Summary

This document examines China's role in the Cold War, particularly focusing on the impacts of the People's Republic of China's (PRC) inception in 1949 and Mao Zedong's policies such as the Great Leap Forward.

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Chapter 2. The Globalization of the Cold War: China and the impact of multipolarity on International Relations, 1949-1971. I- The People’s Republic of China (PRC) and Mao: symbols of revolution in the world A- The creation of the PRC in 1949 1912: Collapse of the Chinese empire + creation of the...

Chapter 2. The Globalization of the Cold War: China and the impact of multipolarity on International Relations, 1949-1971. I- The People’s Republic of China (PRC) and Mao: symbols of revolution in the world A- The creation of the PRC in 1949 1912: Collapse of the Chinese empire + creation of the Republic of China → 1927: Civil war between nationalists and communists. There were 2 opposite sides during the Chinese Civil War (1927-1949): – The Communists → CCP (Chinese Communist Party) led by Mao Zedong – The Nationalists - Guomindang led by Chiang Kai-shek At the inauguration ceremony of the PRC on 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed that the Central People’s Government was ‘prepared to establish diplomatic relations with any foreign government which is willing to observe the principles of equality, mutual benefit and mutual respect of territorial integrity and sovereignty’. → Through this statement he signaled that China was back as a strong sovereign state, an active player of world affairs. ​ It was important for Mao to stress that China had recovered its independent voice in international affairs after years of colonial domination referred to as a « century of humiliation » (mid 19th c 2 « opium wars » fought against Britain and then against Britain and France). ​ For ideological reasons, China gave priority to the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries: no negotiations were required to establish diplomatic relations with these countries. => A New China was born. ​ The PRC became a new key actor of the Cold War, weighing in favor of the Soviet side/bloc. B- Impacts of the creation of the PRC in 1949 The proclamation of the PRC intervened in a double international context: – COLD WAR – DECOLONISATION > the impact of the creation of China in the context of the Cold War ​ The Soviet Union was the first country to recognise the PRC. Upon its establishment in 1949, the People's Republic of China was recognised by Eastern Bloc countries. In June 1949, about three months prior to the founding of the PRC, the Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong announced that New China would support the Soviet Union in international affairs. ​ As the United States had been supporting the Chinese Nationalists during the Chinese civil war, Washington refused to cut off relations with the Nationalist government in Taiwan. The Chinese Communist Party regarded the USA as a serious threat to the PRC. Beijing was seeking an alliance with the Soviet Union to offset the US threat. ​ Among the first Western countries to recognise the PRC were Switzerland (1950), Sweden (1950) and Britain (1950). ​ But until the early 1970s, the Republic of China (ROC) government in Taipei (Taiwan) was the only Chinese government recognised diplomatically by most world powers and it held the seat in the UN Security Council. > the impact of the creation of China in the context of decolonization The PRC faced a national identity dilemma: ​ On the one hand, for the sake of ideological legitimacy and solidarity, China saw itself as part of the socialist bloc headed by the Soviet Union. ​ On the other hand, as a newly independent and underdeveloped nation, China identified with the oppressed peoples and nations in the 'Third World’. ​ After 1949, how China defined itself, perceived its role in the world, and interacted with other powers were significantly shaped by the history and memory of the 'century of humiliation'. To eradicate the legacies of foreign imperialism was at the heart of China's search for a new national identity. > China’s relations with its neighboring countries after the Communist revolution (see map) ​ China and Japan did not officially agree on a peace treaty after the Second World War. They were still officially at war until a peace treaty was signed in 1978. ​ Mao’s troops invaded Tibet in 1950. In 1958 the Tibetan people rebelled, but Chinese troops put down the rebellion. The Tibetans are a deeply religious people. Their ruler the Dalai Lama is also their religious leader. The Chinese tried to destroy the power of religious leaders. They persecuted Tibetan monks and destroyed temples (until today). ​ In 1950 China, encouraged by the USSR, helped North Korea after its invasion of South Korea. A UN coalition led by the USA was formed to defend South Korea. As a result, China was fighting indirectly the USA in this proxy war, the Korean war (1950-1953). C- Mao’s ideological belief: the concept of a ‘Continuous revolution’ It was Mao’s belief that revolution must be continuous, that if it is not going forward it is going backwards. The Great Leap Forward (1958-1962) The GLF was more than a Second Five Year Plan for Mao. It was a way of continuing and revitalizing the revolution. ​ social reorganization of a vastly agrarian society