Christian Moral Principles PDF

Christian approaches to Moral Decision-Making Theonomous Christian Ethics ​ Definition: Theonomous ethics is derived from the Greek words theos (God) and nomos (law). It refers to an ethical system where God is the source of moral law. God’s will, as revealed in the Bible, is the ul...

Christian approaches to Moral Decision-Making Theonomous Christian Ethics ​ Definition: Theonomous ethics is derived from the Greek words theos (God) and nomos (law). It refers to an ethical system where God is the source of moral law. God’s will, as revealed in the Bible, is the ultimate authority for determining what is right and wrong. However, this approach faces challenges in interpreting the Bible’s teachings consistently and applying them to modern ethical dilemmas. ​ Sola Scriptura: Latin for "Scripture alone," this principle asserts that the Bible is the sole source of authority in Christian ethics. The Bible is seen as the divinely inspired word of God and the ultimate guide for all moral decisions. The Authority of the Bible ​ Divine Inspiration: The Bible is believed to be divinely inspired by God. Prophets and apostles were guided by the Holy Spirit to directly record God's will. ​ 2 Timothy 3:16: "All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting, and training in righteousness." This affirms the Bible's divine nature as the word of God. ​ Infallibility: The Bible is infallible, meaning it is without error in its teachings, especially in matters of faith and morality. This infallibility is crucial to the theonomous view, as it underpins the belief that the Bible is the definitive source of moral guidance. Human Sinfulness and the Need for Divine Guidance ​ The Fall: The concept of the Fall, rooted in the story of Adam and Eve, suggests that human nature is inherently sinful. Due to this sinfulness, humans are incapable of fully understanding or living according to moral truths through reason alone. They require divine revelation as provided in the Bible. ​ Propositional Revelation: This is the belief that God reveals Himself through clear, definitive statements in the Bible, which are to be accepted as truth. Propositional revelation supports the idea that the Bible contains absolute truths that are directly communicated by God. Covenant Relationships in the Bible ​ Covenant: A covenant is a sacred agreement between God and humanity. Throughout the Bible, God establishes several covenants that guide ethical behaviour, not only do they show how to act but also what not to do. ​ Five Foundational Covenants:  1.​ The Noahic Covenant: After the flood, God establishes a covenant with Noah, promising never to destroy the earth with a flood again. This covenant renews the blessings of creation, reaffirms humanity's role as bearers of God's image, and promises the preservation of life. It includes the sign of the rainbow as a reminder of God's promise. 2.​ The Abrahamic Covenant: God promises Abraham three key things: land, descendants, and blessing. This covenant is central to the biblical narrative, as it establishes the concept of a chosen people through whom all nations would be blessed. It also introduces the idea of the Promised Land and the practice of circumcision as a sign of the covenant. 3.​ The Mosaic Covenant: At Mount Sinai, God makes a covenant with the Israelites, giving them the Law, which includes the Ten Commandments. This covenant is conditional, with blessings promised for obedience and curses for disobedience. It sets Israel apart as a holy nation and a kingdom of priests, meant to reflect God's character to the surrounding nations. 4.​ The Davidic Covenant: God promises King David that his descendants will rule forever, with one of his descendants always on the throne of Israel. This covenant points forward to the coming of the Messiah, who would be a descendant of David and fulfil God's promises of an everlasting kingdom. 5.​ The New Covenant: Prophesied by Jeremiah and inaugurated by Jesus at the Last Supper, the New Covenant promises the internal renewal of the heart, forgiveness of sins, and a deep, personal knowledge of God. This covenant is fulfilled through Jesus' death and resurrection, offering a new way of relating to God, not based on the Law but on grace. The Mosaic Covenant and the Ten Commandments The Ten Commandments: The Ten Commandments encapsulate the moral expectations set by God, forming a foundational ethical framework for both personal and communal life. ​ Personal and Social Ethics: ○​ Personal Commandments: Commandments focusing on the relationship between the individual and God (e.g., "You shall have no other gods before Me"). ○​ Social Commandments: Commandments governing interpersonal relationships (e.g., "You shall not murder," "You shall not steal"). Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount: The New Covenant ​ Key Teachings: ○​ Expansion of the Law: Jesus reinterprets Old Testament laws, focusing on internal attitudes rather than just external obedience. ○​ For Example: Regarding the commandment "You shall not murder", Jesus declares that even harbouring anger against another person is as bad as murder. The point Jesus is making is that true righteousness is not just about outward obedience to the law but requires an inward purity of heart and mind.  ​ Moral Motivation: ○​ True morality, according to Jesus, involves not just following rules but having the right intentions and internalising God’s moral values. Examples of Moral Guidance in the Bible ​ The Ten Commandments (Exodus 20): ○​ These serve as the basic moral code for both Jews and Christians, guiding ethical behaviour in various aspects of life. ​ Jesus’ Summary of the Law (Mark 12:28-31): ○​ Jesus simplifies the Old Testament laws into two main commandments: "Love God" and "Love your neighbour as yourself," highlighting love as the core of ethical living. ​ Parables: ○​ Good Samaritan: A story illustrating the importance of compassion and love for others, even those considered enemies. ○​ Parable of the Sheep and Goats: Emphasises that faith must be demonstrated through actions, particularly in helping those in need. Strengths of Theonomous Ethics ​ The Bible as a Comprehensive Moral Guide: The Bible is considered a complete moral guide because it contains God's commandments, which are believed to be perfect and sufficient due to God's omniscient and infallible nature. This ensures that everything necessary for living a good Christian life is covered within its pages, providing clear guidance for various moral situations. The belief in the Bible's comprehensiveness stems from the understanding that an all-knowing God would provide His followers with all they need to navigate moral decisions. ​ Bishop Rowan Williams' Parable Analogy: Bishop Rowan Williams compares the Bible to a parable, suggesting that it functions as a narrative that conveys deep moral and spiritual truths in a relatable way. Just as Jesus used parables to teach profound lessons, the Bible uses stories, laws, and prophecies to guide believers in understanding and applying God’s will. This analogy highlights the Bible's role not just as a rulebook but as a living document that resonates with human experience. ​ Ethics Illustrated through Real-Life Situations: The Bible goes beyond abstract commandments by illustrating ethical principles through real-life stories, making its teachings more relatable and practical. For instance, the story of David and Bathsheba shows the consequences of sin and the importance of repentance, while the Good Samaritan parable teaches the value of compassion. These narratives help believers see how biblical ethics can be applied in their own lives, providing concrete examples of moral living. ​ The Bible as a Form of Revelation: The Bible is viewed as a divine revelation, meaning it is God’s self-disclosure to humanity, offering insights into His will and moral order. As propositional revelation, the Bible contains specific truths and commands directly communicated by God, making it an authoritative source for  moral guidance. This divine origin gives the Bible a unique and indispensable role in guiding the ethical decisions of believers. ​ God Providing a Way to Understand Morality: It is logical that a benevolent and omnipotent God would give humanity a clear path to understanding how to live morally, which He does through the Bible. This divine provision eliminates ambiguity, making God’s moral expectations accessible and understandable. The Bible serves as a consistent and unchanging source of guidance, helping believers align their lives with God's will. Weaknesses of Theonomous Ethics ​ Contradictory Commands: The Bible presents apparent contradictions, particularly in the differing attitudes towards violence between the Old Testament, which often permits retributive justice, ‘eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth’ (Exodus 21:24), and the New Testament, which emphasises forgiveness and peace, ‘if anyone slaps you on the right cheek, turn to them the other cheek also’ (Matthew 5:39); Christians account for these differences by interpreting the Old Testament laws as applicable to specific historical contexts, while the teachings of Jesus in the New Testament are seen as the fulfilment and perfection of the law. ​ Problems of Articulating God's Words: Articulating God's infinite wisdom into human language presents significant challenges, as human language is inherently limited and cannot fully capture the divine, leading to issues of divine ineffability; the concept that God's nature and essence are beyond human comprehension and cannot be fully expressed or understood through human language. ​ Complex Metaphorical Language: The Bible's use of complex metaphorical language often results in varied interpretations, as different readers may arrive at different conclusions based on how they understand the figurative speech within the text. ​ Karl Barth and Bibliolatry: Karl Barth warned against "bibliolatry," the danger of idolising the Bible itself rather than God, which can occur when the Bible is treated as an object of worship rather than a witness to God's revelation. ​ Modern Ethical Issues: The Bible does not directly address many modern ethical issues, such as genetic engineering or digital privacy, requiring Christians to rely on