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 PERSPECTIVES IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES THIS PAGE IS BLANK Copyright © 2004, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or...

 PERSPECTIVES IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES THIS PAGE IS BLANK Copyright © 2004, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected] ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2345-7 PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com Dedicated with Reverence to Memories of Our FATHER, LATE PROF. A.K. SINHA A Great Philosopher, Educationist and Humanist & MOTHER, LATE SMT. ASHA RANI KAUSHIK An Embodiment of Love and Dedication THIS PAGE IS BLANK THIS PAGE IS BLANK  (ix) CORE MODULE SYLLABUS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES FOR UNDERGRADUATE COURSES OF ALL BRANCHES OF HIGHER EDUCATION Unit 1 : The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies Definition, scope and importance (2 Lectures) Need for public awareness. Unit : 2 : Natural Resources Renewable and non-renewable resources : Natural resources and associated problems. (a) Forest resources : Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. Timber extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people. (b) Water resources : Use and over-utilization of surface and ground water, floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams- benefits and problems. (c) Mineral resources : Use and exploitation, environmental ef- fects of extracting and using mineral resources, case studies. (d) Food resources : World food problems, changes caused by agriculture and over-grazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, case studies. (e) Energy resources : Growing energy needs, renewable and non-renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources, Case studies. (f ) Land resources : Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced landslides, soil erosion and desertification. • Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources. • Equitable use of resources for sustainable life styles. (8 Lectures) Unit 3 : Ecosystems • Concept of an ecosystem. • Structure and function of an ecosystem. • Producers, consumers and decomposers. • Energy flow in the ecosystem. • Ecological succession. • Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids. DHARM D:\N-ENVIR\SYL  (x) • Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and func- tion of the following ecosystem : (a) Forest ecosystem (b) Grassland ecosystem (c) Desert ecosystem (d) Aquatic ecosystem (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries). (6 Lectures) Unit 4 : Bio-diversity and its Conservation • Introduction—Definition : genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. • Biogeographical classification of India. • Value of biodiversity : consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values. • Biodiversity at global, national and local levels. • India as a maga-diversity nation. • Hot-spots of biodiversity. • Threats to biodiversity : habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts. • Endangered and endemic species of India. • Conservation of biodiversity : In-situ and Ex-situ conserva- tion of biodiversity. (8 Lectures) Unit 5 : Environmental Pollution Definition • Causes, effects and control measures of : (a) Air pollution (b) Water pollution (c) Soil pollution (d) Marine pollution (e) Noise pollution (f ) Thermal pollution (g) Nuclear hazards. • Solid waste management : Causes, effects and control meas- ures of urban and industrial wastes. • Role of an individual in prevention of pollution. • Pollution case studies. • Disaster management : floods, earthquake, cyclone and land- slides. (8 Lectures) DHARM D:\N-ENVIR\SYL  (xi) Unit 6 : Social Issues and the Environment • From Unsustainable to Sustainable development. • Urban problems related to energy. • Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed man- agement. • Resettlement and rehabilitation of people: its problems and concerns. Case studies. • Environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions. • Climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer de- pletion, nuclear accidents and holocaust. Case studies. • Wasteland reclamation. • Consumerism and waste products. • Environment Protection Act. • Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. • Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. • Wildlife Protection Act. • Forest Conservation Act. • Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation. • Public awareness. (7 Lectures) Unit 7 : Human Population and Environment • Population growth, variation among nations. • Population explosion—Family Welfare Programme. • Environment and human health. • Human Rights. • Value Education. • HIV/AIDS. • Women and Child Welfare. • Role of Information Technology in Environment and human health. • Case Studies. (6 Lectures) Unit 8 : Field Work • Visit to a local area to document environmental assets—river, forest grassland/hill/mountain. • Visit to a local polluted site—Urban/Rural/Industrial/ Agricultural. • Study of common plants, insects and birds. • Study of simple ecosystems—pond, river, hill slopes etc. (Field work Equal to 5 lecture hours) (5 Lectures) DHARM D:\N-ENVIR\SYL THIS PAGE IS BLANK  Contents (as per UGC module Syllabus) Preface (vii) 1. Environmental Studies—A Multidisciplinary Subject 1 2. Natural Resources 5 2.1 Forest Resources 6 2.2 Water Resources 13 2.3 Mineral Resources 23 2.4 Food Resources 30 2.5 Energy Resources 38 2.6 Land Resources 53 3. Ecosystems 65 4. Biodiversity and its Conservation 98 5. Environmental Pollution 123 6. Social Issues and the Environment 161 7. Human Population and the Environment 211 8. Field Work 236 Suggested Readings 243 Glossary 244 Index 254 (xv) THIS PAGE IS BLANK Unit 1 Environmental Studies —A Multidisciplinary Subject ‘Environment’ is derived from the French word Environner which means to encircle or surround. All the biological and non-biological things surrounding an organism are thus included in environment. Thus environment is sum total of water, air and land, inter-relationships among themselves and also with the human beings, other living organ- isms and property. The above definition given in Environment (Protec- tion) Act, 1986 clearly indicates that environment includes all the physi- cal and biological surroundings and their interactions. Thus, in order to study environment one needs knowledge inputs from various disci- plines. Life Sciences including Botany, Zoology, Microbiology, Genet- ics, Biochemistry and Biotechnology help in understanding the biotic component and their interactions. The physical and chemical struc- ture of the abiotic components and energy transfer and flow are under- stood with the help of basic concepts of Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Atmospheric Science, Oceanography and Geography. Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science serve as effective tools in environmental modeling and management. Subjects like Education, Economics, So- ciology and Mass communication provide the inputs for dealing with the socio-economic aspects associated with various developmental ac- tivities. A synthesis with Environmental Engineering, Civil Engineer- ing, Hydraulics and Chemical Engineering form the basis for various technologies dealing with the control of environmental pollution, waste- treatment and development of cleaner technologies that are important for protection of the environment. Environmental laws provide the tools for effective management and protection of the environment. Environ- mental Studies, therefore, is a multi-disciplinary subject where differ- ent aspects are dealt with a holistic approach. Scope Scope of environmental studies is broad based and it encompasses a large number of areas and aspects, broadly listed below: 1 2 Environmental Science and Engineering l Natural Resources—their conservation and management l Ecology and biodiversity l Environmental pollution and control l Social issues in relation to development and environment l Human population and environment These are the basic aspects of Environmental Studies which have a direct relevance to every section of the society. Environmental studies can be highly specialized also which may concentrate on more technical aspects like Environmental Science, Environmental Engineering, Environmental Management, Environmental Biotechnology etc. Environment belongs to all and is thus important for all. Whatever be the occupation or age of a person, he or she will be affected by environment and will also affect the environment by his or her deeds. Thus, environment is one subject that is actually global in nature. For example, atmosphere has no boundaries and the pollutants produced at one place can be dispersed and transported to another place. The river water polluted by industrial or municipal discharge at one point would seriously affect the downstream aquatic life. Damage to the forests in a hilly region will have far reaching effect not only on the hills but also on the plains. This is because environment is a closely and intricately woven network of components and functions. There are some environmental problems which may be of localized importance but there are some major issues like global warming, depletion of ozone layer, dwindling forests and energy resources, loss of global biodiversity etc. that are going to affect the mankind as a whole and for that we have to think globally. For dealing with local environmental issues, e.g. the impacts of mining or hydro-electric projects, solid waste management etc. we have to think and act locally. In order to make the people aware about those aspects of environment with which they are so intimately associated, it is very important to make every one environmentally educated. Environmental studies is very important since it deals with the most