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on Earths surface. - Once a rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the bits of rock and minerals away - Water, acids, salt, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of weathering and erosion. # Equinox: - Earth's two hemispheres are receiving the sun's rays equally. - Night and day are often said to be equal in length. - _Equinox_ comes from theLatin aequus (equal) and nox (night). # Solstice: - Two moments in the year when the Sun's apparent path is farthest north or south from Earth's Equator. - At the winter solstice the day is the year's shortest, and at the summer solstice it is the year's longest. # Atmosphere: - Nitrogen accounts for 78% - Oxygen 21% - Argon 0.9% - Gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane, and ozone are trace gases that account for about a tenth of one percent of the atmosphere. # Types of Reproduction: | Type | Description | Example | |:--------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Fission | Occurs when a parent cell splits into two identical daughter cells of the same size. | Bacteria, Protists, Unicellular Fungi | | Fragmentation | Occurs when a parent organism breaks into fragments, or pieces, and each fragment develops into a new organism. | Starfish, some worms, fungi, plants, lichens | | Budding | Occurs when a parent cell forms a bubble-like bud. The bud stays attached to the parent cell while it grows and develops. When the bud is fully developed, it breaks away from the parent cell and forms a new organism. | Yeast, Hydra | | Vegetative Reproduction | Occurs when new individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores. | Plants | | Agamogenesis | Any form of reproduction that does not involve a male gamete. | Many plants and some animals. | # Vocabulary: - _Agamegenesis_: Any form of reproduction that does not involve a male gamete. - _Asexual reproduction_: Reproduction involving only one parent; occurs without a fusion of gametes; produces offspring that are all genetically identical to the parent. - _Budding_: A form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud on another one; the bud may stay attached or break free from the parent. - _Clone_: A genetically identical copy; may be a gene, a cell or an organism; an organism that is genetically identical to its parent. - _Diploid_: The state of a cell containing two sets of chromosomes; in human somatic cells, two sets is 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes, 2n. - _Fission_: Asexual reproduction in which a parent separates into two or more individuals of about equal size. - _Fragmentation_: Asexual reproduction in which the body breaks into several fragments, which later develop into complete organisms. - _Gamete_: A sexually reproducing organism's reproductive cells, such as sperm and egg cells. - _Haploid_: The state of a cell containing one set of chromosomes; in human gametes, one set is 23 chromosomes, n. - _Meiosis_: A type of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes and forms gametes. - _Parthenogenesis_: A form of asexual reproduction where growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization. - _Reproduction_: Process by which living organisms give rise to offspring; making the next generation. - _Sexual reproduction_: Reproduction involving the joining of haploid gametes, producing genetically diverse individuals. - _Spore_: A haploid reproductive cell, found in plants, algae and some protists; can fully develop without fusing with another cell. - _Vegetative reproduction_: A type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores. - _Zygote_: A fertilized egg; the first cell of a new organism. # Tropical Wave: - Inverted trough (an elongated area of relatively low pressure) or cyclonic curvature maximum moving east to west across the tropics. - Can lead to the formation of a tropical cyclone. - Also known as an easterly wave. # Tropical Disturbance: - Tropical weather system with organized convection (generally 100-300 miles in diameter) originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a non-frontal migratory character and maintaining its identity for 24 hours or longer. - May or may not be associated with a detectable perturbation of the wind field. # Tropical Cyclone: - Low pressure system (not associated with a front) - Develops over tropical and sometimes sub-tropical waters - Has organized deep convection with a closed wind circulation about a well-defined center # Extratropical Cyclone: - Cyclone (of any intensity) - Primary energy source is baroclinic (i.e., results from the temperature contrast between