Chemical Engineering PDF CIE Review 2024

Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 ELEMENTARY CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Engr. Gerlyn P. Ila...

Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 ELEMENTARY CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Engr. Gerlyn P. Ilagan, CIE, CLSSYB Engr. Chrystal Jane R. Reyes, CIE, CLSSYB Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the study of composition, structure, changes during a reaction and properties of matter it came from the word “alchemy” which came from the word “al-kamia” which means “cast tgether”/ I. MATTER Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. STATES OF MATTER 1. Solid 4. Plasma 2. Liquid 5. Bose-Einstein Condensate 3. Gas PHASES OF MATTER From To PHASE Solid Liquid Melting Liquid Solid Freezing Solid Gas Sublimation Gas Solid Deposition Liquid Gas Evaporation Gas Liquid Condensation Gas Plasma Ionization Plasma Gas Deionization During phase changes, energy (usually in the form of heat) is either absorbed or released. PROPERTIES OF MATTER 1. Physical properties – are properties that can be observed without the substance changing into other substances. 2. Chemical properties – are properties that can be observed only when a substance changes into a new substance. 3. Intensive properties – are properties that do not depend on the amount of the substance. Ex. Boiling point, color, density, hardness, melting point, taste. 4. Extensive properties – are those properties that are dependent on the amount of the substance. Ex. Length, mass, surface area, weight, width, volume. All matters can undergo either physical change or chemical change: Physical change – occurs when a substance changes its appearance without changing its composition. Ex. Transformation of ice to water. 1 Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 Chemical change – occurs when a substance changes into another substance with a totally different composition and properties. Ex. Burning of plastic. II. PURE SUBSTANCES Pure Substances – are substances which cannot be separated into two or more substances by physical means. Pure substances can be classified as either elements or compounds. 1. Elements – are the simplest form of a substance which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical action. 2. Compounds – are combination of two or more elements; can be decomposed into simpler substances. Elements can be categorized as metal, metalloid, or nonmetal. Properties of Metals: a. Metals have high thermal conductivity. d. Metals are ductile. b. Metals have high electrical conductivity. e. Metals have luster. c. Metals are malleable. Malleability – is a property of metals that allows them to be rolled, flattened or hammered into sheets without breaking. Ductility – is a property of metals that allows them to be drawn into wires. Luster – is a property of metals that allows them to reflect the light that strikes on their surfaces making them appear shiny. Properties of Nonmetals: a. Nonmetals usually do not conduct heat. b. Nonmetals usually do not conduct electricity. c. Nonmetals are not malleable. d. Nonmetals are not ductile. e. Nonmetals are usually brittle. Properties of Metalloids: Metalloids are elements that have properties in between metals and nonmetals. Due to these properties, metalloids are commonly used as semiconductors in electronic industry. III. MIXTURES Mixtures are two different substances mixed together but not chemically combined. Mixtures can be either classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous. Homogeneous mixture is with uniform appearance and has only one phase, while heterogeneous mixture has different distinguishable phases like colloid or suspension. Homogeneous mixture is sometimes called a solution. Solutions have particle sizes at the molecule or ion level. Suspension is a heterogeneous fluid containing solid particles that are sufficiently large for sedimentation. Colloids consist of microscopic particles dispersed in a solvent. The particles of the colloids are larger than the size of a molecule but smaller than particles that can be seen with the naked eye. Mixtures can be separated into component substances in any of the following methods: 2 Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 1. Decantation or floatation – the process of separating large solid particles from liquid by allowing the liquid to flow while the large solid particles to settle. 2. Filtration – the process of separating small solid particles from liquid by passing the mixture through a porous medium. 3. Distillation – the process of separating the liquid by boiling the mixture to vaporize the liquid and then cooling the vapor to condense it. 4. Mechanical separation – the process involving the use of tools such as forceps, sieves, etc. 5. Centrifugation – the process that speeds up the settling of the precipitates using a centrifuge which is a motor- driven apparatus. 6. Chromatography – the process of using the difference in degree to which the substances are absorbed on the surface of an inert substance. 7. Solvent extraction – the process of separating the mixture into its component substances by making use of the difference in solubility of the substances. 