Climate Change Adaptation Strategies PDF

MORE FORMS (EXAMPLES) OF CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES An adaptation strategy is a program, project or approach that has been developed to respond to anticipated climate change impacts in a specific area of potential concern. Adaptation strategies are intended to inform and assist individuals...

MORE FORMS (EXAMPLES) OF CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES An adaptation strategy is a program, project or approach that has been developed to respond to anticipated climate change impacts in a specific area of potential concern. Adaptation strategies are intended to inform and assist individuals and communities in identifying possible ways to address current and future threats resulting from the changing climate. Topics covered here are (a) air quality, (b) ecosystem protection, (c) policies and planning, (d) public health, and (e) solid waste management. 6. Air quality: Reasons for adapting air quality to climate change Climate changes can make it more difficult for communities to maintain indoor and outdoor air quality standards that protect human health and the environment. 6.1 Indoor air quality Indoor air quality refers to the air in and around buildings and structures, especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants. Extreme weather conditions associated with climate change, such as more frequent and intense storm events and flooding, may lead to breakdowns in the physical barriers between outdoor and indoor spaces of homes and buildings. The deterioration of barriers may allow water and moisture to infiltrate. Damp conditions are ideal for the growth of indoor fungi and mold, increasing the likelihood of occupants’ exposure and resulting health effects. Exposure to indoor fungi and mold may trigger symptoms similar to hay-fever, including headaches, sneezing, runny nose, red eyes & skin rashes. Those who are allergic to indoor fungi & mold may experience asthma attacks. Adaptation strategies for indoor air quality/Ways how indoor air quality can be adapted to climate change i) Educating and providing technical assistance Developing an education plan around indoor air quality issues and disseminating materials in multiple languages. Emphasis should be on how: (a) extreme weather events can cause heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems to fail and result in indoor air pollution build-up, (b) backup generators can produce excess carbon monoxide, (c) floods can lead to indoor mold growth, and (d) stores can stock portable backup generators, proper ventilation materials, and other products to help prevent or lessen air quality issues. Learn more about indoor air quality tools and guides from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. On this site read about the following. a) Flood cleanup: Floodwaters may contain many hazards, including biological and chemical contaminants. Following a flood or hurricane event, standing water and wet materials can become a breeding ground for microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, and mold. Exposure to these contaminants can cause disease, trigger allergic reactions and continue to damage materials long after the flood. b) Mold control: Molds are part of the natural environment and can be found everywhere, indoors and outdoors. Mold is not usually a problem unless it begins growing indoors. The best way to control mold growth is to control moisture. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has many publications to help people better understand mold and its health risks. c) Healthy indoor air quality in schools: Indoor air pollution is ranked among the top five environmental risks to public health. Good indoor air quality (IAQ) contributes to a favorable environment for students, improved teacher and staff performance and a sense of comfort, health and well-being. In combination, these elements empower schools in meeting their core mission — educating children. 12  d) Asthma awareness management: Asthma is a serious chronic respiratory disease that affects the quality of life of many people worldwide. Although there is no cure for asthma yet, asthma can be controlled through medical treatment and management of environmental triggers. ii) Supporting greener and healthier buildings Adopting policies for internal use and for the jurisdiction that include structural and financial incentives for buildings that incorporate designs focused on reducing negative impacts on the environment through technologies and green infrastructure. Examples include green roofs, white roofs, pollution prevention measures, and more. Learn more about green building from the U.S. Green Building Council. Supporting greener and healthier buildings can be achieved by a) Establishing minimum mandatory criteria for indoor air quality for buildings to include ventilation, moisture, and chemicals of concern. b) Leveraging/influencing and supporting local weatherization and retrofit programs. c) Working with housing agencies to develop minimum building codes Green building is a holistic concept that starts with the understanding that the built environment can have profound effects, both positive and negative, on the natural environment, as well as the people who inhabit buildings every day. Green building is an effort to amplify the positive and mitigate the negative of these effects throughout the entire life cycle of a building. By definition, green building is the planning, design, construction, and operations of buildings with several central, foremost considerations: energy use, water use, indoor environmental quality, material section and the building's effects on its site. iii) Upgrading city facilities and strengthening staff understanding of indoor air quality a) Ensure there are updated ventilation, dust, and mold management technologies in all new and existing municipal facilities. b) Train local government staff such as building scientists, engineers, and environmental health and safety experts on indoor air quality standards and strategies. 