mundane issues like safe and clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions, clean and fresh air, fertile land, healthy food and development that is sustainable. There is a need for trained manpower at every level to deal with environmental issues. Environmental law, business administration and environmental engineering are emerging as new career opportunities for environmental protection and management. With the pollution control laws becoming more stringent, industries are finding it difficult to dispose off the produced wastes. In order to avoid expensive litigation, various companies are now trying  Environmental Studies—A Multidisciplinary Subject 3 to adopt green technologies, which would reduce pollution. Investing in pollution control technologies will reduce pollution as well as cut on costs for effluent treatment. Market for pollution control technology is huge the world over. Cleaning up of the wastes produced is another potential market. It is estimated to be more than $ 100 billion per year for all American business. Germany and Japan having more stringent laws for many years have gained more experience in reducing effluents. Still there is a $ 200 billion market for cleaning up the former east Germany alone. In India also the Pollution Control Boards are seriously implementing pollution control laws and insisting on upgradation of effluents to meet the prescribed standards before they are discharged on land or into a water body. Many companies not complying with the orders have been closed or ordered to shift. This is infact essential if we want to live in a clean, healthy, aesthetically beautiful, safe and secure environment for a long time and wish to hand over a clean and safe earth to our children, grand-children and great grand children. Need for Public Awareness The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and popularly known as ‘Earth Sum- mit’ followed by the World Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg in 2002, just 10 years after the first summit, have high- lighted the key issues of global environmental concern and have at- tracted the attention of the general public towards the deteriorating environment. Any government at its own level cannot achieve the goals of sustainable development until the public has a participatory role in it. Public participation is possible only when the public is aware about the ecological and environmental issues. A drive by the government to ban the littering of polythene cannot be successful until the public un- derstands the environmental implications of the same. The public has to be educated about the fact that if we are degrading our environment we are actually harming our ownselves. This is because we are a part of the complex network of environment where every component is linked to another. It is all the more important to educate the people that some- times the adverse impact of environment are not experienced or no- ticed until a threshold is crossed. So we may be caught unawares by a disaster. There is a Chinese proverb “It you plan for one year, plant rice, if you plan for 10 years, plant trees and if you plan for 100 years, educate people.” If we want to manage our planet earth, we have to make all the persons environmentally educated. 4 Environmental Science and Engineering In 1991, the Supreme Court of our country issued directive to make all curricula environment-oriented. This directive was, in fact, in response to a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) filed by M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India (1988) that prompted the apex court to give a mandate for creating environmental awareness among all citizens of India. Today everybody talks of environment, but only a few have clear ideas about what needs to be done and still fewer have the actual experience or expertise in the field. Unfortunately, environmental awareness campaigns have very often been exploited for political propaganda rather than being an integral part of our educational programmes in theory and practice. “Environment” is very wrongly taken as a “fashion” by all walks of life, hardly realizing that it is our “real-life-situation” and our sustenance and security are at stake. Henry D. Thoreau rightly says “What’s the use of a beautiful house if you don’t have a decent planet to put it on?” Even if we begin today, the restoration is expected in the next 40-50 years. QUESTIONS 1. What is the need for studying environmental issues ? 2. What is the scope of environmental education ? 3. How would environmental awareness help to protect our environment ? Unit 2 Natural Resources Life on this planet earth depends upon a large number of things and services provided by the nature, which are known as Natural resources. Thus water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wild life are all examples of natural resources. The natural resources are of two kinds: l Renewable resources which are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a given span of time e.g. forests, wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro power etc. Solar energy is also a renewable form of energy as it is an inexhaustible source of energy. l Non-renewable resources which cannot be regenerated e.g. Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, minerals etc. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be replenished. Even our renewable resources can become non-renewable if we exploit them to such extent that their rate of consumption exceeds their rate of regeneration. For example, if a species is exploited so much that its population size declines below the threshold level then it is not able to sustain itself and gradually the species becomes endangered or extinct. It is very important to protect and conserve our natural resources and use them in a judicious manner so that we don’t exhaust them. It does not mean that we should stop using most of the natural resources. Rather, we should use the resources in such a way that we always save enough of them for our future generations. In this unit we shall discuss the major natural resources: (i) Forest resources (ii) Water resources (iii) Mineral resources (iv) Food resources (v) Energy resources (vi) Land resources. 5 6 Environmental Science and Engineering 2.1 FOREST RESOURCES Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this earth. Covering the earth like a green blanket these forests not only produce innumerable material goods, but also provide several environmental services which are essential for life. About 1/3rd of the world’s land area is forested which includes closed as well as open forests. Former USSR accounts for about a 5th of the world’s forests, Brazil for about a 7th and Canada and USA each for 6-7%. But it is a matter of concern that almost everywhere the cover of the natural forests has declined over the years. The greatest loss occurred in tropical Asia where one third of the forest resources have been destroyed. n USES OF FORESTS Commercial uses: Forests provide us a large number of commercial goods which include timber, firewood, pulpwood, food items, gum, resins, non-edible oils, rubber, fibers, lac, bamboo canes, fodder, medicine, drugs and many more items, the total worth of which is estimated to be more than $ 300 billion per year. Half of the timber cut each year is used as fuel for heating and cooking. One third of the wood harvest is used for building materials as lumber, plywood and hardwood, particle board and chipboard. One sixth of the wood harvest is converted into pulp and used for paper industry. Many forest lands are used for mining, agriculture, grazing, and recreation and for development of dams. Ecological uses: While a typical tree produces commercial goods worth about $ 590 it provides environmental services worth nearly $ 196, 250. The ecological services provided by our forests may be summed up as follows: l Production of oxygen: The trees produce oxygen by photo- synthesis which is so vital for life on this earth. They are rightly called as earth’s lungs. l Reducing global warming: The main greenhouse gas car- bon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by the forests as a raw material for photosynthesis. Thus forest canopy acts as a sink for CO2 thereby reducing the problem of global warming caused by greenhouse gas CO2.  Natural Resources 7 l Wild life habitat: Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and plants. About 7 million species are found in the tropical forests alone. l Regulation of hydrological cycle: Forested watersheds act like giant sponges, absorbing the rainfall, slowing down the runoff and slowly releasing the water for recharge of springs. About 50-80 %of the moisture in the air above tropical forests comes from their transpiration which helps in bringing rains. l Soil Conservation: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil erosion. They also act as wind- breaks. l Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air pure. They have also been reported to absorb noise and thus help in preventing air and noise pollution. n OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS Since time immemorial, humans have depended heavily on forests for food, medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. With growing civilization the demands for raw material like timber, pulp, minerals, fuel wood etc. shooted up resulting in large scale logging, mining, road-building and clearing of forests. Our forests contribute substantially to the national economy. The international timber trade alone is worth over US $ 40 billion per year. Excessive use of fuel wood and charcoal, expansion of urban, agricultural and industrial areas and overgrazing have together led to over-exploitation of our forests leading to their rapid degrada- tion. n DEFORESTATION The total forest area of the world in 1900 was estimated to be 7,000 million hectares