Class 2_ Soc Theory and Method.pptx

Theory and Research https://www.timmacneill.com/ Methods Weber Marx Durkhem Understanding the Social World Two complimentary processes: 1) Theorizing 2) Empirical Research Theory: A generalization, or simplification that can be used in unde...

Theory and Research https://www.timmacneill.com/ Methods Weber Marx Durkhem Understanding the Social World Two complimentary processes: 1) Theorizing 2) Empirical Research Theory: A generalization, or simplification that can be used in understanding patterns, and predicting events in the social world. Abstract, conceptual, ideas Usually written as a statement about the world, not a question Example: as income increases, demand for the purchase of products will also increase  Empirical Research: The act of systematically observing, testing, experimenting, and/or gathering data for the purpose of understanding phenomena, testing theories, or creating theories. Examples: Gravity It always rains on Sundays Policy Purpose of theories and research: Understanding Policy Policy: a plan of action implemented by an individual, group, business, or government for the purpose of influencing outcomes or changing “the way things are” Theoretical understandings determine policy E.g: Theory: We live in a patriarchal system in which women are systemically discriminated against. -How might we test this theory empirically? -what might be the policy? Complications with theories and research Provability – complex, difficult to prove “I can calculate the motion of heavenly bodies but not the madness of people” – Sir Isaac Newton Assumptions – unquestioned or improvable E.g. “humans are fundamentally greedy” “God created the universe” Result: Many different competing theories and ongoing debates Major Theoretical Schools in Sociology 1) Structural Functionalism A general theory. Things naturally work out properly. Societies don’t have to plan their futures. 2) Conflict Theory A general theory. Those in power have been designing our society in their own interest – to the detriment of the majority. 3) Symbolic interactionism Not a general theory. Focusses more on socialization and ideology generation than “big picture” issues. 1) Structural Functionalism General sociological theory (Comte, Weber, Durkheim, Parsons) Descriptive as opposed to critical Society is an organism Organs perform roles which keep society stable, ordered, in equilibrium, balanced – functioning. Functional “organs” or “institutions”: E.g. Family: Universal form: man, woman, children (nuclear family), rooted biologically. Functions: provide home, sexual reproduction, nurturance Haven in a heartless world (industrial capitalism) E.g. Markets: integrate private greed with social need May be ‘dis-function’ – e.g. over-capacity airline system at Christmas holiday Media Examples 1950s Coffee http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-0rJlj_vwA&fe ature=related Free Market Economics and the Invisible Hand: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ulyVXa-u4wE 2) Conflict Theory General Sociological theory (Marx, Engels) Situates institutions (family, market, government) in the larger social context. Critical – current social system and institutions work in the interest of those with power to the detriment of those without. (winners/losers) Inequality: macro and micro level. Conflict: men/women, young/old, this ‘race’/that ‘race’, heterosexual/homosexual, bourgeoisie/proletariat Structures Ideology Marx/Engels All of the organs or institutions of society are set up to work in the interest of the powerful and wealthy (bourgeoisie) and to exploit the poor (proletariat). Nuclear Family and Capitalism: Reproduces labour power Reproduces beliefs or ideologies that support capitalism Consumers of capitalist production Families: “units of consumption that foster cultural values of individualism and hedonism rather than collectivist goals” (Mitchell, 2010). Reinforced by media, markets, government Social Conflict Theory in Popular Culture John Lennon, Working Class Hero: As soon as you're born they make you feel small By giving you no time instead of it all Till the pain is so big you feel nothing at all A working class hero is something to be They hurt you at home and they hit you at school They hate you if you're clever and they despise a fool Till you're so fucking crazy you can't follow their rules A working class hero is something to be When they've tortured and scared you for twenty-odd years Then they expect you to pick a career When you can't really function you're so full of fear A working class hero is something to be Keep you doped with religion and sex and TV And you think you're so clever and classless and free But you're still fucking peasants as far as I can see A working class hero is something to be There's room at the top they're telling you still But first you must learn how to smile as you kill If you want to be like the folks on the hill A working class hero is something to be If you want to be a hero well just follow me http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ier64Qp80Iw&feature=related  3) Symbolic interactionism people act toward things based on the meaning those things have for them; and these meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through interpretation Thus, research by interactionists focus on easily observable face-to-face interactions rather than on macro-level structural relationships involving social institutions. E.g. Erving Goffman (1958): described roles dramaturgically, using an analogy to the theater, with human social behavior seen as more or less well scripted and with humans as role-taking actors. None of our social roles, or institutions are “real” in the sense that they are natural. They are reproduced and changed as humans are socialized through observation and interaction of the behavior of other humans, their rolls, and social categories He’s Just not that Into You: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lV7bvxRQGkc Feminist Perspectives Some call them a major school of thought Focus is on the social position of “women” May incorporate structural functionalism Liberal feminism But usually is a form of conflict theory (sometimes mixed with insights from symbolic interactionism) 1st Wave Feminism – voting rights / non-”ownership” of women by husbands 2nd Wave Feminism Liberal Feminism: legislation allowing women to work, get divorced more easily etc. Radical feminism: the way in which women are treated in society must also be challenged, not just laws 3rd Wave Feminism: built on radical feminism, challenging patriarchy in culture, politics, economy, and law. Also focussed on differences between women (intersectionality – which showed that poverty and race/ethnicity can make women’s experiences much different than other women. 