6.2 Outdoor air quality Climate change is expected to adversely affect outdoor air quality. Climate change may make it more difficult for communities to meet and maintain air quality standards that protect human health and the environment. Climate change is expected to increase average temperature, and frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as heat waves, droughts, and storms. Ground-level Ozone: Climate change is expected to result in higher temperatures, which contribute to increased ground level ozone, including more days with elevated levels and increases in ozone levels on specific days. Metropolitan and suburban areas see some of the higher ozone levels because emissions in populous areas are contributors to ozone formation. Nevertheless, because emissions can travel long distances, high ozone levels can occur in remote areas as well. 13 Exposure to elevated levels of ozone can:  Make it more difficult to breathe deeply and vigorously  Cause shortness of breath, and pain when taking a deep breath  Cause coughing and sore or scratchy throat  Inflame and damage the airways  Aggravate lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema and chronic bronchitis  Increase the frequency of asthma attacks  Make the lungs more susceptible to infection  Continue to damage the lungs even when the symptoms have disappeared  Cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) These effects have been found even in healthy people, but can be more serious in people with lung diseases such as asthma, children and the elderly. They may lead to restricted activities, increased school absences, medication use, visits to doctors and emergency rooms and hospital admissions. Long-term exposure to ozone is linked to aggravation of asthma, and is likely to be one of many causes of asthma development. Long-term exposures to higher concentrations of ozone may also be linked to permanent lung damage, such as abnormal lung development in children. People most at risk from breathing air containing ozone include people with asthma, children, older adults and people who are active outdoors, especially outdoor workers. In addition, people with certain genetic characteristics, and people with reduced intake of certain nutrients, such as vitamins C and E, are at greater risk from ozone exposure. Particulate Matter: Particulate matter means tiny particles of pollution, one-tenth or less the diameter of a human hair. Longer and more intense droughts and extreme heat events increase the likelihood of wildfires, which release significant amounts of particulate matter into the air and threaten public health. As the climate changes, wildfires are expected to increase in many parts of the world. Higher temperatures and drought can also lead to drier conditions and more dust. An extensive body of scientific evidence indicates that breathing in fine particles over the short-term and long-term exposure can cause serious public health effects that include premature death and adverse cardiovascular effects. Long-term and short-term exposure to fine particles can cause:  Premature death, especially due to cardiovascular effects  Non-fatal cardiovascular events, such as heart attacks and strokes, as well as increased hospital admissions and emergency department visits for congestive heart failure and reduced blood supply to the heart  Respiratory effects such as: asthma attacks; coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath; reduced lung function and development People most at risk from particle pollution include people with diseases that affect the heart or lung (including asthma), older adults, children and people of lower socioeconomic status. Research indicates that pregnant women, newborns and people with certain health conditions, such as obesity or diabetes, also may be at increased risk of particle-related health effects. 14 Adaptation strategies for outdoor air quality i) Collaborating with jurisdictions and regionally by: a) Participating in voluntary agreements to improve air quality and reduce emissions b) Developing formal agreements to create emissions inventories and implement voluntary control measures focused on reducing emissions throughout the region. c) Learn how Northwest Indiana is improving outdoor air quality with voluntary actions in the Partners for Clean Air Program. ii) Improving technologies and incentivize behavior by: a) Implementing public transportation and commuter benefits programs b) Promoting public transportation and other forms of non-single occupancy vehicle transportation (i.e., bicycles & buses) by offering tax-free employee transportation incentives and allowing flexible schedule and telecommuter options. c) Implementing a woodstove pollution prevention program. These programs educate residents on the health and pollution risks associated with non-certified woodstoves and fireplace inserts. Provide financial incentives, or provide free stove upgrades to residents using non-certified options. d) Addressing emissions from off-road diesel engines, equipment, and vehicles. Local governments can install retrofit technology on the off-road, heavy-duty diesel paving vehicles required in infrastructure updates. e) Offering incentives/vouchers for residents to swap out older machines that emit more pollutants f) Implementing anti-idling efforts and improve access to parking spaces with electrification for semi-trucks g) Undertaking anti-idling education through awareness campaigns, programs, and laws. h) Offering electrification stops for heavy-duty trucks and buses that provide drivers with necessary services like heating, air conditioning, and power, without the need for engine idling. i) Learn how the Northwest Indiana Partners for Clean Air is incentivizing local governments, businesses, and individuals to improve outdoor air quality with voluntary actions. iii) Modifying land use by: a) Adopting Smart Growth principles to encourage a mix of building types and uses with multiple transit options. b) Planning for infill and brownfield redevelopment in urban cores that will reduce the need for development in the urban fringe and vehicle miles traveled to arrive at a destination. c) Creating complementary transportation plans that provide a variety of options for residents to commute to work and access the community. d) Preserving and developing greenways and open spaces. e) Improving neighborhood connectivity f) Addressing connectivity through long-term planning, committing to accessible public transportation, and making inter-modal transportation links available so residents are able to fully commute through public transportation. Increase density near transit stations and improve parking management to provide more opportunities for people to access public transit. 