which was reduced to 2890 million ha in 1975 and fell down to just 2,300 million ha by 2000. Deforestation rate is relatively less in temperate countries, but it is very alarming in tropical countries where it is as high as 40-50 percent and at the present rate it is esti- mated that in the next 60 years we would lose more than 90 percent of our tropical forests. The forested area in India seems to have stabilized since 1982 with about 0.04% decline annually between 1982-90. FAO (1983) estimated that about 1.44 m ha of land was brought under afforestation during this period leading to stabilization. As per FAO estimates, the 8 Environmental Science and Engineering deforestation rate per unit population in India is the lowest amongst the major tropical countries, despite the fact that we have a huge population size and very low per capita forest area (0.075 ha per capita). However, we are still far behind the target of achieving 33% forest area, as per our National Forest Policy, as we are still having only 19.27 % of our land area (63.38m ha) covered by forests based on satellite data (MoEF, 1998) Major Causes of Deforestation (i) Shifting cultivation: There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting cultivators who practice slash and burn agriculture and are supposed to clear more than 5 lakh ha of forests for shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this practice in North- East and to some extent in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and M.P which contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually. (ii) Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population in India alone has shooted up to 300-500 million tons in 2001 as compared to just 65 million tons during independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests. (iii) Raw materials for industrial use: Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway-sleepers, plywood, match-boxes, pulp for paper in- dustry etc. have exerted tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood is in great demand for packing tea for Tea industry of Assam while fir tree wood is exploited greatly for packing apples in J&K. (iv) Development projects: Massive destruction of forests occur for various development projects like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining etc. (v) Growing food needs: In developing countries this is the main reason for deforestation. To meet the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands and settlements are created permanently by clearing forests. (vi) Overgrazing: The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel leading to loss of tree cover and the cleared lands are turned into the grazing lands. Overgrazing by the cattle leads to fur- ther degradation of these lands. Major Consequences of Deforestation Deforestation has far reaching consequences, which may be outlined as follows: (i) It threatens the existence of many wild life species due to destruction of their natural habitat.  Natural Resources 9 (ii) Biodiversity is lost and along with that genetic diversity is eroded. (iii) Hydrological cycle gets affected, thereby influencing rainfall. (iv) Problems of soil erosion and loss of soil fertility increase. (v) In hilly areas it often leads to landslides. CASE STUDIES l Desertification in hilly regions of the Himalayas Deforestation in Himalayas, involving clearance of natural for- ests and plantation of monocultures like Pinus roxburghi, Euca- lyptus camadulensis etc. have upset the ecosystem by changing various soil (edaphic) and biological properties. Nutrient cy- cling has become poor, original rich germplasm is lost and the area is invaded by exotic weeds. These areas are not able to recover and are losing their fertility. The entire west Khasi hill district of Meghalaya in North-east Himalayas, Ladakh and parts of Kumaon and Garhwal are now facing the serious prob- lem of desertification. l Disappearing Tea gardens in Chhota Nagpur This hilly region used to be a good forested area towards the turn of the century and used to receive fairly frequent after- noon showers favouring tea plantations. Following the destruc- tion of forests, rainfall declined in Chhota Nagpur to such an extent that tea -gardens also disappeared from the region. l Waning Rainfall in Udhagamandalam (Ooty) The sub normal rainfall during 1965-84 at Ooty in Nilgiri moun- tains has been found to be closely associated with declining forest cover in this region in the past 20 years. The rainfall pat- tern was found to fluctuate with wooded land area in the hills. When the Nilgiri mountains had luxuriant forest cover annual rainfall used to be much higher. 10 Environmental Science and Engineering Major Activities in Forests Timber Extraction: Logging for valuable timber, such as teak and Mahogany not only involves a few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other by vines etc. Also road construction for making approach to the trees causes further damage to the forests. Mining: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves vast forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits is done by sub-surface mining. More than 80,000 ha of land of the country is presently under the stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area. Large scale deforestation has been reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to indiscriminate mining of various minerals over a length of about 40 Km. The forested area has declined at an average rate of 33% and the increase in non-forest area due to mining activities has resulted in relatively unstable zones leading to landslides. Indiscriminate mining in forests of Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50,000 ha of forest land. Coal mining in Jharia, Raniganj and Singrauli areas have caused extensive deforestation in Jharkhand. Mining of magnesite and soap- stones have destroyed 14 ha of forest in the hill slopes at Khirakot, Kosi valley, Almora. Mining of radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are posing similar threats of deforestation. The rich forests of Western Ghats are also facing the same threat due to mining projects for excavation of copper, chromite, bauxite and magnetite. n DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FORESTS AND PEOPLE Big dams and river valley projects have multi-purpose uses and have been referred to as “Temples of modern India”. However, these dams are also responsible for the destruction of vast areas of forests. India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharashtra (more then 600), followed by Gujarat (more then 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130). The highest one is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttaranchal and the largest in terms of capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in H.P. Big dams have been in sharp focus of various environmental groups all over the world which is mainly because of several ecological problems including deforestation and socio-economic problems related to tribal or native people associated with them. The  Natural Resources 11 Silent Valley hydroelectric project was one of the first such projects situated in the tropical rain forest area of Western Ghats which attracted much concern of the people. The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due to Tehri dam was led by Sh. Sunder lal Bahuguna, the leader of Chipko movement. The cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues has been taken up by the environmental activists Medha Patekar, joined by Arundhati Ray and Baba Amte. For building big dams, large scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region. Floods, droughts and landslides become more prevalent in such areas. Forests are the repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and by destroying them ( particularly, the tropical rain for- ests) we are going to lose these species even before knowing them. These species could be having marvelous economic or medicinal value and deforestation results in loss of this storehouse of species which have evolved over millions of years in a single stroke. Sardar Sarovar Dam (Uprooted Forests And Tribals): A case study The dam is situated on river Narmada and is spread over three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Although the project is aimed at providing irrigation water, drinking water and electricity to the three states, the environmental impacts of the project have raised challenging questions. A total of 1,44,731 ha of land will be submerged by the dam, out of which 56,547 ha is forest land. A total of 573 villages are to be submerged by the Narmada Dam. Submergence of about 40,000 ha of forest under Narmada Sagar, 13,800 ha under Sardar Sarovar and 2,500 ha under Omkareshwar would further create pressure on remaining forest areas in adjoining areas. Submergence area is very rich in wildlife e.g. tigers, panthers, bears, wolves, pangolins, hyenas, jackals, flying squirrels, antelopes, black bucks, chinkara, marsh crocodiles, turtles etc. Many of these species are listed in schedule I & II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Thus massive loss of these wildlife species is apprehended due to the devastation of the forest under the project. As per the estimates of the Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, the Narmada valley project will lead to eventual displacement of more than one million people, which is probably the largest (Contd.) 12 Environmental Science and Engineering rehabilitation issue ever encountered as per the World Bank. Uprooting of the tribals and their forced shifting in far-flung areas may not be easily adjusted to. Besides serious economic deprivation, the displacement will affect the tribal peoples’ culture, their beliefs, myths and rituals, festivals, songs and dances, all closely associated with the hills, forest and streams. Most of these tribals belong to poor, unprivileged schedule castes and tribes who are being uprooted from a place where they have lived for generations. The displaced persons have to undergo hardship and distress for the sake of development and prosperity of a larger section of the society. It is therefore the duty of the project proponents and government to pay maximum attention for proper rehabilitation of the displaced tribals.  