following the communist principle of collectivization. => creation of people’s communes. Mao encouraged popular participation in the development process. He believed in a fully mobilized mass movement. It was expected that the communes would enable labor to be used more efficiently and food production would grow rapidly. Mao was a firm believer in the power of human will. He developed his thoughts on the concept of ‘Continuing revolution’ : he believed that the Chinese revolution was in danger of losing its way and that he needed to revitalize it by taking it back to its rural roots. ​ to catch up with the main Western powers' economies : USA, Britain (main rivals). Mao believed that with the ‘correct’ leadership China could achieve in 15 years what the technical experts said would take decades. Under the slogan ‘walking on two legs’, communes were ordered to become centers of industrial as well as agricultural production. ‘Backyard furnaces » were established to produce iron and steel in communes to increase the industrial and farming output to rival with old industrialized powers in a very short period of time. > Evaluate its economic, social and political impact. ​ economic impact : apparent early success followed by catastrophic failure. Poor quality of the industrial output and catastrophic farming output. ​ social : about 30 million peasants died of famine in 3 years ​ Mao lost his leadership in the communist party for part of the 1960s. The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) the main political aim of the so-called ‘Cultural Revolution’. ​ The Cultural Revolution was also a result of Mao's perception, in 1966, that the Communist leadership itself had become corrupted and bourgeois. The Cultural Revolution is a vast political purge in order to push forward the communist revolution spirit: to get rid of the capitalist bourgeois thinking that supposedly threatened the Chinese revolution. The Cultural revolution was a political, ideological and cultural campaign, not an economic one like the Great Leap Forward had been Mao’s cult of personality was part of the ‘Cultural Revolution’. Mao’s quotes in the Little Red book become mandatory. = leading ideology. the role of the Red Guards in the Cultural Revolution. ​ Travel all over the country and destroy much of the cultural heritage (historic sites such as temples, old city gates, statues and historical artifacts were damaged) ​ 16 million people are sent for reeducation in rural areas (forced labor) controlled by the Red Guards. Red guards were free to humiliate, beat and kill. Their targets were intellectuals, university and school teachers ​ Contributed to political purges within the Communist party to eliminate all possible opponents accused of being traitors anti-revolutionary and agents of capitalist countries against the Chinese communist revolution. Mao believed that it was essential for each generation to be involved in revolutionary struggle, both to prevent the threat of a counter-revolution and to ensure their continuing support to the regime. Whereas many of Mao’s colleagues believed that China needed political stability in order to achieve economic development, he always placed a higher priority on maintaining the revolutionary zeal of the masses (= concept of 'continuous revolution'). When and why did the Cultural Revolution end ? ​ September 1976, Mao dies. This put an end to the Cultural Revolution and opened a period of changes and liberalization of China ​ Following Mao's death in September 1976, Deng Xiapoing became leader of China in 1978. He started the Chinese economic reforms and introduced the concept of collective leadership in the late 1970s, there was no longer a cult of personality around Chinese leaders … until Xi Jinping. II- Relations with the Third world The expression ‘‘Third World’’ was coined in 1952 (< Alfred Sauvy). It came to refer to countries that were unaligned with either the Communist Soviet bloc or the Capitalist NATO bloc during the Cold War. Mao’s own ideological beliefs, his theory of ‘Continuous Revolution’ (= Mao’s belief that revolution must be continuous, that if it is not going forward it is going backwards) combined with his belief in the mutual interest which lay between China and poor, underdeveloped countries in Africa and Asia, developed in a political context which was profoundly marked by the rapid collapse of European empires, the decolonization context. A- Relations with Asia and Africa in the 1950s The Indochinese War (1946-1954) the opposing forces in the first Indochina war (locally and globally) ​ Communist forces (Viet Minh) organized a liberation army, supported by China (and the USSR). China supplied and provided the Viet Minh guerrilla forces with the material required, such as food, medical aid and supplies, arms and weapons. On top of this, military advisors from the PRC and the Soviet Union trained the Viet Minh guerrilla forces. The PRC also sent two People's Liberation Army (PLA) battalions to fight in Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. Mao Zedong considered it necessary to support the Viet Minh to secure his country's southern border against potential interference by the westerners. ​ French army supported by Britain and the USA Name and date the decisive battle of the first Indochinese war. Explain its consequences. The Battle of Điện Biên Phủ in March-May 