15  g) Participating in regional planning efforts to enable residents to travel beyond the jurisdiction with public transportation. h) Increasing and improving tree canopy coverage i) Developing forestry plans and implementing jurisdiction-wide tree planting programs and public education efforts about trees and air quality. iv) Monitoring and maintaining air quality by: a) Improving the effectiveness of air monitoring and air quality emergency response b) Requiring and promoting collaboration among government agencies and external stakeholders responsible for air quality monitoring and measures. Create an Air Quality Advisory Action Plan for situations with poor air quality to warn residents and provide information on what to do. Utilize tools such as Smogwatch from the Indiana Department of Environmental Management and AIRNOW from USEPA to monitor the air quality. v) Repairing and retrofiting facilities and vehicles by: a) Developing and implementing energy plans that reduce emissions in gov’t facilities and vehicles b) Reducing consumption, increasing the energy performance of gov’t buildings, using vehicles not powered by fossil fuels, implementing renewable energy technologies, and ensuring procurement policies prioritize low impact decisions. c) Completing an energy savings performance contract to upgrade facilities' energy equipment or, if a contract is not feasible yet, identify the specific make and model of a more efficient HVAC or other energy equipment to be installed when existing equipment fails. d) Implementing programs to help reduce emissions from airport ground equipment e) Expanding the use of non-fossil fuels and low emission technologies. Participate in airport improvement programs such as the FAA Airport Improvement Program. f) Retrofit car, truck, and bus fleets and add necessary infrastructure g) Add diesel oxidation catalysts to trucks and buses; electrify auto fleets; install charging infrastructure throughout the jurisdiction; and participate in national or regional partnerships dedicated to reducing diesel and other emissions. h) To see how a school District in East Chicago, Indiana purchased propane buses to address local public health concern, view the case study. 7. Ecosystem protection: Reasons for adapting ecosystems to climate change Climate changes can make it more difficult to protect ecosystems, comprised of millions of interconnected organisms on earth. Adaptation strategies for ecosystem protection/Ways how ecosystems can be adapted to climate change Ecological areas of concern are (a) estuaries, (b) invasive species and pests, (c) lakes, rivers, and streams, (d) maintaining biodiversity, (e) parks, trees, and forests, (f) urban ecosystems, (g) wetlands. 16 7.1 Estuaries Effects of Climate Change on estuaries An estuary is a partially enclosed, coarse water body where freshwater from rivers and streams mixes with salt water from the ocean. Salt marshes and mangrove forests are two habitats associated with estuaries. Estuaries filter pollutants and excess sediment, and they stabilize shorelines and protect coastal areas, inland habitats and human communities from floods and storm surges from hurricanes. Climate changes, rising sea levels, drought and ocean acidification threaten to degrade estuaries. Rising sea levels move the ocean and estuarine shorelines by submerging lowlands, displacing wetlands and altering the tidal range in rivers and bays. Increased frequency and intensity of rainfall can lead to greater storm water runoff, erosion and sedimentation. Greater nutrient, pollution or sediment introduction in an estuary can threaten estuarine ecosystem function. On the other hand, it can also affect the salinity of coastal waters. Estuaries require a natural balance of fresh and saltwater. Droughts reduce fresh water input into tidal rivers and bays, which raises salinity in estuaries and enables salt water to mix farther upstream. The increase of salinity in brackish/saline water environments can degrade ecosystem health. The intrusion of saltwater in groundwater also creates additional risks for coastal water infrastructure. The rising concentration of CO2, and subsequent absorption in the ocean, leads to marine waters becoming more acidic. Ocean acidification in combination with other stresses can lead to greater coral reef die-off and threatening aquatic life, threatening the success of coastal estuary programs. Adaptation strategies for freshwater estuaries i) Preserving and creating habitats by: a) Designing estuaries with dynamic boundaries and buffers. b) Replicating habitat types in multiple areas to spread risks associated with climate change. ii) Preserving river banks and lake shores by: a) Creating permitting rules that constrain locations for landfills, hazardous waste dumps, mine tailings & toxic chemical facilities in areas near estuaries & waterways that flow into estuaries. b) Integrating bank and shore management into land-use planning to prevent activities that can cause erosion and drainage from entering estuaries. c) Implementing a land acquisition program to purchase banks and shore land that are damaged or prone to damage and use it for conservation. d) Implementing land exchange programs where owners exchange property in the floodplain for county-owned land outside the floodplain to implement conservation on those areas and prevent potential negative impacts from entering the estuaries. e) Managing realignment and deliberately realigning engineering structures affecting rivers and estuaries. 17 iii) Use “soft” shoreline maintenance a) Stabilizing dunes that help prevent erosion along lakeshores by planting dune grasses and building sand fencing to induce settling of wind-blown sands that flow into estuaries. b) Preserving or restoring wetlands to help filter out pollutants and excess nutrients before they enter the estuary. c) Increasing shore land setbacks to provide a stretch of undeveloped land along river banks and lakeshores to prevent erosion and preserve water quality. d) Planting submerged aquatic vegetation (e.g., seagrasses) to stabilize banks and reduce erosion. e) Restricting or prohibiting development in erosion zones. 