Natural Resources 13 2.2 WATER RESOURCES Water is an indispensable natural resource on this earth on which all life depends. About 97% of the earth’s surface is covered by water and most of the animals and plants have 60-65% water in their body. Water is characterized by certain unique features which make it a marvellous resource: (i) It exists as a liquid over a wide range of temperature i.e. from 0° to100°C. (ii) It has the highest specific heat, due to which it warms up and cools down very slowly without causing shocks of tempera- ture jerks to the aquatic life. (iii) It has a high latent heat of vaporization Hence, it takes a huge amount of energy for getting vaporized. That’s why it produces a cooling effect as it evaporates. (iv) It is an excellent solvent for several nutrients. Thus, it can serve as a very good carrier of nutrients, including oxygen, which are essential for life. But, it can also easily dissolve various pollutants and become a carrier of pathogenic microorganisms. (v) Due to high surface tension and cohesion it can easily rise through great heights through the trunk even in the tallest of the trees like Sequoia. (vi) It has an anamolous expansion behaviour i.e. as it freezes, it expands instead of contracting and thus becomes lighter. It is because of this property that even in extreme cold, the lakes freeze only on the surface. Being lighter the ice keeps floating, whereas the bottom waters remain at a higher temperature and therefore, can sustain aquatic organisms even in extreme cold. The water we use keeps on cycling endlessly through the environment, which we call as Hydrological Cycle. We have enormous resources of water on the earth amounting to about 1404 million Km3. The water from various moist surfaces evaporates and falls again on the earth in the form of rain or snow and passes through living organisms and ultimately returns to the oceans. Every year about 1.4 inch thick layer of water evaporates from the oceans, more than 90% of which returns to the oceans through the hydrological cycle. Solar energy drives the water cycle by evaporating it from various water bodies, which 14 Environmental Science and Engineering subsequently return through rainfall or snow. Plants too play a very important role by absorbing the groundwater from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere by the process of transpiration. Global distribution of water resources is quite uneven depending upon several geographic factors. Tropical rain forest areas receive maximum rainfall while the major world deserts occur in zones of dry, descending air (20-40° N and S) and receive very little rainfall. n WATER USE AND OVER-EXPLOITATION Due to its unique properties water is of multiple uses for all living organisms. Water is absolutely essential for life. Most of the life processes take place in water contained in the body. Uptake of nutrients, their distribution in the body, regulation of temperature, and removal of wastes are all mediated through water. Human beings depend on water for almost every developmental activity. Water is used for drinking, irrigation, transportation, washing and waste disposal for industries and used as a coolant for thermal power plants. Water shapes the earth’s surface and regulates our climate. Water use by humans is of two types: water withdrawal: taking water from groundwater or surface water resource and water consumption: the water which is taken up but not returned for reuse. Globally, only about 60 percent of the water withdrawn is consumed due to loss through evaporation. With increasing human population and rapid development, the world water withdrawal demands have increased many folds and a large proportion of the water withdrawn is polluted due to anthropogenic activities. On a global average 70 percent of the water withdrawn is used for agriculture. In India, we use 93% of water in agricultural sector while in a country like Kuwait, which is water-poor, only 4% is used for watering the crops. About 25% of water on global average is used in industry, which again varies from a high of 70% in European countries to as low as 5% in less developed countries. Per capita use of water shows wide variations. In USA, an average family of 4 consumes more than 1000 M3 of water per year, which is many times more than that in most developing countries. Water: A Precious Natural Resource Although water is very abundant on this earth, yet it is very precious. Out of the total water reserves of the world, about 97% is salty water  Natural Resources 15 (marine) and only 3% is fresh water. Even this small fraction of fresh water is not available to us as most of it is locked up in polar ice caps and just 0.003% is readily available to us in the form of groundwater and surface water. Overuse of groundwater for drinking, irrigation and domestic pur- poses has resulted in rapid depletion of groundwater in various regions leading to lowering of water table and drying of wells. Pollution of many of the groundwater aquifers has made many of these wells unfit for consumption. Rivers and streams have long been used for discharging the wastes. Most of the civilizations have grown and flourished on the banks of rivers, but unfortunately, growth in turn, has been responsible for pollution of the rivers. As per the United Nations estimates (2002), at least 101 billion people do not even have access to safe drinking water and 2.4 billion do not have adequate sanitation facilities. Increasing population and expanding development would further increase the demands for wastes. It is estimated that by 2024, two-thirds of the world population would be suffering from acute water shortage. Groundwater About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of groundwater and it is about 35-50 times that of surface water supplies. Till some time back groundwater was considered to be very pure. However, of late, even groundwater aquifers have been found to be contaminated by leachates from sanitary landfills etc. A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable and contains water is called an aquifer. Layers of sand and gravel are good aquifers while clay and crystalline rocks (like granite) are not since they have low permeability. Aquifers may be of two types: Unconfined aquifers which are overlaid by permeable earth materials and they are recharged by water seeping down from above in the form of rainfall and snow melt. Confined aquifers which are sandwitched between two impermeable layers of rock or sediments and are recharged only in those areas where the aquifer intersects the land surface. Sometimes the recharged area is hundreds of kilometers away from the location of the well. Fig 2.2.1 shows the groundwater system. Groundwater is not static, it moves, though at a very slow rate of about a meter or so in a year. 16 Environmental Science and Engineering Unconfined aquifer recharge area Evapo-transpiration Precipitation from croplands Evaporation Evaporation from stream from lake Confined aquifer recharge area Infiltration Permeable rock Infiltration Unconfined aquifer (Water table) Confined Less permeable Impermeable aquifer material rock layer Fig. 2.2.1. The groundwater system. An unconfined aquifer (water table) is formed when water collects over a rock or compact clay. A confined aquifer is formed sandwitched between two layers having very low permeability. Effects of Groundwater Usage (i) Subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the aquifer get compacted, a phenomenon known as ground subsidence. Huge economic losses may occur due to this phenomenon because it results in the sinking of overlying land surface. The common problems associated with it include structural damage in buildings, fracture in pipes, reversing the flow of sewers and canals and tidal flooding. (ii) Lowering of water table: Mining of groundwater is done extensively in arid and semi-arid regions for irrigating crop fields. However, it is not advisable to do excessive mining as it would cause a sharp decline in future agricultural production, due to lowering of water table. (iii) Water logging: When excessive irrigation is done with brackish water it raises the water table gradually leading to water-logging and salinity problems.  Natural Resources 17 Surface Water The water coming through precipitation (rainfall, snow) when does not percolate down into the ground or does not return to the atmos- phere as evaporation or transpiration loss, assumes the form of streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands or artificial reservoirs known as surface water. The surface water is largely used for irrigation, industrial use, public water supply, navigation etc. A country’s economy is largely depend- ent upon its rivers. Water rich vs. Water poor countries The top ten water rich countries are Iceland, Surinam, Guyana, Papua New Guinea, Gabon, Solomon Islands, Canada, Norway, Panama, and Brazil lying in the far north and have low evaporation losses. The water poor countries include Kuwait, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Malta, Jordon, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Maldovia, Israel and Oman, lying in the desert belt at about 15° to 25° Latitude and some of them like Malta and Singapore are densely populated areas resulting in low per capita water. n FLOODS In some countries like India and Bangladesh rainfall does not occur throughout the year, rather, 90% of it is concentrated into a few months (June-September). Heavy rainfall often causes floods in the low-lying coastal areas. Prolonged downpour can also cause the over-flowing of lakes and rivers resulting into floods. Deforestation, overgrazing, mining, rapid industrialization, global warming etc. have also contributed largely to a sharp rise in the incidence of floods, which otherwise is a natural disaster. Floods have been regular features of some parts of India and Bangladesh causing huge economic loss as well as loss of life. People of Bangladesh are accustomed to moderate flooding during monsoon and they utilize the flood water for raising paddy. But, severe floods like that in 1970, 1988 and 1991 resulting from excessive Himalayan runoff and storms, had very disastrous consequences causing massive deaths and damages. In 1970, about one million people were drowned while 1,40,000 people died in 1991. Networking of rivers is being proposed at national level to deal with the problems of floods. 