interpretation, reasoning, and other sources to apply biblical principles to contemporary dilemmas. Heteronomous Christian Ethics The Basics of the Heteronomous Approach to Ethics: ​ Explanation of the Heteronomous Approach: The heteronomous approach to ethics in Christianity asserts that moral authority comes from a combination of three sources: the Bible, Church tradition, and human reason. This approach recognizes that relying solely on one source, such as the Bible, may not adequately address the complexities of modern ethical issues. Instead, it integrates the wisdom of the Church and the rational capacities of human beings to apply moral principles to contemporary situations. ​ Challenges of Solely Relying on the Bible: Relying exclusively on the Bible can be challenging in addressing modern ethical dilemmas, particularly those involving science and technology, which are not directly mentioned in biblical texts. For example, issues like genetic engineering or artificial intelligence require interpretations that go beyond the literal text. A heteronomous approach allows for the Bible's teachings to be complemented by Church tradition and reason, providing a more comprehensive ethical framework that can adapt to new challenges. ​ The Bible as Non-Propositional: The Bible in this approach is considered non-propositional, meaning it does not present ethical truths as clear-cut propositions or rules. Instead, it offers narratives, parables, and teachings that require interpretation. This interpretation is guided by the Church and reason, allowing for a dynamic understanding of ethics that evolves with the context while staying rooted in biblical principles. Strengths: 1.​ Integration of Multiple Sources of Authority: The heteronomous approach to Christian ethics is robust because it integrates biblical teachings, Church tradition, and human reason. This comprehensive framework allows for a more nuanced understanding and application of ethical principles, which can address the complexities of modern life more effectively than relying on a single source of authority. 2.​ Ability to Address Modern Ethical Dilemmas: The heteronomous approach's reliance on reason and Church teaching allows it to adapt and respond to new ethical challenges that were not explicitly addressed in biblical texts. This flexibility is crucial for applying Christian ethics to contemporary issues like bioethics, technology, and social justice. 3.​ Community and Collective Decision-Making: Heteronomous ethics emphasise the importance of community and collective decision-making in moral theology. This approach allows for diverse perspectives within the Church to be considered, leading to more balanced and inclusive ethical teachings.The Anglican Church's use of Synods, where clergy and laity come together to discuss and decide on ethical matters, exemplifies this strength. The decision-making process is guided by communal prayer and discussion, which can lead to more balanced and well-considered outcomes Weaknesses: Difficulty in Reconciling Contradictory Sources: The heteronomous approach can lead to difficulties when the Bible, Church tradition, and reason provide conflicting guidance. This can create confusion and weaken the authority of the ethical decisions made. Exclusion of Diverse Perspectives: The reliance on Church tradition within the heteronomous approach can lead to the exclusion of diverse perspectives, particularly those of marginalised groups. This can result in ethical teachings that are incomplete or biassed. Feminist critics argue that Church teaching has historically excluded women and has been shaped by male-dominated perspectives. This exclusion can lead to a one-sided view of morality that fails to fully address the needs and concerns of all members of the Christian community​ The Catholic Tradition: ​ Explanation of Church Tradition: In the Catholic tradition, Church Tradition refers to the teachings and practices that have been passed down through the centuries, beginning with the apostles. This tradition is seen as a living transmission of the faith, complementing and interpreting Scripture. It plays a crucial role in shaping moral teachings. ​ Explanation of Apostolic Succession: Apostolic succession is the process by which the authority given by Jesus to the apostles is passed down through generations of bishops. This unbroken line of succession gives authority to the teachings and leaders of the Catholic Church, grounded in the original teachings and leadership of Christ and the apostles. ​ Criterion of Apostolicity and Authority: The criterion of apostolicity asserts that the Church’s teachings are authoritative because they are derived from the apostles' teachings. This authority is considered equal to that of the books of the Bible, as both are believed to be guided by the Holy Spirit. Sacred Tradition, therefore, holds a significant place equally alongside Sacred Scripture in the Catholic ethical approach. ​ The Three Sources of Authority: The Catholic Church bases its ethical teachings on three sources of authority: Sacred Tradition, Sacred Scripture, and the Magisterium. Sacred Tradition involves the