4th Wave Feminism – active challenging of patriarchy and prescribed gender / sexuality roles online. Also challenges the “naturalness” of any definition of women. But which Theory? Three Major schools: Structural Functionalism: critiqued as being ethnocentric, patriarchal, ignorant of power inequalities. Social Conflict: critiqued for being too material, but useful because of its focus on power inequalities. Symbolic Interactionist: critiqued in its extremes for not being material enough. Most common in politics and popular culture: Structural functionalism. Most common in current sociological research: mix of social conflict / Symbolic interactionist Ontology /Epistemology Ontology: Comes before theory It is our set of improvable beliefs about the nature of the world E.g. the world was created by God. God makes everything happen Epistemology: Is based in a particular ontology Given our ontology, what can we discover or come to know through science? E.g. Nothing. Only God knows  Positivism Positivist Ontology: the world is seen as real and existing independently from the human existence. It is seen an ordered, structured place that is governed by physical laws Positivist Epistemology: Humans can use their rational minds to discover and describe the true nature of the physical and social worlds Structural functionalism is often based in positivism Social Constructivism Social Constructivist ontology: our perception of the world is socially constructed. We thus individually and collectively create meaning from our experiences in a world where we can never know what is real. Social Constructivist epistemology: All we can study is the world of signs, symbols, language and culture, what people report about their inner worlds, and our guesses at what they may be experiencing from the external indicators they give Social Constructivism ….. Anything we make is socially constructed. The categories we use are social constructs. Humans create ideas, concepts, categories, cultures in order to make sense of the world. Our brains have been formatted by language and culture. Most extreme: There is no reality outside of your own head. What you perceive as the ‘real world’ is a symbolic order that is given to you through social (symbolic) interaction. Less Extreme: There is a real world but we do not see it directly – it is interpreted through the socially acquired structures of our own language. Implications: we can never really scientifically discover the ‘real world’, we create that world as we try to describe it (most extreme), or we can only understand it approximately in terms of metaphor (less extreme). Symbolic interactionism is based largely in social constructivism  Matrix Clip: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WnEYHQ9dscY Who is putting ideas in our heads? We all are We invent language and culture together Language and culture determine the way the world appears to us When you mix this with conflict theory, you start to become very worried about media and education systems When we construct our worlds we begin to see only things that make cultural sense to us and we don’t see, discount as ‘noise’, or are disgusted by those that don’t. This can be reinforced by various technologies (Google, Facebook): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzZzf6PoyC4 Some Socially Constructed Ideas: Gender Sexuality Rac e Nationali ty  Research Methods Start with your ontology Then the 3 Schools Then your method 1) Multivariate research methods Truths exist, mostly deductive, often related to structural functionalism E.g. Emile Durkheim’s study on suicide (1897) -psychologists had thought suicide to be the result of mental disorder of the individual Durkheim studied rates of suicide and compared them to variables such as income, urban living, religion, speed of social change Found that the cause of suicide was lack of social inclusion and stability  2) Interpretive research methods truth is subjective, mostly descriptive, inductive, often related to symbolic interactionism Cultural beliefs should be studied because they impact and form society and economy. E.g. Max Weber’s study on the Protestant Work Ethic (1904)  3) Historical-Comparative research methods Using texts, documents, oral histories and comparing these across history to form theories, then test them, then reform theories Tries to use theory to make sense of history and then to test theories accuracy against history Tends to believe that material/economic realities form culture, not the other way around (disagrees with Weber) May be positivist or constructivist E.g. the positivist historical- comparative critical theory of Karl Marx on the origin and function of capitalism (1887)  Big Ideas Durkheim: Human action has social causes (suicide) Structures and institutions help society function (structural functionalism) Marx: The material, economic system drives history and creates culture, politics, ideas (capitalism was created by colonialism) Each economic system has “contradictions” (conflicts) that eventually kill it (Historical Materialism) Structures and institutions reinforce Weber: inequality Ideas drive history (protestant ethic made capitalism) Structures and institutions help society function (structural functionalism) Specific Research Techniques Experiments https://www.timmacneill.com/ Surveys Field Research Ethnography Participant research Participatory research In-depth interviews Document analysis Discourse analysis Existing data Secondary data analysis Historical research Content analysis Discourse analysis Summary of Relationship of Research and Theory Ontology (the most fundamental kind of theory) what are your assumptions about the nature of the world? Positivist / constructivist Epistemology what can be known / understood through research? Major theoretical schools Structural functionalism / conflict / symbolic interactionism Sub-theories E.g. Teenage girls who watch TV have lower self-esteem Could be done from any major school or even a mix Could be developed before research methods and specific research techniques (deductive) or after (inductive) Research methods Multivariate / Interpretive / Historical Comparative Specific research techniques May lead to the development of new sub theories or even use of different major theoretical schools