18 Environmental Science and Engineering n DROUGHTS There are about 80 countries in the world, lying in the arid and semi- arid regions that experience frequent spells of droughts, very often extending up to year long duration. When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought conditions are created. Ironically, these drought- hit areas are often having a high population growth which leads to poor land use and makes the situation worse. Anthropogenic causes: Drought is a meteorological phenomenon, but due to several anthropogenic causes like over grazing, deforestation, mining etc. there is spreading of the deserts tending to convert more areas to drought affected areas. In the last twenty years, India has experienced more and more desertification, thereby increasing the vulnerability of larger parts of the country to droughts. Erroneous and intensive cropping patter n and increased exploitation of scarce water resources through well or canal irrigation to get high productivity has converted drought - prone areas into desertified ones. In Maharashtra there has been no recovery from drought for the last 30 years due to over-exploitation of water by sugarcane crop which has high water demands. Remedial measures: Indigenous knowledge in control of drought and desertification can be very useful for dealing with the problem. Carefully selected mixed cropping help optimize production and minimize the risks of crop failures. Social Forestry and Wasteland development can prove quite effective to fight the problem, but it should be based on proper understanding of ecological requirements and natural process, otherwise it may even boomrang. The Kolar district of Karnataka is one of the leaders in Social Forestry with World Bank Aid, but all its 11 talukas suffer from drought. It is because the tree used for plantation here was Eucalyptus which is now known to lower the water table because of its very high transpiration rate. n CONFLICTS OVER WATER Indispensability of water and its unequal distribution has often led to inter-state or international disputes. Issues related to sharing of river water have been largely affecting our farmers and also shaking our governments. Some major water conflicts are discussed here. l Water conflict in the Middle East: Three river basins, namely the Jordan, the Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile are the shared water resources for Middle East countries. Ethiopia controls the head waters of 80% of Nile’s flow and plans to increase it.  Natural Resources 19 Sudan too is trying to divert more water. This would badly affect Egypt, which is a desert, except for a thin strip of irrigated cropland along the river Nile and its delta. The population of Egypt is likely to double in the next 20 years, thereby increasing its water crisis. Likewise there is a fierce battle for water among Jordan, Syria and Israel for the Jordan River water share. Turkey has abundant water and plans to build 22 dams on Tigris-Euphrates for Hydroelectric power generation. But, it would drastically reduce the flow of water to Syria and Iraq, lying downstream. Turkey dreams to become the region’s water Super power. It plans to transport and sell water to starved Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Syria, Israel and Jordan. Probably, the next war in the Middle East would be fought over water and not oil. l The Indus Water Treaty: The Indus, one of the mightiest rivers is dying a slow death due to dams and barrages that have been built higher up on the river. The Sukkur barrage (1932), Ghulam Mohamad Barrage at Kotri (1958) and Tarbela and Chasma Dams on Jhelum, a tributary of Indus have resulted in severe shrinking of the Indus delta. In 1960, the Indus water treaty was established vide which Indus, the Jhelum and the Chenab were allocated to Pakistan and the Satluj, the Ravi and the Beas were allocated to India. Being the riparian state, India has pre-emptive right to construct barrages across all these rivers in Indian territory. However, the treaty requires that the three rivers allocated to Pakistan may be used for non-consumptive purposes by India i.e. without changing its flow and quality. With improving political relations between the two countries it is desirable to work out techno-economic details and go for an integrated development of the river basin in a sustainable manner. l The Cauvery water dispute: Out of India’s 18 major rivers, 17 are shared between different states. In all these cases, there are intense conflicts over these resources which hardly seem to resolve. The Cauvery river water is a bone of contention between Tamilnadu and Karnataka and the fighting is almost hundred years old. Tamilnadu, occupying the downstream region of the river wants water-use regulated in the upstream. Whereas, the upstream state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its primacy over the river as upstream user. The river 20 Environmental Science and Engineering water is almost fully utilized and both the states have increasing demands for agriculture and industry. The consumption is more in Tamilnadu than Karnataka where the catchment area is more rocky. On June 2,1990, the Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal was set up which through an interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was made available in Tamil Nadu’s Mettur dam every year, till a settlement was reached. In 1991-92 due to good monsoon, there was no dispute due to good stock of water in Mettur, but in 1995, the situation turned into a crisis due to delayed rains and an expert Committee was set up to look into the matter which found that there was a complex cropping pattern in Cauvery basin. Sambra paddy in winter, Kurvai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded intensive water, thus aggravating the water crisis. Proper selection of crop varieties, optimum use of water, better rationing, rational sharing patterns, and pricing of water are suggested as some measures to solve the problem. l The Satluj-Yamuna link (SYL) canal dispute: The issue of sharing the Ravi-Beas waters and SYL issue between Punjab and Haryana is being discussed time and again and the case is in the Supreme Court. The Eradi Tribunal (1985) based the allocation of water on the basis of the time-inflow data of 20 years (1960-80), according to which 17.17 MAF (million acre feet) water was available. However, now it is argued by Punjab that in the last 17 years there has been consistent decline reducing the quantity to 14.34 MAF. The Supreme Court on January 15, 2002 directed Punjab to complete and commission the SYL within a year, failing which the Center was told to complete it. However, two years have passed, but neither the SYL has been completed nor the conflict over sharing of Ravi- Beas water is resolved. The conflict is that Punjab being the riparian state for Beas, Ravi and Satluj stakes its claim, Haryana has faced acute shortage of water after it became a state in 1966 and has been trying to help it out by signing an MOU (Memorandum of understanding) with UP, Rajasthan and Delhi for allocation of Yamuna waters. The Yamuna basin covers the state of Haryana while the Indus basin covers Punjab. The conflict revolving around sharing of river water needs to be tackled with greater understanding and objectivity.  Natural Resources 21 Traditional Water Management System In India, even today, there are several villages where water management is done not by the Irrigation Department, but by local managers. In south India, a neerkatti manages the traditional tanks very efficiently based on his/her knowledge of the terrain, drainage and irrigation needs. They usually give preference to the tail end fields and decide per capita allocation of water based on the stock of available water in the tank and crop needs. In Maharashtra, the water mangers are called havaldars or jaghyas who manage and resolve conflicts by overseeing the water channels from main canal to the distributory canals. In Ladakh, the water manager is known as churpun who has got complete charge with full powers over allocation of available water. The major source of water is melt water from glaciers and snow supplementary by water from springs and marshes. The water is distributed to different fields through an intricate network of earthen channels. In traditional water management, innovative arrangements ensure equitable distribution of water, which are democratically implemented. The ‘gram-sabhas’ approve these plans publicly. While water disputes between states and nations often assume battle like situations, our traditional water managers in villages prove to be quite effective. n BIG DAMS- BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS Benefits River valley projects with big dams have usually been considered to play a key role in the development process due to their multiple uses. India has the distinction of having the largest number of river-valley projects. These dams are often regarded as a symbol of national development. The tribals living in the area pin big hopes on these projects as they aim at providing employment and raising the standard and quality of life. The dams have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth. They can help in checking floods and famines, generate electricity and reduce water and power shortage, provide irrigation water to lower areas, provide drinking water in remote areas and promote navigation, fishery etc. Environmental Problems The environmental impacts of big-dams are also too many due to which very often the big dams become a subject of controversy. The impacts can be at the upstream as well as downstream levels. 