Church’s ongoing teaching authority; Sacred Scripture refers to the Bible; and the Magisterium is the Church's official teaching office, which interprets both Tradition and Scripture. ​ Explanation of Sacred Tradition: Sacred Tradition is the body of teachings handed down through the ages, starting from the apostles. It encompasses doctrines, liturgical practices, and moral teachings that, while not explicitly written in the Bible, are considered authoritative and divinely inspired. ​ Explanation of Sacred Scripture: Sacred Scripture refers to the Bible, which the Catholic Church believes is the inspired word of God. The Church teaches that the Bible, while written by human authors, is free from error in its moral teachings and is to be interpreted in the context of Sacred Tradition. ​ Explanation of the Magisterium: The Magisterium is the Church's official teaching authority, consisting of the Pope and bishops. It has the responsibility to interpret the Word of God, whether written or handed down in Tradition. The Magisterium is seen as infallible when it proclaims a doctrine of faith or morals to be held by the whole Church.  ​ The Three Levels of the Magisterium: The Magisterium operates on three levels: the ordinary Magisterium (everyday teaching), the extraordinary Magisterium (infallible teachings proclaimed in councils or ex cathedra statements by the Pope), and the universal Magisterium (teachings held universally by the bishops). ​ Infallible Statements by the Pope: The Pope can make infallible statements when speaking ex cathedra (from the chair of Peter) on matters of faith and morals. Two such statements have been made: the Immaculate Conception (1854) and the Assumption of Mary (1950). ​ Encyclicals: Encyclicals are letters written by the Pope to the Church, addressing important issues in faith and morals. They are a significant way through which the Magisterium exercises its teaching authority, guiding the faithful on how to live according to the Church's moral teachings. ​ Catechism of the Catholic Church: The Catechism is a comprehensive exposition of Catholic doctrine, including its moral teachings. It is used to instruct the faithful and is considered an authoritative source of what the Church teaches on a wide range of issues. ​ The Catholic Church and Natural Law: The Catholic Church believes that human reason, guided by Natural Law, can discern moral truths. Natural Law refers to moral principles inherent in human nature, accessible through reason, and reflective of God's will. This concept, rooted in the thought of St. Thomas Aquinas, is central to Catholic moral theology. ​ Catholicism and Liberation Theology: Liberation Theology is a movement within the Church that emphasises the liberation of the oppressed, particularly in Latin America. It often involves a more political approach to ethics, focusing on social justice. However, this approach sometimes clashes with the traditional Catholic emphasis on Natural Law and the Magisterium’s authority. Strengths: 1.​ Apostolic Succession and Authority: The Catholic Church’s moral authority is firmly rooted in the concept of apostolic succession, which ensures a direct link between the teachings of the apostles and the current leadership of the Church. This historical continuity is seen as a strength because it provides the Church with a solid foundation for its teachings, which are perceived to be divinely inspired and preserved through an unbroken line of succession. 2.​ Integration of Scripture, Tradition, and Reason: The Catholic Church’s approach to ethics is not limited to the Bible alone but incorporates the Church’s tradition and human reason. This allows for a more comprehensive and adaptable moral framework, enabling the Church to address contemporary ethical issues while remaining rooted in Christian beliefs. 3.​ Stability and Uniformity: The Catholic Church’s reliance on tradition contributes to stability and uniformity in its ethical teachings. In a world where moral relativism is increasingly common, this stability provides clear guidelines and a reliable moral framework for believers. 4.​ Alignment with Divine Law: Aquinas’ Natural Law theory asserts that human reason, when properly applied, can lead to moral principles that align with Divine Law. This approach is grounded in the belief that humans are created in the image of God and thus possess the capacity for reason as a reflection of divine intellect. Weaknesses: 1.​ Historical Corruption and Misuse of Authority: The Church’s history includes instances of corruption and misuse of its moral authority, which have significantly damaged its credibility. These events raise doubts about the Church’s claim to divine guidance and moral infallibility. 2.​ Overemphasis on Tradition at the Expense of Scripture: Critics argue that the Catholic Church places too much emphasis on its own traditions, potentially overshadowing or even contradicting the teachings of the Bible. This can lead to the perception that the Church is more focused on maintaining its institutional power than faithfully interpreting the Word of God. 3.