1954 was decisive: ​ the war ended shortly afterward and the 1954 Geneva Accords were signed. France agreed to withdraw its forces from all its colonies in French Indochina: creation of independent Laos and Cambodia ​ Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel, with control of the north given to the Viet Minh as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh (= communist leader), and the south becoming the State of Vietnam, nominally under Emperor Bảo Đại (= puppet leader already serving Western interest under colonial rule), preventing Ho Chi Minh from gaining control of the entire country. ​ The battle of Dien Bien Phu = humiliation of the French army, explaining its fierce implication in the Algerian liberation war starting in November 1954 The Geneva Conference (1954) ​ Following the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, the Geneva conference was organized. It recognised the 17th parallel north as a "provisional military demarcation line", temporarily dividing the country into two zones, communist North Vietnam and pro-Western South Vietnam. ​ The Geneva Conference of 1954 represented an important event in the development of China's foreign policy. For the first time, Beijing's diplomacy led by Zhou Enlai became the focus of attention in an international meeting. Despite American opposition and delaying tactics, the conference was a diplomatic triumph for China. It greatly enhanced Beijing's international status. ​ China's leaders clearly perceived their role in global rather than in regional terms making sure that the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence as formulated by Zhou enlai in 1954 would be taken in consideration in the agreements: -​ 'mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty' -​ 'mutual non-aggression' -​ 'mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs' -​ 'equality and mutual benefit' -​ 'peaceful coexistence' The Bandung Conference (1955) or the emergence of the Third World The Bandung conference was a meeting of Asian and African states organized by Indonesia, Myanmar (Burma), Ceylon (Sri Lanka), India, and Pakistan which took place in April 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia. In all, 29 countries representing more than half the world’s population sent delegates. This conference took place in a Cold War and decolonisation context. ​ All the participating countries had suffered from different degrees of colonialism, they shared with China a strong desire for independence and justice. China said they wanted to promote world peace and to improve relations with Asian neighbors. ​ At the end of the conference, a 10-point “declaration on the promotion of world peace and cooperation,” was adopted, incorporating the principles of the United Nations charter and the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence (= reflecting Chinese influence). => This conference marked the emergence of the Third World and paved the way for the creation of the Non-Aligned movement in 1961. B- Relations with the world in the 1960s The concept of the ''two intermediate zones » By the 1960s, the newly independent countries took on a new strategic significance in Mao's eyes. They were conceived as part of an international anti-imperialist united front. According to Mao, there were "two intermediate zones". ​ First intermediate zone : Economically backward countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. -​ As part of the "first intermediate zone", Mao argued that China was the leader of the wars of national liberation in the Third World and the center of world revolution. -​ In constructing an international united front against imperialism, Beijing turned to the radical nationalist parties and states such as Egypt, Algeria, Cuba and Indonesia. -​ In 1961, when the NonAligned Movement was formed, China became a key member of it. => The concept of the ‘’first intermediate zone’’ helped Mao to reassert China's identity as the leader of developing nations and of the wars of national liberation in the Third World, particularly in Vietnam. Mao considered the USSR as ''revisionists'' because, according to Mao, they did not respect the peoples, they did not respect the revolution ( Criticisms against Khrushchev) and they were afraid of the US (see Cuban crisis – 1962 – and the policy of « détente »). ​ Second intermediate zone : The imperialist and advanced countries represented by Europe, Japan and Canada. All these states had "contradictions" with the two superpowers and did not want to be controlled by either Washington or Moscow. China cultivated relations with the countries in the ''second intermediate zone", especially with France which established diplomatic relations with China in 1964. After the Algerian war of independence (1954- 1962), De Gaulle adopted the 'one China' principle. The support to ''Wars of national liberation'' During the 1960s China cultivated ties with Third World countries and insurgent groups in an attempt to encourage "wars of national liberation" and revolution and to forge an international united front against both superpowers. China offered economic and technical assistance to other countries and liberation movements. For example, China supported North Vietnam during the Vietnam war (1965 - 1969). China provided massive economic and military assistance. According to Mao, the Third World