7.2 Invasive species and pests Invasive species are organisms that are introduced to an area where they are not known to occur. They may be a virus, bacteria, insect, plant, or weed. Adaptation strategies to control invasive species and pests i) Adopt a management plan a) Adopt an integrated invasive management strategy or plan that discusses the tradeoffs associated with managing for different species. b) Monitor the known locations and invasive species identified in the plan. ii) Contact your department of natural resources Local governments do not always have the regulatory authority or knowledge to deal with invasive species. Check with your state’s department concerned with the control of invasive species before implementing any measures. iii) Identify and monitor invasive species a) Identify invasive species in your area by contacting your local invasive spp management group. b) Conduct an assessment with the assistance of your state's department of natural resources, a local university, or local invasive species management group. An assessment can refer to a number of activities to gather and evaluate information on the nature, quality, ability, extent, or significance of the invasive spp. c) Monitor known locations of invasive species within your jurisdiction. By knowing where the invasive spp are, it can help identify what conditions allow them to be present, where they could spread, and what management could be done to prevent them. iv) Reduce presence of invasive species a) Develop programs to regularly apply strategies to remove and control non-native plants in conjunction with organizations or gov’t departments responsible for invasive management. b) Offer an invasive species education program to inform residents about plants that are invasive but are still sold commercially. 18 7.3 Lakes, rivers, and streams Effect of climate change on lakes, rivers and streams Climate changes such as rising temps, frequent extreme storms and changes in season rainfall rates will impact lakes, rivers and streams. As air temps rise, so will water temps in freshwater systems. Shallow waters are especially vulnerable to temp increases, which decreases the availability of freshwater habitat for cold-water species. Warmer water temps in deep lakes slows down processes that add oxygen to the water, creating areas with less oxygen that are unable to support life. Increasing temps, causing earlier snowmelt, combined with higher rainfall amounts and more severe flooding will impact the reproduction abilities of aquatic species. Changes in the timing of high and low stream flow creates stress on aquatic plants and animals, decreasing survival rates. More frequent floods, which often lead to sewer system overflows can lead to disease outbreaks from water-borne bacteria. Change in Fish Species The changing climate impacts ecosystems and environmental systems that support freshwater habitat for fisheries. Most freshwater fish species can only survive in certain water temp ranges. Climate change can threaten such aquatic ecosystems by altering these conditions including increasing stream temp (with a corresponding decrease in oxygen levels), altering stream flow due to drought or increased storms and worsening other stressors (e.g., increased storm runoff including nutrients, pollutants and sediment) that can affect ecosystem health. Climate change can disrupt the habitat recovery and protection of some cold water fish species. More broadly, cold and cool water fish may be replaced by other species better adapted to warmer water, which can allow non-native and/or invasive species to become established. The effects on fish spp and aquatic life, have the potential for significantly affecting traditional subsistence fishing communities. Warmer air and water temps may also expand the ranges of current invasive species, or allow new ones to establish. Invasive species can pose challenges to the success of ecosystem protection efforts ranging from large ecosystem management, such as the Great Lakes, to the restoration of coastal estuaries. Adaptation strategies for lakes, rivers, and streams i) Identify water ways available for improved ecological management For example, The Indiana Department of Environmental Management (IDEM) develops Indiana's 303(d) List of Impaired Waters (the "303(d) list") as part of the state's Integrated Water Monitoring and Assessment Report (IR), which is submitted to the USEPA every two years in accordance with the Clean Water Act (CWA). Local governments can support the removal of stream segments from the 303(d) list by identifying and contributing to restoration and protection initiatives and plans. Other states will have a 303(d) list, which can be found under the appropriate agency or from the USEPA's water quality assessment information. 19 ii) Maintain water quality and availability a) Build a combined sewer overflow tunnel to receive and store the overflow from a combined sewer system during heavy precipitation events. b) Develop adaptive storm water management practices to prevent contaminants from entering the water system. See examples of storm water management practices from the USEPA. c) Develop a watershed-wide approach to water quality management with neighboring jurisdictions d) Identify and map the community's green spaces, which function to protect water quality. Green spaces can include public and private parks and forests, green infrastructure (e.g., rain gardens), undeveloped green spaces, and urban gardens. Look for areas where greenery could be planted and makes plans to plant it. e) Implement an educational campaign for farmers and landowners to promote the responsible use of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides.  Offer community education on the correct application of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. Include information on preventing polluted runoff by maintaining rainwater on properties via native plants’ deeper root system and other water-retention mechanisms.  Work through local lawn-care companies, partner groups, and include specific outreach to farmer networks. f) Maintain, restore, and protect wetlands. Healthy wetlands support robust ecosystems that protect and improve water quality, provide fish and wildlife habitats, store floodwaters, and maintain surface water flow during dry periods. Taking steps to understand your community’s existing wetlands and expand or improve their functionality provides multiple community benefits.  