22 Environmental Science and Engineering (A) The upstream problems include the following: (i) Displacement of tribal people (ii) Loss of forests, flora and fauna (iii) Changes in fisheries and the spawning grounds (iv) Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs (v) Loss of non-forest land (vi) Stagnation and waterlogging near reservoir (vii) Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases (viii) Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS) causing earthquakes (ix) Growth of aquatic weeds. (x) Microclimatic changes. (B) The downstream impacts include the following: (i) Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation (ii) Micro-climatic changes (iii) Reduced water flow and silt deposition in river (iv) Flash floods (v) Salt water intrusion at river mouth (vi) Loss of land fertility along the river since the sediments carry- ing nutrients get deposited in the reservoir (vii) Outbreak of vector-borne diseases like malaria Thus, although dams are built to serve the society with multiple uses, but it has several serious side-effects. That is why now there is a shift towards construction of small dams or mini-hydel projects.  Natural Resources 23 2.3 MINERAL RESOURCES Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids having a definite chemical composition and characteristic physical properties. There are thousands of minerals occurring in different parts of the world. However, most of the rocks, we see everyday are just composed of a few common minerals like quartz, feldspar, biotite, dolomite, calcite, laterite etc. These minerals, in turn, are composed of some elements like silicon, oxygen, iron, magnesium, calcium, aluminium etc. n USES AND EXPLOITATION Minerals find use in a large number of ways in everyday use in domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial sectors and thus form a very important part of any nation’s economy. The main uses of minerals are as follows: (i) Development of industrial plants and machinery. (ii) Generation of energy e.g. coal, lignite, uranium. (iii) Construction, housing, settlements. (iv) Defence equipments-weapons, armaments. (v) Transportation means. (vi) Communication- telephone wires, cables, electronic devices. (vii) Medicinal system- particularly in Ayurvedic System. (viii) Formation of alloys for various purposes (e.g. phosphorite). (ix) Agriculture–as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides (e.g. zineb containing zinc, Maneb-containing manganese etc.). (x) Jewellery–e.g. Gold, silver, platinum, diamond. Based on their properties, minerals are basically of two types: (i) Non metallic minerals e.g. graphite, diamond, quartz, feldspar. (ii) Metallic minerals e.g. Bauxite, laterite, haematite etc. Use of metals by human beings has been so extensive since the very beginning of human civilization that two of the major epochs of human history are named after them as Bronze Age and Iron Age. The reserves of metals and the technical know-how to extract them have been the key elements in determining the economy and political power of nations. Out of the various metals, the one used in maximum quantity is Iron and steel (740 million metric tons annually) followed by manganese, copper, chromium, aluminium and Nickel. 24 Environmental Science and Engineering Distribution and uses of some of the major metallic and non- metallic minerals are given in Tables 2.3.1 and 2.3.2. Table 2.3.1. Major reserves and important uses of some of the major metals Metal Major World Reserves Major Uses Aluminium Australia, Guinea, Packaging food items, transpor- Jamaica tation, utensils, electronics Chromium CIS, South Africa For making high strength steel alloys, In textile/tanning industries Copper U.S.A., Canada, CIS, Electric and electronic goods, Chile, Zambia building, construction, vessels Iron CIS, South America, Heavy machinery, steel produc- Canada, U.S.A. tion transportation means Lead North America, U.S.A., Leaded gasoline, Car batteries, CIS paints, ammunition Manganese South Africa, CIS, For making high strength, heat- Brazil, Gabon resistant steel alloys Platinum South Africa, CIS Use in automobiles, catalytic group converters, electronics, medical uses. Gold South Africa, CIS, Ornaments, medical use, elec- Canada tronic use, use in aerospace Silver Canada, South Africa, Photography, electronics Mexico jewellery Nickel CIS, Canada, New Chemical industry, steel alloys Caledonia Table 2.3.2. Major uses of some non-metallic minerals Non-metal Mineral Major Uses Silicate minerals Sand and gravel for construction, bricks, paving etc. Limestone Used for concrete, building stone, used in agriculture for neutralizing acid soils, used in cement industry Gypsum Used in plaster wall-board, in agriculture Potash, phosphorite Used as fertilizers Sulphur pyrites Used in medicine, car battery, industry.  Natural Resources 25 It is evident from the Tables that the CIS countries (The Com- monwealth of Independent States i.e. 12 repubics of former USSR), the United States of America, Canada, South Africa and Australia are having the major world reserves of most of the metallic minerals. Due to huge mineral and energy resources, the USA became the richest and the most powerful nation in the world in even less than 200 years. Ja- pan too needs a mention here, as there are virtually no metal reserves, coal, oil and timber resources in Japan and it is totally dependent on other countries for its resources. But, it has developed energy efficient technologies to upgrade these resources to high quality finished prod- ucts to sustain its economy. Minerals are sometimes classified as Critical and Strategic. Critical minerals are essential for the economy of a nation e.g. iron, aluminium, copper, gold etc. Strategic minerals are those required for the defence of a country e.g. Manganese, cobalt, platinum, chromium etc. Some Major Minerals of India (a) Energy generating minerals Coal and lignite: West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P., A.P. Uranium (Pitchblende or Uranite ore): Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Meghalaya, Rajasthan (Ajmer). (b) Other commercially used minerals Aluminium (Bauxite ore): Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra, M.P., Tamilnadu. Iron (haematite and magnetite ore): Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P., A.P., Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa. Copper (Copper Pyrites): Rajasthan (Khetri), Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, M.P., West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Uttaranchal. n ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION AND USE The issue related to the limits of the mineral resources in our earth’s crust or in the ocean is not so significant. More important environ- mental concern arises from the impacts of extraction and processing of these minerals during mining, smelting etc. Indian Scenario: India is the producer of 84 minerals the annual value of which is about Rs. 50,000 crore. At least six major mines need a mention here which are known for causing severe problems: 26 Environmental Science and Engineering (i) Jaduguda Uranium Mine, Jharkhand—exposing local people to radioactive hazards. (ii) Jharia coal mines, Jharkhand—underground fire leading to land subsidence and forced displacement of people. (iii) Sukinda chromite mines, Orissa—seeping of hexavalent chromium into river posing serious health hazard, Cr6+ being highly toxic and carcinogenic. (iv) Kudremukh iron ore mine, Karnataka—causing river pollution and threat to biodiversity. (v) East coast Bauxite mine, Orissa—Land encroachment and issue of rehabilitation unsettled. (vi) North-Eastern Coal Fields, Assam—Very high sulphur contamination of groundwater. Impacts of mining: Mining is done to extract minerals (or fossil fuels) from deep deposits in soil by using sub-surface mining or from shallow deposits by surface mining. The former method is more destructive, dangerous and expensive including risks of occupational hazards and accidents. Surface mining can make use of any of the following three types: (a) Open-pit mining in which machines dig holes and remove the ores (e.g. copper, iron, gravel, limestone, sandstone, marble, granite). (b) Dredging in which chained buckets and draglines are used which scrap up the minerals from under-water mineral deposits. (c) Strip mining in which the ore is stripped off by using bulldozers, power shovels and stripping wheels (e.g. phosphate rocks). The environmental damage caused by mining activities are as follows: (i) Devegetation and defacing of landscape: The topsoil as well as the vegetation are removed from the mining area to get access to the deposit. While large scale deforestation or devegetation leads to several ecological losses as already discussed in the previous section, the landscape also gets badly affected. The huge quantities of debris and tailings alongwith big scars and disruptions spoil the aesthetic value of the region and make it prone to soil erosion. (ii) Subsidence of land: This is mainly associated with underground mining. Subsidence of mining areas often results in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses, buckling of roads,  