countries should look to China, not the Soviet Union, for inspiration and leadership in their revolutionary struggles. ''Cultural revolution diplomacy" (1966-1969) The Cultural Revolution affected China's foreign policy. During this period, China ''held high banners of anti-imperialism and anti-revisionism''. Mao imposed self-isolation on China by recalling all its overseas ambassadors to participate in the Cultural Revolution at home. In 1967, the British Embassy in Beijing was sacked. => China's status on the world stage was further enhanced in October 1964 when it successfully exploded an atomic bomb. III- The Sino-Soviet relation: from cooperation (1949-1957) to the split (1957- 1969) A-The Sino-Soviet Alliance (1950) and the ‘Leaning to one side policy’ After October 1949, the PRC took immediate steps to establish diplomatic relations with other socialist countries and formed a politico-military-economic alliance with the Soviet Union. In 1949 Mao made his ‘leaning to one side’ speech, proclaiming that New China was a close ally of the Soviet Union. In February 1950, the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance was signed: ​ A $300 million low-interest loan (at 1 per cent) ​ A 30-year military alliance ​ Send technicians to assist China's economic reconstruction Why was this alliance crucial for both Stalin and Mao? ​ To Stalin, the alliance with China strengthened the Soviet strategic position in the Cold War with the US. It was a way to balance the Anglo-American 'special relationship'. ​ For Mao, the massive economic and military aid provided by the Soviets was vital to the construction and strengthening of New China. Involvement in the Korean War (1950-1953) China was involved in the Korean War for ideological and security reasons. ​ Stalin wanted to involve China to destroy once for all the chance of accomodation between China and the Anglo-American camp. ​ By involving the Chinese population in a mass mobilization campaign under the banner of 'Resist America and Assist Korea, and Defend our Home and our Country', Mao hoped to speed up the transformation of the Chinese state, society and economy. The CCP leaders saw domestic economic reconstruction as a higher priority than the Korean War but Mao was eager to persuade his colleagues to accept his views. ​ In October 1950, 250 000 Chinese People's Volunteers began to cross the Yalu River into North Korea. The Soviet Union would not provide air cover for the Chinese ground forces operating in Korea but would supply abundant military equipment and materials. The consequences of the Chinese involvement in the Korean war were: ​ It turned China and America into hostile enemies (the US opposed Communist China's admission into the UN + imposed a trade embargo on China) ​ It gave substance to the Sino-Soviet alliance. Throughout the Korean conflict, Mao was in close and extensive consultation with Stalin. ​ To Mao, it consolidated state power through mass mobilization. The Sino-Soviet ‘golden years’ (1953-1957 ) After the Korean War, China’s priorities shifted to domestic development but it required a peaceful environment. In the mid-1950s Chinese leaders agreed with the Diplomacy of Peaceful Coexistence with the capitalist bloc. As a result, in the mid-50s, Sino-Soviet relations entered their 'golden years'. After Stalin's death (1953), Khrushchev intensified Sino-Soviet cooperation to strengthen Soviet power and influence on the world stage. Khrushchev's 'de-stalinization' was both a challenge and an opportunity for Mao. ​ In 1957, Moscow concluded with Beijing a secret nuclear cooperation agreement, which provided for the supply of a prototype atomic bomb to China. ​ But a significant radicalisation of Mao's thinking made him more skeptical about Zhou's diplomacy of peaceful coexistence since he had other aspirations: to become the leader of the international Communist movement. ​ In 1957, Zhou Enlai stepped down as foreign minister with the official explanation of concentrating on his premiership and Mao Zedong got even more involved in foreign affairs. B- The Sino-Soviet split (1957-1969) The Sino-Soviet split was one of the key events of the Cold War. Mao wanted to radicalise China's foreign policy denouncing the 'Soviet big-power chauvinism' after 1958. As a result, China abandoned the ‘Lean to One Side’ strategy. The Sino-Soviet split changed the balance of power and the alliances. The Moscow conferences of 1957 and 1961 For the first time, an international meeting of Communist and Workers Parties was held in Moscow in 1957. It marked a turning point in Sino-Soviet relations, for the first time the contradictions between the Soviet and Chinese parties came into the forefront. After the Conference, Chinese foreign policy shifted toward radicalisation. ​ The CCP (Chinese Communist Party) attended one last Congress in 1961 but continued to criticize the ‘Soviet big-power chauvinism’. ​ The role of ideology in China’s policies in the early to mid-1960s was very prominent. This led to the Sino-Soviet split : the gradual worsening of relations between the Soviet Union and the PRC. It impacted their political relations, ideological relations and economic relations. ​ Relations between China and the Soviet Union remained tense until the visit of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to Beijing in 1989. The Sino-Soviet split was one of the