See how Lake County, Illinois created a mapping tool for the wetlands in their jurisdiction. iii) Preserve habitat a) Adopt protections of important zones (e.g., riverbanks, lakeshores) and critical habitats. b) Remove barriers to migration and ecosystem diversity, such as dams, to allow species to survive and reproduce. c) Restore riverbanks and floodplains to help reduce erosion and buffer extreme flooding while creating seasonal habitat for wetland creatures. d) Reconnect wetlands and freshwater estuaries to restore water movement, improve filtration, and provide shelter and food for aquatic organisms. iv) Use “soft” shoreline maintenance a) Plant submerged aquatic vegetation to stabilize sediment, reduce erosion, absorb excess nutrients, and offer food and shelter to wildlife and aquatic organisms. b) Use natural breakwaters on the coasts of lakes to reduce erosion due to waves. 7.4 Maintaining biodiversity Adaptation strategies for maintaining biodiversity i) Adopt controls of listed invasive species a) Monitor known locations of invasive plants. 20  b) Adopt an invasive plant management strategy or plan that discusses the tradeoffs associated with managing different native and non-native species. o See how Knox County, IN banned a list of invasive plants from their county. ii) Develop conservative and restoration plans to maintain natural resource acreage, restore degraded vegetation and habitats, and preserve restored areas a) Adopt a habitat connectivity plan or specify habitat connectivity goals and initiatives in a related conservation plan. b) Implement zoning ordinances to support habitat connectivity goals. c) Designate vegetation protection areas. d) Offer incentives for meeting the requirements that increase when developers exceed the requirements. Vegetation protection areas should have one or more zones that are fully protected from development. e) Implement an invasive species education program. iii) Identify and protect ecologically significant (critical) areas such as nursery grounds, spawning areas, and areas of high species diversity a) Identify threatened or endangered flora and fauna and the habitat of threatened or endangered species. Local governments can work with their state department of natural resources to identify threatened and endangered species. b) Consider the species and their habitat in all planning and land-use decisions with an emphasis on protection and conservation. c) Adopt policies to protect and maintain significant habitat existence, and develop plans to expand these locations or replicate these habitat types. iv) Integrate habitat protection strategies into zone codes, comprehensive plans and ordinances a) Require new developments to complete a habitat impact analysis and mitigate the habitat that they damage or destroy. b) Limit Planned Unit Developments (PUDs) near sensitive natural areas. c) Restrict septic systems near areas with high biodiversity or critical habitat. d) Use setbacks, an on-site building restriction to set the minimum distance a building may be from a designated area, to protect sensitive habitats. e) Allow for landowners to sell their development rights to the local government to permanently protect the land. This strategy is called a transfer of development rights or purchase of development rights. v) Promote habitat restoration through native landscaping and conservation on public and private property a) Make a formal commitment to use native plants in new public or publicly-supported landscaping projects and convert existing non-native landscapes on public property. b) Conduct educational outreach on the importance of native landscaping and healthy habitats to support sensitive species. 21  c) Support private-sector or residential habitat restoration projects. vi) Use mapping assessments to identify what exists in the area to help future planning a) If no current map exists, creating maps for categories such as total existing vegetated area, primary vegetation types, native plants, degraded vegetation, and degraded aquatic ecosystems. These maps can be created with GIS and then used as a baseline for conservation planning. b) See how Lake County, Illinois created a mapping tool for the wetlands in their jurisdiction. 7.5 Adaptation strategies for parks, trees, and forests i) Encourage continuous blocks of forests and avoid fragmentation a) Run programs and/or integrate projects into existing practices that support the protection and/or expansion of continuous blocks of forests. ii) Measure, maintain, protect, and expand the jurisdiction’s (territory’s) tree canopy a) Adopt tree and or forest protection policies. b) Conduct a tree canopy assessment and map tree locations. c) See how Goshen, Indiana conducted a tree canopy assessment. d) Complete a strategy or formal plan to continue or fortify measurement, maintenance, and planting initiatives. e) Identify and implement reforestation opportunities. f) Implement pathogen monitoring and management initiatives. g) Select and recommend tree plantings based on native species listed as appropriate for anticipated climatic changes. h) Work with developers to lessen tree removal during new construction. iii) Pass a tree canopy protection ordinance/decree a) An ideal ordinance would cover trees on public and private property, and offer incentives for private property development that exceeds an established minimum tree canopy. iv) Preserve habitat a) Adopt a habitat connectivity plan. b) Adopt protections of important zones and critical habitats as the locations of these areas change with climate. c) Allow for landowners to sell their development rights to the local government to permanently protect the land through a purchase of development rights. d) Connect landscapes with natural corridors to enable migrations. e) Expand the planning horizons of land use planning to incorporate longer climate predictions. f) Implement zoning ordinances to support habitat connectivity goals. g) Integrate habitat protection strategies into zoning codes, comprehensive plans, and ordinances. h) Limit Planned Unit Developments (PUDs) near sensitive natural areas. i) Purchase development rights or property rights. 