8. Amalgamation – the process of extracting gold from its ore. 9. Cyanidation – the process of extracting gold from its ore by using cyanide. IV. ATOMIC STRUCTURE Atom is the smallest part which an element can be reduced to yet still keeping its chemical properties. It is the building block of matter. I comes from the Greek word “atomos” which means “uncut” or “indivisible”. Electron Shell or orbit Nucleus (Neutrons and Protons) The atomic theory was first formulated by John Dalton (1766-1844) The central part of an atom is called nucleus. It contains the neutrons and the protons. Electrons are the negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus. Electrons was discovered by Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940). Protons are positively charged particles that stays inside the nucleus of an atom. It is about 1,836 times the mass of an electron. Proton was discovered by Sir Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937). Neutrons are subatomic particles having no charge. Neutron was discovered by Sir James Chadwick (1891-1974). The charge and mass of the subatomic particles are as follows: 3 Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 PARTICLE CHARGE C CHARGE UNIT Electron −1.6022 × 10−19 1- Proton +1.6022 × 10−19 1+ Neutron 0 0 PARTICLE MASS g amu Electron 9.1094 × 10−28 5.4858 × 10−4 Proton 1.6726 × 10−24 1.0073 Neutron 1.6749 × 10−24 1.0087 Sample Problems: 1. How many electrons are there in -3uC? 2. If 3C of charge is added with 1.321 x 1018 electrons, what is the net charge in Coulombs? 3. How many amu are there in 6 grams? V. ISOTOPES Isotopes are atoms of the same elements but have different masses. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. Isotones are atoms with the same number of neutrons but different number of protons. Isobars are atoms with the same mass number but different atomic number. Ions are charged particles of the same element produced when electrons are removed from or added to a neutral atom. A. Cation – a positively charged ion B. Anion – a negatively charged ion Molecule is the smallest particle that a compound can be reduced to before it breaks down into its constituent elements. VI. PERIODIC TABLE The periodic law states that: “When the elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number, elements with the similar properties appear at a periodic interval.” The periodic law was discovered by German chemist, Julius Lothar Meyer (1830-1895) and Russian chemist, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907). Columns in a periodic table are called groups or families while the rows in the periodic table are called periods. 4 Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 Atomic number is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. Atomic mass is the total mass of protons, neutrons, and electrons in a single atom. Atomic weight is the ratio of the average mass of atoms of an element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. The Avogadro’s number The number of carbon-12 atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12 is 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑. This number is called the Avogadro’s number named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856). 1 mole = 6.022x1023 molecules or atoms Group Name Family 1 Alkali Metals Hydrogen / Lithium 2 Alkaline Earth Metals Beryllium 3 Transition Metals Scandium 4 Transition Metals Titanium 5 Transition Metals Vanadium 6 Transition Metals Chromium 7 Transition Metals Manganese 8 Transition Metals Iron 9 Transition Metals Cobalt 10 Transition Metals Nickel 11 Transition Metals Copper 12 Transition Metals Zinc 13 Boron Boron 14 Carbon Carbon 15 Pnictogens N 16 Chalcogens O 17 Halogens F 18 Noble Gases Helium/Neon 5  Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 Main Group: Group 1-A – Alkali Metals Group 2-A – Alkaline Earth Metals Group 3-A – Boron Family Group 4-A – Carbon Family Group 5-A – Nitrogen Family Group 6-A – Oxygen Family Group 7-A – Halogen Family Group 8-A – Inert or Noble Gases Sample Problems 1. How many molecules of water are there in 1.5 moles of water? 2. There are 12.5 𝑥 1024 atoms of an element present in a sample. How many moles of that element are there? 3. If 2 moles of an element is added to 9 x 1024 atoms if the same element, how many moles of the element are there in all? VII. LAWS IN CHEMISTRY Conservation of Mass “Mass can neither be created nor destroyed.” Law of Definite Proportion “A chemical compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass”. 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 %𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = × 100% 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 Sample Problems: 1. What is the percentage weight of hydrogen in a water molecule? H= 1.008 g/mol O= 16 g/mol 2. In potassium sulfate 𝐾2 𝑆𝑜4 , what is the percent composition of potassium? K=39.1 g/mol S= 32.06 g/mol O= 16 g/mol 3. In 20 grams of 𝐻2 𝑆𝑜4 , how many grams of oxygen are there? H=1.008 g/mol S=32.06 g/mol O=16 g/mol Law of Multiple Proportion 6 Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 “When elements A and B form a series of compounds, the ratio of masses of B that combine (in different compound) with 1 gram of A can be reduced to small whole numbers.” Graham’s Law of Effusion “The rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles”. This law was discovered by Scottish physical chemist, Thomas Graham (1805-1869) 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝐴 √𝑀𝑊𝐴 √𝑀𝐴 = = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝐵 √𝑀𝑊𝐵 √𝑀𝐵 MW – molecular weight, M – molar mass Effusion refers to the process where individual molecules flow through a hole without collisions between molecules. Diatomic Elements- elements that are always in atom pairs. “Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer” Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine, Bromine Amagat’s Law of Partial Volume “The volume of the gas mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes of the component gases if the temperature and pressure remain constant.” This law was discovered by Emile Hilaire Amagat (1841-1915) in 1880. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle It states that no two electrons in an atom can have the set of quantum number. Aufbau Principle Electrons fill the orbital starting at the lowest possible energy states before filling higher states. This is used to determine the electron configuration of an atom, molecule or ion. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle It states that it is impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum and position of a particle with certainty. Hund’s Rule It states that every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any one orbital is doubly occupied. VIII. SOLUTIONS A solute is a substance in the mixture that is being dissolved while a solvent is the medium I which the solute is dissolved. Concentration is the term used to quantify the amount of one compound dissolve in another compound. In concentration, the term dilute means that the amount of solute is less while the term concentrated is used when the amount of solute is more. Ways to express the concentration of a solution: A. Parts per Million Parts per million (ppm) is the term used for expressing concentration of a very dilute concentrations. 7 Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑔 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 1. What is the ppm of a certain element in a 20 mL soil sample if there are 100 micrograms of the said element in that sample? B. Molar Fraction Mole Fraction (x) is defined as the number of moles of solute as a proportion of the total number of moles in a solution. 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 + 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 + 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1. What is the mole fraction of cinnamic acid in a mixture that is 50.0% weight urea in cinnamic acid (urea = 60.06 g/mol; cinnamic acid = 148.16 g/mol) 2. A solution is prepared by mixing 25.0 g of water, H2O, and 25.0 g of ethanol, C2H5OH. Determine the mole fractions of each substance C. Molarity Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute in 1 liter of solution. Molarity is sometimes known as molar concentration. 𝑛 𝑀= 𝑉 where: n – number of moles of solute in mol, V – volume of solution in liters 1. What is the molarity of a hydrogen peroxide solution prepared by mixing 13.0 grams of hydrogen peroxide (𝐻2 𝑜2 ) per 300 mL of solution? D. Molality Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute in 1 kg of solvent. Molality is also known as molal concentration. The SI unit of molality is mol/kg. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 1. What is the molality of a solution containing 75.5 grams sucrose (molar mass= 342 g/mol) in 400.0 g of water? E. Normality Normality (N) is the number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution. 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑁= 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 8 Elevate CIE Review Center CIE Review 2024 The number of equivalents or gram-equivalent weight is determined by taking the ratio of the weight in grams of the solute and its equivalent weight. 𝑔 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝑒𝑞. 𝑤𝑡. 1. What is the normality of 0.5781 g acid(eq wt = 187.3) in 250 mL of solution Challenge Problems: 1. How many moles of sodium chlorate (NaClO3) are in 284 grams of 12.0% sodium chlorate solution? 2. Find the molecular formula of peroxyacetyl nitrate, PAN. One of the components of smog and is a compound of C, H, N, O with percent composition by mass: 19.8% C, 2.5% H, 11.6% N. Given that its molar mass is about 120 g. (Atomic masses: C = 12.01 g, H = 1.008g, N = 14.01 g, O = 16.00 g.) 3. If the atomic weight of magnesium is 24.3 g/mol, calculate how many magnesium atoms does 5 g represent? 4. What is the molecular weight of ferrous oxide? 5. Calculate the moles of Magnesium (Mg) present in 93.5 g of Mg? (Mg atomic mass = 24.31g/MOL) 6. Given 16.7 moles of gold (Au), how many grams of Au are there? Atomic mass of Au is 197.0 g. 7. Calculate the molecular mass of methanol (𝐶𝐻4 𝑂), given the atomic masses of C = 12.01 g, H = 1.008 g, and O = 16 g. 8. Physical characteristic of waste water excepts a. odor b. color c. temperature d. humidity 9. Separation method used to separate out pure substances in mixtures comprised of particles 10. Malleability is: a. A property of metals that allows them to be rolled, flattened or hammered into sheets without breaking. b. A property of metals that allows them to be drawn into wires. c. A property of metals that allows them to reflect the light that strikes on their surfaces making them appear shiny. d. None of the above 11. Reaction of CO2 and H2O a. Combustion b. Acid Base c. Double Displacement d. Single Replacement 12. A compound with a molecular weight of 56.0 g was found as a component of photochemical smog. The compound is composed of carbon and oxygen, 42.9% and 57.1%, respectively. What is the formula of this compound? 13. How many moles of oxygen is required to produce 200 grams of ferrous oxide? 9