​ Potential for Human Error in Interpretation: Despite the Church’s claim of divine guidance in interpreting Scripture and Tradition, the potential for human error remains. This becomes especially problematic when the Church’s teachings are seen as inflexible or outdated, failing to account for new understandings or societal changes. 4.​ Imperfection and Misapplication of Human Reason: A significant weakness of relying on human reason is that it is imperfect, limited, and prone to error, even Aquinas acknowledged that reason needs to be developed and can be misapplied. This imperfection means that human reason may be misapplied, leading to moral errors or the pursuit of "apparent goods" rather than true moral goods. 5.​ Potential for Cruel Outcomes: The application of Aquinas’ Natural Law theory can lead to outcomes that some may consider cruel or unjust, particularly when reason is used to justify positions that deny compassion or practical considerations, such as the refusal of abortion to rape victims or the prohibition of same-sex marriage. 6.​ Assumption of Universality: Aquinas’ Natural Law theory assumes that the primary precepts of Natural Law are universally true and accepted, which may not be the case. This assumption can lead to the imposition of moral rules that do not align with the beliefs or values of all individuals or cultures. The Protestant Tradition: ​ Protestant Heteronomy and the Church: Protestant heteronomy differs from the Catholic approach by placing more emphasis on the Bible and less on Church tradition. While Protestants recognize the importance of the Church in teaching and guiding, they generally reject the idea of an infallible teaching office like the Magisterium. ​ Protestant Heteronomy and Reason: Protestants also value reason, but they often emphasise the primacy of Scripture over human reason and Church authority. Reason is used to interpret the Bible, but it is always subject to the authority of Scripture. ​ Anglican Synod: An Anglican Synod is a formal assembly within the Anglican Church that includes clergy and lay representatives. These synods are responsible for discussing and making decisions on matters of doctrine, church policy, and other issues affecting the Church. Synods operate at different levels, including diocesan (local), provincial, and the General Synod, which is the highest  governing body of the Church of England. The decisions made in these synods help guide the practices and teachings of the Anglican Church. ​ Inclusive Decision-Making: The Anglican Synod system promotes inclusive decision-making by involving both clergy and lay members in discussions and decisions. This structure ensures that a wide range of perspectives within the Church are considered, leading to more balanced and representative outcomes that reflect the views of the broader Anglican community. While the Catholic Church relies on a more hierarchical structure where decisions are primarily made by the clergy, especially the Pope and bishops, the Anglican Synod allows for greater participation from the laity. Autonomous Christian Ethics Autonomous Christian Ethics: Autonomous Christian Ethics is a perspective within Christian ethics that emphasises the individual's authority in making moral decisions, guided primarily by the principle of agape love. This approach asserts that one can determine what is morally right or wrong without the need to rely strictly on the Church, the Bible, or other external religious authorities. Autonomy: Autonomy emphasises the individual's authority in making moral decisions. It is in opposition to legalism, which places strict adherence to rules, and can often fail to recognise the complexity of moral decision making. Agape: The core idea is that agape—the selfless, unconditional love exemplified by Jesus, especially in His life and sacrifice—is the central guiding principle. This love serves as the foundational motivation, and individuals use their reason to apply this principle to various moral dilemmas. Are Autonomous Christian Ethics Distinctive: Autonomous Christian ethics could be considered distinctive because they are fundamentally based on the teachings of Jesus, particularly his emphasis on agape love, a self-sacrificing love that is unique to Christian ethics. Agape love, as highlighted by Jesus, is central to his moral teachings and is presented as the greatest commandment in the New Testament: "Love your neighbour as yourself." This commandment encapsulates Jesus' ethics, where love is the guiding principle for all moral decisions. Rudolf Bultmann, argued that Jesus had no ethics apart from this principle of love, stating that "love your neighbour as yourself" is the highest duty. How do followers of Autonomous Christian Ethics see the Bible as a comprehensive moral guide: Followers of Autonomous Christian Ethics view the Bible as a comprehensive moral guide primarily because it encapsulates the principle of agape love, central to Jesus' teachings. They believe that the essence of biblical moral guidance is found in Jesus' summary of the Law: "Love God and love your neighbour as yourself." Rather than seeing the Bible as a rule book that provides specific instructions for every moral decision, it