22  j) Require new developments to complete a habitat impact analysis and mitigate the loss of habitat that they damage or destroy. k) Restrict septic systems near areas with high biodiversity or critical habitat. l) Use setbacks to protect sensitive habitats. v) Set minimum green space thresholds a) Determining a set amount of green space in the area will help limit the effects of extreme heat, flooding, water quality, and more. 7.6 Adaptation strategies for urban ecosystems i) Identify natural resource preservation opportunities a) Examples can include rainwater collection and reuse opportunities, maintaining and increasing urban green infrastructure, and more. These efforts help improve air quality, water quality, and provide benefits for wildlife in urban areas. ii) Maintain water quality and availability a) Consider climate change scenarios into water supply system planning and maintenance. b) Manage water demand (through water reuse, recycling, and rainwater harvesting, for example). c) Prevent or limit groundwater extraction from shallow aquifers. iii) Measure, maintain, protect, and expand the green spaces, and identify public land available for improved ecological management a) Complete a map of the city’s, town’s, or county’s green spaces, and develop a strategy or formal plan to continue or fortify ongoing tracking, maintenance, and protection initiatives. b) Develop a strategy to support public land improvement, either by acquiring the land or supporting community partners’ efforts to do so. c) Identify public land that has a high potential for improved ecological management. iv) Measure, maintain, protect, and expand the jurisdiction’s tree canopy (As above strategies for parks, trees, and forests) v) Preserve habitat (As above on strategies for parks, trees, and forests) 7.7 Wetlands: Effect of climate change on wetlands Wetlands are important features in the landscape that provide numerous beneficial services for people & for fish and wildlife. These services/functions, include protecting & improving water quality, providing fish and wildlife habitats, storing floodwaters and maintaining surface water flow during dry periods. Climate changes like drought, warmer temps and changing rainfall patterns can affect the health and beneficial functionality of wetlands. Sea level rise and wildfires can also impact wetlands. Climate changes in combination with other stressors, such as land development, may further exacerbate the loss of wetlands. 23 Warmer temps, drought and changing rainfall patterns can increase evapotranspiration and lead to water losses. Drought can also increase events like wildfires, which can alter water quality and the structure and function of wetlands and watersheds. Wetlands loss can also lead to reduced habitat for fish and wildlife and worsen existing shifts in species ranges. In coastal areas, sea level rise threatens to displace some coastal wetlands. Some coastal wetland types that may be vulnerable to climate change include salt marshes, bottomland hardwood swamps, fresh marshes, and mangrove swamps. Sea-level-rise may introduce saltwater into non-tidal wetlands, which may be inhibited from moving inland due to coastal development. Climate change can inhibit the ability of sediment accretion in tidal wetlands leading to vegetation “drowning.” A decrease in coastal wetlands can threat coastal estuary protection and restoration efforts. Flood Management Wetlands provide valuable flood storage, buffer storm surge and assist in erosion control. Wetlands function as natural sponges that trap and slowly release surface water, rain, groundwater and flood waters. Trees, root mats and other wetland vegetation also slow the speed of flood waters and distribute them more slowly over the floodplain. This combined water storage and braking action lowers flood heights and reduces erosion. Wetlands within and downstream of urban areas are particularly valuable, counteracting the greatly increased rate and volume of surface-water runoff from pavement and buildings. The holding capacity of wetlands helps control floods and prevents water logging of crops. Preserving and restoring wetlands together with other water retention can often provide the level of flood control. Adaptations strategies for wetlands i) Develop a watershed health index a) A watershed health index helps compile measurable, comparable, and consistent ecological information that summarized the primary attributes of the watershed’s condition. The six essential attributes are landscape condition, habitat, hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, and biological condition. Additional values can be used depending on the values of the community. The information can be input into GIS as a visual tool as well. This information can be used to plan for wetland protection, restoration, and creation. b) See how Lake County, Illinois developed a tool to support wetland restoration planning. ii) Maintain and restore wetlands a) Adopt an environmental protection overlay that includes wetlands and seasonal ponds. b) Create a regional sediment management (RSM) plan. c) Develop adaptive storm water management practices such as promoting natural buffers and adequate culvert sizing. d) Ensure that the proper zoning is in place to protect wetlands and seasonal ponds. e) Establish rolling easements that ensure wetlands can expand as buildings, roads, and other structures are removed. f) Incorporate wetland protection into infrastructure planning (e.g. transportation planning) policies g) Install new wetlands and restore wetlands that were drained for agriculture or development. h) Require that the elimination of a wetland prompts the construction or reconstruction of another wetland within the same watershed. 24 8. Food and Agriculture Climate change can make it more difficult for farming communities to succeed economically and the threat to food security may cause food shortages. The adaptation strategies below offer possible ways to address anticipated climate risks to address anticipated changes to agriculture.  