key events of the Cold War Disputes over how to run the Chinese revolution ​ USSR disagreed with Mao's assertion that a proletarian revolution (working-class revolution) could be peasant-based. ​ USSR was critical of the Great Leap Forward Khrushchev's (K) de-stalinization and personal animosities ​ K's criticism of Stalin's cult of personality was seen as a criticism of Mao's cult of personality ​ Mao blamed de-stalinization for unrest in Eastern Europe ​ 1960 at the Romanian Communist Party Congress meeting, where Mao and Khrushchev openly hurled insults at one another in front of the assembled delegates. K insulted Mao as "a nationalist, an adventurous, and a deviationist". In turn, Mao called K. a Marxist revisionist, criticizing him as "patriarchal, arbitrary and tyrannical". Disagreement on foreign policy : Consequences of the split ​ In 1959, the USSR withdrew nuclear advisors and canceled the nuclear agreement with China. ​ In 1960, the USSR withdrew economic experts from China. ​ In 1969, the Sino-Soviet border war started. => The Sino-Soviet split completely changed the balance of power in a Cold War context and paved the way for a rapprochement between China and the USA. The ideological Mao was pragmatic enough to make realistic calculations of China’s national interest. This was especially so after 1969, when the escalating Sino-Soviet Border War raised the specter of a nuclear attack on China. Confronted with the intensified Soviet threat, together with the fading status of his ‘continuous revolution’, Mao decided to normalize relations with the United States. VI- Relations with the USA 1949-1972 The Sino-American relation was crucial in a Cold War context. They evolved from being enemies in the 1950s to a rapprochement in the early 1970s. A- The nature of Sino-American relations in the 1950s and 1960s ​ In 1949, the Truman administration settled on a policy of non-recognition of the PRC. As the United States had been supporting the Chinese Nationalists during the Chinese civil war, and Washington refused to cut off relations with the Nationalist government in Taiwan. ​ The Chinese Communist Party regarded the USA as a serious threat to the PRC. This tense relation between the two enemies continued over the 1950s and the 1960s mainly via proxy wars (Korean War, Vietnam War) and propaganda. B- The reasons for rapprochement in the early 1970s The perception of grave threat from the Soviet Union (1969: sino-Soviet border war) → pushed Mao Zedong to improve relations with the United States. Mao also realized that a rapprochement with America would be in China's interest. 1969 was a turning point. The international context had changed: ​ The Sino-Soviet Border War in 1969 ​ Chinese ambassadors were re-sent to resume normal diplomatic functions (end of the Cultural Revolution diplomacy) ​ American power and influence was weakened because of the Vietnam War ​ Richard Nixon became the US President in 1969. His National Security Advisor was Henry Kissinger. Kissinger was obsessed with realpolitik (a system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations) and developed the 'strategic triangle' (using the rivalries between the USSR and China to the US’s advantage). But how to change China's perception of America as a principal Cold War adversary? Different measures were adopted first: ​ Relaxation of travel and trade, allowing American citizens to visit China and bring back Chinese goods. ​ The US declared they would not accept a Soviet nuclear strike against China. In 1971, the "Ping-Pong diplomacy" helped change the relation between China and the USA. It refers to the exchange of ping-pong players between the US and PRC in the early 1970s. On April 10, 1971, the U.S. table tennis team arrived in China for a 10-day visit, becoming the first group of Americans in over 20 years to get a peek behind the “Bamboo Curtain.” Their trip led to a renewed dialogue. The Ping-Pong diplomacy marked a turn in Sino-American relations. ​ In 1971, China was accepted into the United Nations. It replaced Taiwan and the PRC became a permanent member of the Security Council of the UN. ​ Mao's China was formally admitted to the international community. Mao redefined China's identity as America's ally against its new principal enemy, the Soviet Union. C- Nixon’s official visit in 1972, a major turning point In 1972, U.S. President Richard Nixon traveled to the PRC and met with Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, and Zhou Enlai, the PRC Premier. It was a major event of the Cold War. It replicated Henry Kissinger’s earlier visits to Beijing in July and October 1971. At the core of the U.S.-China diplomacy were the common concerns over the Soviet threat; each side aspired to utilize the other to balance that threat. This was the beginning of US-China-Soviet triangular diplomacy during the Cold War. Over the course of this visit, the two governments negotiated the Shanghai Communiqué, an important step toward improving relations between the United States and the PRC after many years of hostility. In this communiqué, the two countries agreed to conduct their relations on the principles of respect for national sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. In the early 1970s, after Sino-American rapprochement, China joined the international community.

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