is seen as a statement of one guiding truth: agape love. Quaker Christians: Quaker Christians do not consider any book, including the Bible, to be the literal "word of God," but instead see it as a significant source of inspiration. They reject creeds like the Nicene Creed or the Apostle's Creed, believing that faith should be personal, rooted in inner conviction, and developed through a shared search for truth with others. Quakers hold that faith is continuously evolving and cannot be confined to a fixed set of beliefs. Their moral outlook is based on the belief that there is something of God in everyone, making each person uniquely valuable. This leads Quakers to value all people equally and oppose anything that could harm them. Fletcher's Situation Ethics: Joseph Fletcher's Situation Ethics, developed in the 1960s, emphasises that agape love is the sole guiding principle for moral decision-making. Fletcher believed that his approach reflected the ethical teachings of Jesus, particularly the commandments to love God and love your neighbour as yourself. He argued that agape love is the highest authority, above any legalistic rules, as exemplified by Jesus' actions, such as breaking Sabbath laws for the sake of human need. Fletcher’s approach rejects rigid rules in favour of evaluating each situation individually, based on agape, sacrificial love. He emphasised that this approach is not about doing whatever one feels like, but rather requires a thoughtful and demanding application of reason in the context of agape. He viewed conscience as an active process—an outworking of reason guided by agape love. Fletcher’s radical Christian ethics describes agape as: Intrinsically good; The Christian ruling norm; Another way of talking about justice; Being blind to who we are dealing with; Being measurable by the consequence of a situation; Being different in different situations. Paul Tillich: Paul Tillich, a German-American Christian existentialist philosopher and theologian, proposed that Christian ethics should be guided by three norms: justice, love, and wisdom, with love being the most important, supported by wisdom and justice. Tillich criticised rigid Christian moral decision-making that strictly adheres to fixed rules, which he termed moral Puritanism. Instead, he advocated for agape love as a person-centred principle, which should respond to the specific, concrete situations individuals face rather than hypothetical scenarios. Tillich argued that traditional laws and biblical commands represent past wisdom, but they should not be applied unconditionally in every situation. He believed that ultimate authority lies with the individual's thoughtful consideration of what to do in each unique circumstance, always interpreting rules through the lens of love. Tillich’s approach suggests that moral decisions, such as those regarding same-sex relationships, just wars, or end-of-life care, should be made based on love and the specific context, rather than strictly following established laws or doctrines. His thinking strongly influenced Joseph Fletcher's development of Situation Ethics. Flexible Approach: Autonomous ethics allows for flexibility and sensitivity to the complexities of real-life situations, moving beyond rigid rules that may not always fit unique circumstances. By prioritising love, autonomous ethics empowers individuals to make compassionate, just, and responsible decisions. It aligns with Jesus' emphasis on love and mercy over strict legalism, making it a powerful and relevant approach for those striving to live out Christian values in an ever-changing world. Bishop J.A.T. Robinson, ‘a perfect ethic for man come of age’: Bishop J.A.T. Robinson, ‘a perfect ethic for man come of age’ - following rules unquestioningly is the act of children, adults can and should be expected to make autonomous ethical decisions that are informed by the rule of love. Robinson described agape love as having a ‘built in moral compass’ which can direct people to the most important need when required – we should trust love. [This could be countered by arguing that this autonomous approach risks overstepping human limitations and assuming a role that belongs to God. By placing ultimate moral authority in the hands of individuals, it could be seen as rejecting God's authority and the guidance provided through Scripture and Church teachings.] William Barclay: William Barclay thought situation ethics had some validity but didn’t agree with it fully. He argues that situation ethics gives moral agents a dangerous amount of freedom. For freedom to be good, love has to be perfect. If there is no or not enough love then ‘freedom can become selfishness and even cruelty’. If everyone was a saint, then situation ethics would be perfect. John A T Robinson called situation ethics ‘the only ethic for man come of age’ – but Barclay argues mankind has not yet come of age and so ‘still needs the crutch and protection of law’. Pope Francis on Agape: Pope Francis said that love is absolutely central to Christian life, but not as a moral guideline. Agape love is used to understand how best to follow the Church’s rules. It cannot be trusted alone.