Food Distribution and Access  Rural Agriculture  Urban Gardens and Farms 8.1 Food distribution and access Adaptation strategies for food distribution and access i) Increase local food purchasing and enhance access a) Adopt one or more ordinance, resolution, or policy that supports the procurement of local food. b) Utilize the Good Food Purchasing Program to have more transparent and equitable food systems c) Identify food deserts – parts of a community where it is difficult to find and/or afford good- quality vegetables and other foodstuffs – and develop and enact plans to reduce them. d) Establish appropriate food prices for all income levels. (Refer to Community Food Security Assessment Toolkit for guidelines for assessing food availability and affordability.) ii) Increase the understanding of community food sources and the food distribution system a) Develop a list of companies and farmers that provide food to locations within the jurisdiction and exported to other communities. The list should include contact information and food types provided. b) Develop a plan in conjunction with partner agencies and the community to address local and global food supply emergencies. The plan should be shared with the public and surrounding governments. c) Collect and distribute food access data and to determine which areas are the most affected by food insecurity. d) Implement policies and programs that support a diversity of food outlets (supermarkets, farmers markets, farm stands, etc.). e) Review zoning codes and other land use regulations and eliminate or reduce policies that restrict urban food production. 8.2 Rural agriculture Adaptation strategies for rural agriculture i) Protect rural farmland a) Set metrics-based goals to protect farmland, including land that produces locally-sold agricultural products and a diversity of agricultural products. b) Adopt ordinances, zoning updates, or other mechanisms to support farmland preservation and food production from future development. c) Review land use regulations and eliminate or reduce policies that restrict food production. 25 ii) Understand rural agriculture using maps a) Create or find existing maps that document prime farmland, unique farmland, and farmland of local importance. This information can be used in future planning decisions. Work with your local soil and water conservation district or your local USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service office for additional information on agricultural land, silvicultural land, and mapping 8.3 Urban gardens and farms Adaptation strategies for urban gardens and farms i) Protect urban farmland a) Set metrics-based goals to protect urban farming, including buildings and gardens that produce locally-sold agricultural products and a diversity of agricultural products. b) Adopt ordinances, zoning updates, or other mechanisms to support urban farming preservation and urban food production from future development. Examples could include: making gardening a primary use and farming a conditional/permitted use on city land, reducing barriers to animal keeping, removing restrictions that impede composting, allowing hours of sales of produce grown on-site, and allowing structures such as hoop houses and tunnels. c) Review zoning codes and other land use regulations and eliminate or reduce policies that restrict urban food production. ii) Provide alternative areas for farming a) Facilitate rooftop farming, vertical farming, and other urban farming practices that can create opportunities for food access in the area instead of relying on importing food. b) Create incentives for buildings and developments to incorporate urban gardens and farms. 9. Solid waste management: Contaminated Site Management Effect of Climate Change on Contaminated Sites Communities have a responsibility to ensure the proper management of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes. More intense and frequent storms increase the likelihood of flooding of contaminated land, such as landfills and underground storage tanks. Also, greater frequency and intensity of drought can affect water-intensive remedies and site stability. For Inland Communities: Flooding and drought may result in the unregulated release of chemicals through surface soils, ground water, surface waters and/or coastal waters, complicating cleanup efforts or threatening sites that have already been remedied. For Coastal Communities: Sea level rise and storm surge may lead to inundation (flooding) of sites along vulnerable areas of the coast. Furthermore, saltwater intrusion may increase the permeability of clay liners installed at waste sites, such as landfills, threatening nearby properties. 26 Adaptation strategies for contaminated site management These adaptation strategies offer possible ways for local governments to address changes in the management of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes due to climate change. i) Apply green infrastructure strategies a) Plantings: Installing drought-resistant grasses, shrubs, trees, and other deep-rooted plants will provide shading, prevent erosion, provide windbreaks and reduce fire risk. b) Evapotranspiration cover modification: Replacing existing vegetation with a plant mix more tolerant of long-term changes in precipitation or temperature, and/or soil addition will increase water storage capacity. ii) Construct new infrastructure a) Construction at grade: Designing a new containment system to be built at the surface, instead of belowground, will minimize potential contact between groundwater and targeted waste (or an engineered liner) and prevent contamination. b) Deposition controls: Engineered structures, such as dams, will control the flow of flood-related deposition in settings where increased underwater deposition enhances remedy performance. c) Dewatering well system: Installing extraction wells at critical locations and depths will prevent or minimize groundwater upwelling into the waste zone of an aged landfill, waste consolidation unit, or lined engineered landfill. d) Flare enclosure: Putting industrial-strength protective material that surrounds equipment used to ignite and combust excess landfill gas will help prevent contamination from escaping. e) Flood controls: Building one or more structures to retain or divert floodwater, such as vegetated berms, drainage swales, levees, dams or retention ponds will reduce the risk of damage from flooding.  