Natural Resources 27 bending of rail tracks and leaking of gas from cracked pipe- lines leading to serious disasters. (iii) Groundwater contamination: Mining disturbs the natural hydrological processes and also pollutes the groundwater. Sulphur, usually present as an impurity in many ores is known to get converted into sulphuric acid through microbial action, thereby making the water acidic. Some heavy metals also get leached into the groundwater and contaminate it posing health hazards. (iv) Surface water pollution: The acid mine drainage often con- taminates the nearby streams and lakes. The acidic water is detrimental to many forms of aquatic life. Sometimes radio- active substances like uranium also contaminate the water bodies through mine wastes and kill aquatic animals. Heavy metal pollution of water bodies near the mining areas is a common feature creating health hazards. (v) Air pollution: In order to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in the ore, smelting is done which emits enormous quantities of air pollutants damaging the vegetation nearby and has serious environmental health impacts. The suspended particulate matter (SPM), SOx, soot, arsenic particles, cadmium, lead etc. shoot up in the atmosphere near the smelters and the public suffers from several health problems. (vi) Occupational Health Hazards: Most of the miners suffer from various respiratory and skin diseases due to constant exposure to the suspended particulate matter and toxic substances. Miners working in different types of mines suffer from asbestosis, silicosis, black lung disease etc. Remedial measures: Safety of mine workers is usually not a priority subject of industry. Statistical data show that, on an average, there are 30 non-fatal but disabling accidents per ton of mineral produced and one death per 2.5 tons of mineral produced. In order to minimize the adverse impacts of mining it is desirable to adopt eco-friendly mining technology. The low-grade ores can be better utilized by using microbial-leaching technique. The bacterium Thiobacillus ferroxidans has been successfully and economically used for extracting gold embedded in iron sulphide ore. The ores are inoculated with the desired strains of bacteria, which remove the impurities (like sulphur) and leave the pure mineral. This biological method is helpful from economic as well as environmental point of view. 28 Environmental Science and Engineering Restoration of mined areas by re-vegetating them with appropri- ate plant species, stabilization of the mined lands, gradual restoration of flora, prevention of toxic drainage discharge and conforming to the standards of air emissions are essential for minimizing environmental impacts of mining. CASE STUDIES l Mining and quarrying in Udaipur About 200 open cast mining and quarrying centers in Udaipur, about half of which are illegal are involved in stone mining including soapstone, building stone, rock phosphate and dolomite. The mines spread over 15,000 hectares in Udaipur have caused many adverse impacts on environment. About 150 tonnes of explosives are used per month in blasting. The overburden, washoff, discharge of mine water etc. pollute the water. The Maton mines have badly polluted the Ahar river. The hills around the mines are devoid of any vegetation except a few scattered patches and the hills are suffering from acute soil erosion. The waste water flows towards a big tank of “Bag Dara”. Due to scarcity of water people are compelled to use this effluent for irrigation purpose. The blasting activity has adversely affected the fauna and the animals like tiger, lion, deer and even hare, fox, wild cats and birds have disappeared from the mining area. l Mining in Sariska Tiger Reserve in Aravallis The Aravalli range is spread over about 692 km in the North-west India covering Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. The hill region is very rich in biodiversity as well as mineral resources. The Sariska tiger reserve has gentle slopy hills, vertical rocky valleys, flat plains as well as deep gorges. The reserve is very rich in wild life and has enormous mineral reserves like quartzite, Schists, marble and granite in abundance. Mining operations within and around the Sariska Tiger reserve has left many areas permanently infertile and barren. The precious wild life is under serious threat. We must preserve the Aravalli series as a National Heritage and the Supreme Court on December 31st, 1991 has given a judgement in response to a Public Interest Litigation of Tarun Bharat Sangh, an NGO wherein both Centre and State Government of Rajasthan have been directed to ensure that all mining activity within the park be stopped. More than 400 mines were shut immediately. But, still some illegal mining is in progress.  Natural Resources 29 l Uranium Mining in Nalgonda, A.P.—The public hearing The present reserves of Uranium in Jaduguda mines, Jharkhand can supply the yellow cake only till 2004. There is a pressing need for mining more uranium to meet the demands of India’s nuclear programme. The Uranium Corporation of India (UCIL) proposes to mine uranium from the deposits in Lambapur and Peddagattu villages of Nalgonda district in Andhra Pradesh and a processing unit at about 18 kms at Mallapur. The plan is to extract the ore of 11.02 million tons in 20 years. The IUCL is trying its best to allure the villagers through employment opportunities. But, experts charge the company for keeping silence on the possible contamination of water bodies in the area. The proposed mines are just 1 km from human habitation and hardly 10 km from Nagarjun Sagar Dam and barely 4 km from the Akkampalli reservoir which is Hyderabad’s new source of drinking water. It is estimated that 20 years of mining would generate about 7.5 million metric tones of radioactive waste of which 99.9% will be left behind. The villagers are very likely to be affected by the radioactive wastes. Though IUCL claims that there won’t be any such accidents, but no one can deny that it is a highly hazardous industry and safety measures cannot be overlooked. The pathetic condition of Jaduguda Uranium mines in Jharkhand where there is a black history of massive deaths and devastation have outraged the public, who don’t want it to be repeated for Nalgonda. The proposed mines would cover about 445 ha of Yellapurum Reserve Forest and the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Sanctuary. The public hearing held just recently in February, 2004 witnessed strong protests from NGOs and many villagers. The fate of the proposed mining is yet to be decided. 30 Environmental Science and Engineering 2.4 FOOD RESOURCES We have thousands of edible plants and animals over the world out of which only about three dozen types constitute the major food of hu- mans. The main food resources include wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley, oats, cassava, sweet potato, sugarcane, pulses, sorghum, millet, about twenty or so common fruits and vegetables, milk, meat, fish and seafood. Amongst these rice, wheat and maize are the major grains, about 1500 million metric tons of which are grown each year, which is about half of all the agricultural crops. About 4 billion people in the developing countries have wheat and rice as their staple food. Meat and milk are mainly consumed by more developed nations of North America, Europe and Japan who consume about 80% of the total. Fish and sea-food contribute about 70 million metric tons of high quality protein to the world’s diet. But there are indications that we have already surpassed sustainable harvests of fish from most of the world’s oceans. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of United Na- tions estimated that on an average the minimum caloric intake on a global scale is 2,500 calories/day. People receiving less than 90% of these minimum dietary calories are called undernourished and if it is less than 80% they are said to be seriously undernourished. Besides the minimum caloric intake we also need proteins, minerals etc. Defi- ciency or lack of nutrition often leads to malnutrition resulting in sev- eral diseases as shown in Table 2.4.1. Table 2.4.1. Impacts of malnutrition Deficiency Health Effect No. of Cases Deaths per year (in millions) Proteins and Stunted growth, 750 15-20 Calories Kwashiorkor, 1 million Marasmus Iron Anemia 350 million 0.75-1 Iodine Goitre, Cretinism 150 million, 6 million Vitamin A Blindness 6 million  Natural Resources 31 n WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS During the last 50 years world grain production has increased almost three times, thereby increasing per capita production by about 50%. But, at the same time population growth increased at such a rate in LDCs (Less developed countries) that it outstripped food production. Every year 40 million people (fifty percent of which are young children between 1 to 5 years) die of undernourishment and malnutrition. This means that every year our food problem is killing as many people as were killed by the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II. These startling statistical figures more than emphasize the need to increase our food production, equitably distribute it and also to control population growth. Indian Scenario: Although India is the third largest producer of staple crops, an estimated 300 million Indians are still undernourished. India has only half as much 1and as USA, but it has nearly three times population to feed. Our food problems are directly related to popula- tion. The World Food Summit, 1996 has set the target to reduce the number of undernourished to just half by 2015, which still means 410 million undernourished people on the earth. n IMPACTS OF OVERGRAZING AND AGRICULTURE (A) Overgrazing Livestock wealth plays a crucial role in the rural life of our country. India leads in live stock population in the world. The huge population of livestock needs to