Chemistry of Life - Overview.pdf

Isotopes: Atoms of the same Introduction element with different numbers of neutrons. They can be stable or Biochemistry Overview: The study...

Isotopes: Atoms of the same Introduction element with different numbers of neutrons. They can be stable or Biochemistry Overview: The study radioactive and are used in medical of molecules that make up living imaging and treatments. organisms. It focuses on essential Atomic Number: The number of biomolecules such as protons in an element’s nucleus. carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and Isotopes: Variants of elements with nucleic acids. These molecules are differing neutron counts. critical for life functions. Trace Elements: Present in minute Atoms, Ions, and Molecules: Basic amounts but are crucial for various building blocks of matter in living biological processes. organisms. They interact through chemical bonds, forming the basis of Minerals and Electrolytes cellular structures and biochemical processes. Minerals: Inorganic elements like calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and Study of Living Molecules: sodium (Na) are essential for Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic structural components (bones, teeth) acids are central to biochemistry. and enzyme functions. They are absorbed from the soil by plants and Key Elements: Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, passed up the food chain. nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus make up Inorganic elements (e.g., Ca, P, Cl, most of body weight. Mg) vital for structure (bones, teeth) and enzymatic functions. The Chemical Elements and Electrolytes: Salts that dissociate in Isotopes water and conduct electrical currents. They are essential for Elements: The simplest form of nerve impulses and muscle matter with unique chemical contraction. Proper electrolyte properties. Each element is balance is vital in patient care, as identified by its atomic number imbalances can cause serious (number of protons). The periodic health issues such as muscle table organizes elements by cramps, coma, or cardiac arrest. increasing atomic number. Ionized salts in water that conduct Major Biological Elements: Six electricity and are critical for elements—oxygen, carbon, muscle and nerve functions. hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus—make up 98.5% of the Free Radicals and Antioxidants human body. The remaining 1.5% is composed of trace elements, which Free Radicals: Highly reactive play crucial roles despite their small chemical particles with unpaired quantities. electrons. They are produced naturally in the body during  metabolism but can also result from bonds, depending on the external factors like radiation and number of shared electrons. pollutants. Free radicals damage ○ Hydrogen Bonds: Weak cells, contributing to aging and attractions between a slightly diseases like cancer. positive hydrogen atom and Highly reactive particles with a slightly negative oxygen or unpaired electrons that cause nitrogen atom. These are tissue damage, aging, and important for the structure of diseases. water, proteins, and DNA. Antioxidants: Compounds that ○ Van der Waals Forces: neutralize free radicals, preventing Weak, short-range forces cellular damage. Examples include between molecules caused enzymes in the body (e.g., by temporary fluctuations in superoxide dismutase) and dietary electron distribution. sources like vitamins C and E. Neutralize free radicals (e.g., Water and Mixtures vitamins C, E). Water: Essential for solvency, Molecules and Chemical Bonds cohesion, adhesion, and temperature regulation. Molecules: Two or more atoms Mixtures: Solutions (solute + bonded together. Molecules that solvent), colloids, suspensions, and consist of two or more different emulsions are important in biology. elements are called compounds. Water's Unique Properties: Due to Chemical Bonds: Include ionic its polar covalent bonds and bonds (transfer of electrons), V-shaped structure, water has covalent bonds (sharing electrons), several important properties: hydrogen bonds (weak attractions), ○ Solvency: Water is the and Van der Waals forces (weak, universal solvent, meaning it temporary attractions). can dissolve many Types of Chemical Bonds: substances, facilitating ○ Ionic Bonds: Formed when chemical reactions in the one atom donates an body.Water dissolves many electron to another, resulting substances due to its in a cation (+) and an anion polarity, crucial for (-) that are attracted to each metabolic reactions. other. Ionic bonds are ○ Cohesion and Adhesion: relatively weak and Water molecules stick to dissociate easily in water. each other (cohesion) and to ○ Covalent Bonds: Strong other substances (adhesion), bonds formed by the sharing creating surface tension. of electrons. These can be Water molecules stick to single, double, or even triple each other (cohesion) and other substances  (adhesion), leading to ensure proper surface tension. functioning.Measures the ○ Chemical Reactivity: Water concentration of H+ ions. participates in many Buffers help maintain body chemical reactions, such as pH within a narrow range hydrolysis (breaking bonds) (7.35–7.45). and dehydration synthesis Buffers: Chemicals that resist (forming bonds). Water changes in pH by either absorbing or participates in reactions releasing H+ ions. Buffers are critical like hydrolysis and in maintaining physiological pH dehydration synthesis. levels. ○ Thermal Stability: Water absorbs a large amount of Chemical Reactions heat without a significant temperature increase, Types of Chemical Reactions: helping regulate body ○ Decomposition Reactions: temperature. Water Large molecules break down stabilizes body into smaller molecules (e.g., temperature due to its high digestion). heat capacity. ○ Synthesis Reactions: Small molecules combine to form pH and Buffers larger molecules (e.g., protein synthesis). Acids, Bases, and pH: ○ Exchange Reactions: ○ Acid: A substance that Atoms are exchanged releases hydrogen ions (H+) between molecules (e.g., in water.Acids donate reactions between acids and protons (H+), and bases bases). accept them. pH measures Reaction Rates: Influenced by the concentration of H+ concentration, temperature, and ions. catalysts. Enzymes, biological ○ Base: A substance that catalysts, speed up reactions by accepts hydrogen ions or lowering the activation energy releases hydroxide ions needed for the reaction to occur. (OH-). Maintain stable pH in the body, especially critical Metabolism for blood pH (7.35–7.45). ○ pH Scale: Measures the Metabolism: The sum of all concentration of H+ ions in a chemical reactions in the body. It solution. A pH of 7 is neutral, includes: below 7 is acidic, and above ○ Catabolism: Breaking down 7 is basic. The body molecules to release energy maintains a tight pH range in (exergonic reactions). the blood (7.35–7.45) to  ○ Anabolism: Building up ○ Starch: Energy storage in larger molecules from plants, a key source of smaller ones, requiring glucose in the human diet. energy (endergonic ○ Cellulose: Structural reactions). molecule in plant cell walls, Oxidation and Reduction (Redox indigestible by humans but Reactions): important as dietary fiber. ○ Oxidation: Loss of electrons Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (and energy). (e.g., glucose). ○ Reduction: Gain of electrons Disaccharides: Two (and energy). Redox monosaccharides bonded (e.g., reactions are essential in sucrose, lactose). energy transfer within cells. Polysaccharides: Long chains of glucose (e.g., glycogen for energy Organic Molecules storage, starch, cellulose). Carbohydrates: Simple Organic Chemistry: The study of (monosaccharides) and complex carbon-containing compounds. (polysaccharides like glycogen, Carbon atoms form the backbone of starch). biomolecules due to their ability to form four covalent bonds with other Visual: Structure of monosaccharides, atoms. disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Functional Groups: Small groups of atoms that determine the Organic Molecules: Lipids properties of organic molecules. Common functional groups include Lipids: Hydrophobic molecules hydroxyl (–OH), carboxyl (–COOH), important for energy storage, amino (–NH2), and phosphate membrane structure, and signaling. (–PO4). Hydrophobic molecules such as fatty acids, triglycerides, Macromolecules: Carbohydrates phospholipids, steroids, and Monomers and Polymers: eicosanoids.important for energy Monomers are small building blocks storage and cell membranes that link together to form larger (triglycerides, phospholipids). molecules called polymers. For ○ Types: Fatty acids, example, monosaccharides (simple triglycerides, phospholipids, sugars) join to form polysaccharides steroids, and eicosanoids. (complex carbohydrates like Triglycerides: Composed of glycogen and starch). glycerol and three fatty acids. They Polysaccharides: store more energy per gram than ○ Glycogen: Energy storage in carbohydrates due to their higher animals, stored in the liver hydrogen content.Energy storage and muscles. molecules.  Phospholipids: Essential for cell 11. Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids membranes. Nucleotides: Building blocks of Organic Molecules: Proteins nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogenous base, sugar, and Proteins: Made up of amino acids. phosphate groups. They play diverse roles, including ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, the structural support, transport, energy currency of the cell. enzymatic activity, and signaling. DNA and RNA: Nucleic acids that Amino Acids: Building blocks of store and transfer genetic proteins, consisting of amino, information. carboxyl, and variable R groups. Peptide bonds link amino acids Nucleotides consist of a nitrogenous base, together in proteins. The sequence a sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), and of amino acids (primary structure) one or more phosphate groups. ATP determines a protein's shape and (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the most function. well-known nucleotide, acting as the energy Protein denaturation occurs when currency of the cell. extreme conditions like heat or pH cause proteins to lose their DNA and RNA are nucleic acids composed structure, which in turn destroys their of long chains of nucleotides. DNA carries function. This is critical in biological the genetic information necessary for contexts, as proper protein structure protein synthesis, while RNA transcribes is necessary for enzyme activity, and translates this information during muscle function, and cell membrane protein production. integrity. Highlights ○ Levels of Protein Structure: Primary: Sequence of amino acids. 1. Introduction to Biochemistry Secondary: Alpha Biochemistry studies the molecules helices or beta sheets that form living organisms, like formed by hydrogen carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and bonds. nucleic acids. Tertiary: 3D folding Key elements in biology include due to interactions oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, between R groups. calcium, and phosphorus, which Quaternary: Multiple make up 98.5% of body weight. polypeptide chains Trace elements are present in tiny associating to form a amounts but are crucial for health. functional protein. 2. Atoms, Ions, and Molecules  Atoms are the basic units of matter, ○ Colloids: Larger particles consisting of protons, neutrons, and that scatter light, usually a electrons. mix of water and proteins. Ions are charged particles. Positive ○ Suspensions: Particles are ions (cations) and negative ions large and will settle out, like (anions) form electrolytes, which are blood cells in plasma. important for nerve and muscle function. 5. Acids, Bases, and pH Molecules are groups of atoms bonded together. Chemical bonds Acids release hydrogen ions (H+), include: while bases accept hydrogen ions. ○ Ionic bonds (transfer of pH scale: Measures the acidity or electrons) alkalinity of a solution, ranging from ○ Covalent bonds (sharing of 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic), with 7 being electrons) neutral. ○ Hydrogen bonds (weak The body uses buffers to maintain a attraction between stable pH, crucial for biological molecules) processes. 3. Water and Its Properties 6. Organic Molecules Water makes up 50-75% of body Organic compounds include weight and is vital for life due to its carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and properties: nucleic acids, all based on carbon ○ Solvency: Water dissolves structures. many substances. ○ Carbohydrates: Provide ○ Cohesion: Water molecules energy (e.g., glucose, stick to each other. starch). ○ Adhesion: Water sticks to ○ Lipids: Include fats, oils, and other substances. steroids, crucial for energy ○ Thermal stability: Water storage and cell membranes. helps maintain a stable body ○ Proteins: Made of amino temperature. acids, essential for body structure, enzymes, and 4. Mixtures in the Body regulation. ○ Nucleic acids: DNA and Solutions, colloids, and suspensions RNA carry genetic are different types of mixtures found information. in body fluids. ○ Solutions: Solute particles 7. Chemical Reactions and are small and do not scatter Metabolism light.  Metabolism includes all the Denaturation: Extreme conditions chemical reactions in the body, like heat or pH changes can cause divided into: proteins to lose their shape and ○ Catabolism: Breaks down function. molecules and releases energy. 10. ATP and Energy Transfer ○ Anabolism: Builds larger molecules and requires ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy. energy currency of the cell, used in Key types of reactions: various cellular processes. ○ Decomposition: Breaks Energy is stored in the bonds down molecules into smaller between phosphate groups in ATP. parts. When these bonds are broken, ○ Synthesis: Combines energy is released to power cellular smaller molecules into larger activities. ones. ○ Exchange: Atoms or 11. DNA and RNA molecules are swapped between compounds. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) carries genetic information that controls cell 8. Enzymes and Catalysts functions and heredity. RNA (Ribonucleic acid) helps Enzymes are biological catalysts synthesize proteins by reading the that speed up chemical reactions in instructions encoded in DNA. the body without being consumed. They play a critical role in metabolism by lowering the energy needed for reactions. 9. Protein Structure Proteins have different levels of structure: ○ Primary structure: Sequence of amino acids. ○ Secondary structure: Coiling or folding into α-helices or β-sheets. ○ Tertiary structure: 3D folding due to interactions among R-groups. ○ Quaternary structure: Multiple protein chains combine.