See how American Cyanamid Superfund Site Reduced Climate Exposure  See how Blue Plains Wastewater Facility in Washington DC Reinforced Facility Against Floods  See how a New Jersey Superfund site used flood controls to adapt to higher precipitation levels f) Leachate extraction upgrades: Installation of additional wells (and aboveground pumps) for leachate extraction in vulnerable areas will help prevent contamination from entering the water table. g) Pipe burial: Installation of pipes below rather than above ground surface where feasible, particularly for landfill gas transfer, will reduce exposure to potential damage. h) Power from off-grid sources: Constructing a permanent system or using portable equipment provides power generated from on-site renewable resources, as a primary or redundant power supply, that can operate independent of the utility grid when needed so the system can keep running even if power is lost. i) Renewable energy system safeguards: Building extended concrete footing for ground-mounted photovoltaic systems, adding additional bracing for roof-top photovoltaic or solar thermal systems, and adding additional masts for small wind turbines or windmills will help protect the 27  systems from damage. For utility-scale systems, safeguards to address climate change vulnerabilities may be addressed in the site-specific renewable energy feasibility study. j) Retaining wall: Building a structure (commonly of concrete, steel sheet piles or timber) to support earth masses having a vertical or near-vertical slope will hold back loose soil, rocks or debris and prevent damage to the system.  See how American Cyanamid Superfund Site Reduced Climate Exposure k) Run-on controls: Building one or more earthen structures (such as vegetated berms, vegetated swales, or storm water ponds) or installing fabricated drainage structures (such as culverts or French drains) at vulnerable locations will prevent storm water accumulating at higher elevations from reaching a landfill/containment system and causing damage. l) Tie down systems: Installing permanent mounts that allow rapid deployment of a cable system extending from the top of a unit to ground surface will hold structures in place in extreme weather events. m) Well-head housing: Building insulated cover systems made of high-density polyethylene or concrete will protect control devices and sensitive equipment situated aboveground for long periods. iii) Improve site operations a) Alarm networks: Integrating a series of sensors linked to electronic control devices that trigger a shutdown of the system, or linked to audible/visual alarms that alert workers of the need to manually shut down the system, when specified operating or ambient parameters are exceeded will help prevent contaminants from leaving the system. b) Hazard alerts: Using electronic systems that actively inform subscribers of extreme weather events or provide internet postings on local/regional weather and related conditions will inform managers when risk is high and they need to implement protective measures. c) Modeling expression for MNA: Incorporating additional subsurface parameters and sampling devices in monitoring plans will gauge the potential for re-suspension of contaminated sediment under more extreme weather/climate scenarios. d) Remote access: Integrating electronic devices that enable workers to suspend pumping or selected activities during extreme weather events, periods of impeded access or unexpected hydrologic conditions can prevent contaminants from being released from the system. e) Weather alerts: Electronic systems actively inform subscribers of extreme weather events or provide internet postings on local/regional weather and related conditions to help prepare the system in the event of extreme weather. iv) Repair and Retrofit Facilities a) Amendment settling enhancement: In situ placement of amendments through techniques such as broadcasting the material in a pelletized form or using a thicker layer of cover sand will accelerate material settling. 28  b) Armor enhancement for in situ cap: Adding additional or deeper layers of stone and/or gravel above a sand base layer will help withstand scouring forces of ice jams. c) Utility line burial: Relocating electricity and communication lines from overhead to underground positions will prevent power outages during and after extreme weather events. v) Site Fortification a) Armor: Placing fixed structures on or along the shoreline of flowing inland water will help mitigate effects of erosion and protect site infrastructure. Soft armor may comprise of synthetic fabrics and/or deep-rooted vegetation while hard armor may consist of riprap, gabions and segmental retaining walls.  See how American Cyanamid Superfund Site Reduced Climate Exposure b) Armor enhancement for in situ cap: Adding additional or deeper layers of stone and/or gravel above a sand base layer will help withstand scouring forces of ice jams. c) Amendment settling enhancement: In situ placement of amendments through techniques such as broadcasting the material in a pelletized form or using a thicker layer of cover sand will accelerate material settling. d) Coastal hardening: Installing structures will stabilize a shoreline and shield it from erosion, through "soft" techniques (such as replenishing sand and/or vegetation) or "hard" techniques (such as building a seawall or installing riprap). e) Concrete pad fortification: Repairing concrete cracks, replacing pads of insufficient size or with insufficient anchorage, or integrating retaining walls along the pad perimeter will prevent future failures.  See how American Cyanamid Superfund Site Reduced Climate Exposure f) Containment fortification: Placing riprap adjacent to a subsurface containment barrier located along moving surface water will help minimize bank scouring that could negatively affect barrier integrity. For soil/waste capping systems vulnerable to storm surge, installing a protective vertical wall or armored base to absorb the energy of the surge to prevent cap erosion or destruction. g) Entombment: Enclosing vulnerable equipment or control devices in a concrete structure will prevent exposure to outside factors that could damage it. h) Ground anchorage: Installing one or more steel bars in cement-grouted boreholes (and in some cases accompanied by cables) will secure an apparatus on a ground surface or reinforce a retaining wall against an earthen slope.  See how American Cyanamid Superfund Site Reduced Climate Exposure i) Slope fortification: Anchoring a slope through the placement of concrete or rock elements against a slope and installing anchors and cables to secure the elements, or containing a slope through the placement of netting will hold back rock and debris to prevent damage to the system. j) Tie down systems: Installing permanent mounts that allow the rapid deployment of a cable system extending from the top of a unit to the ground surface will hold structures in place in extreme weather events. END OF PART 2 / TOPIC 29