be fed and the grazing lands or pasture areas are not adequate. Very often we find that the live stock grazing on a particular piece of grassland or pasture surpass the carrying capacity. Carrying capacity of any system is the maximum population that can be supported by it on a sustainable basis. However, most often, the grazing pressure is so high that its carrying capacity is crossed and the sustainability of the grazing lands fails. Let us see what are the impacts of overgrazing. Impact of Overgrazing (i) Land Degradation: Overgrazing removes the vegetal cover over the soil and the exposed soil gets compacted due to which the operative soil depth declines. So the roots cannot go much deep into the soil and adequate soil moisture is not available. Organic recycling also declines in the ecosystem because not enough detritus or litter 32 Environmental Science and Engineering remains on the soil to be decomposed. The humus content of the soil decreases and overgrazing leads to organically poor, dry, compacted soil. Due to trampling by cattle the soil loses infiltration capacity, which reduces percolation of water into the soil and as a result of this more water gets lost from the ecosystem along with surface run off. Thus over grazing leads to multiple actions resulting in loss of soil structure, hydraulic conductivity and soil fertility. (ii) Soil Erosion: Due to overgrazing by cattle, the cover of veg- etation almost gets removed from the land. The soil becomes exposed and gets eroded by the action of strong wind, rainfall etc. The grass roots are very good binders of soil. When the grasses are removed, the soil becomes loose and susceptible to the action of wind and water. (iii) Loss of useful species: Overgrazing adversely affects the composition of plant population and their regeneration capacity. The original grassland consists of good quality grasses and forbs with high nutritive value. When the livestock graze upon them heavily, even the root stocks which carry the reserve food for regeneration get destroyed. Now some other species appear in their place. These secondary species are hardier and are less nutritive in nature. Some livestock keep on overgrazing on these species also. Ultimately the nutritious, juicy fodder giving species like Cenchrus, Dichanthium, Panicum and Heteropogon etc. are replaced by unpalatable and sometimes thorny plants like Parthenium, Lantana, Xanthium etc. These species do not have a good capacity of binding the soil particles and, therefore, the soil becomes more prone to soil erosion. As a result of overgrazing vast areas in Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya are getting invaded by thorny bushes, weeds etc. of low fodder value. Thus overgrazing makes the grazing land lose its regenerating capacity and once good quality pasture land gets converted into an ecosystem with poor quality thorny vegetation. (B) Agriculture In the early years of human existence on this earth, man was just a hunter gatherer and was quite like other animal species. Some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago he took to agriculture by cultivating plants of his own choice. He used the practice of Slash and burn cultivation or shifting cultivation, which is still prevalent in many tribal areas, as in the North East Hills of India. The type of agriculture practiced these days is very different from the traditional ones and their outputs in terms of yield as well as their impacts on the environment show lots of differences.  Natural Resources 33 1. Traditional agriculture and its impacts: It usually involves a small plot, simple tools, naturally available water, organic fertilizer and a mix of crops. It is more near to natural conditions and usually it results in low production. It is still practiced by about half the global population. The main impacts of this type of agriculture are as follows: (i) Deforestation: The slash and burn of trees in forests to clear the land for cultivation and frequent shifting result in loss of forest cover. (ii) Soil erosion: Clearing of forest cover exposes the soil to wind, rain and storms, thereby resulting in loss of top fertile layer of soil. (iii) Depletion of nutrients: During slash and burn the organic matter in the soil gets destroyed and most of the nutrients are taken up by the crops within a short period, thus making the soil nutrient poor which makes the cultivators shift to another area. 2. Modern Agriculture and its impacts: It makes use of hybrid seeds of selected and single crop variety, high-tech equipments and lots of energy subsidies in the form of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water. The food production has increased tremendously, evidenced by “green revolution”. However, it also gave rise to several problematic off-shoots as discussed below: (i) Impacts related to high yielding varieties (HYV): The uses of HYVs encourage monoculture i.e. the same genotype is grown over vast areas. In case of an attack by some pathogen, there is total devas- tation of the crop by the disease due to exactly uniform conditions, which help in rapid spread of the disease. (ii) Fertilizer related problems: (a) Micronutrient imbalance: Most of the chemical fertilizers used in modern agriculture have nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N, P, K) which are essential macronutrients. Farm- ers usually use these fertilizers indiscriminately to boost up crop growth. Excessive use of fertilizers cause micronutrient imbalance. For example, excessive fertilizer use in Punjab and Haryana has caused deficiency of the micronutrient zinc in the soils, which is affecting productivity of the soil. (b) Nitrate Pollution: Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the fields often leach deep into the soil and ultimately contaminate the ground water. The nitrates get concentrated in the water and when their concentration exceeds 25 mg/L, they become the cause of a serious health hazard called “Blue Baby Syndrome” or methaemoglobinemia. This disease affects the 34 Environmental Science and Engineering infants to the maximum extent causing even death. In Denmark, England, France, Germany and Netherlands this problem is quite prevalent. In India also, problem of nitrate pollution exists in many areas. (c) Eutrophication: Excessive use of N and P fertilizers in the agricultural fields leads to another problem, which is not related to the soil, but relates to water bodies like lakes. A large proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus used in crop fields is washed off and along with runoff water reach the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes, a process known as Eutrophication (eu=more, trophic=nutrition). Due to eutrophication the lakes get invaded by algal blooms. These algal species grow very fast by rapidly using up the nutrients. They are often toxic and badly affect the food chain. The algal species quickly complete their life cycle and die thereby adding a lot of dead organic matter. The fishes are also killed and there is a lot of dead matter that starts getting decomposed. Oxygen is consumed in the process of decomposition and very soon the water gets depleted of dissolved oxygen. This further affects aquatic fauna and ultimately anaerobic conditions are created where only pathogenic anaerobic bacteria can survive. Thus, due to excessive use of fertilizers in the agricultural fields the lake ecosystem gets degraded. This shows how an unmindful action can have far reaching impacts. (iii) Pesticide related problems: Thousands of types of pesticides are used in agriculture. The first generation pesticides include chemicals like sulphur, arsenic, lead or mercury to kill the pests. DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) whose insecticidal properties were discovered by Paul Mueller in 1939 belongs to the second generation pesticides. After 1940, a large number of synthetic pesticides came into use. Although these pesticides have gone a long way in protecting our crops from huge losses occurring due to pests, yet they have a number of side-effects, as discussed below: (a) Creating resistance in pests and producing new pests: Some individuals of the pest species usually survive even after pesticide spray. The survivors give rise to highly resistant generations. About 20 species of pests are now known which have become immune to all types of pesticides and are known as “Super pests”. (b) Death of non-target organisms: Many insecticides are broad spectrum poisons which not only kill the target species but also several non-target species that are useful to us.  Natural Resources 35 (c) Biological magnification: Many of the pesticides are non- biodegradable and keep on accumulating in the food chain, a process called biological magnification. Since human beings occupy a high trophic level in the food chain, hence they get the pesticides in a bio-magnified form which is very harmful. (iv) Water Logging: Over irrigation of croplands by farmers for good growth of their crop usually leads to waterlogging. Inadequate drainage causes excess water to accumulate underground and gradually forms a continuous column with the water table. Under water-logged conditions, pore-spaces in the soil get fully drenched with water and the soil-air gets depleted. The water table rises while the roots of plants do not get adequate air for respiration. Mechanical strength of the soil declines, the crop plants get lodged and crop yield falls. In Punjab and Haryana, extensive areas have become water-logged where adequate canal water supply or tube-well water encouraged the farmers to use it over- enthusiastically leading to water-logging problem. Preventing excessive irrigation, sub-surface drainage technology and bio-drainage with trees like Eucalyptus are some of the remedial measures to prevent water-logging. (v) Salinity problem: At present one third of the total cultivable land area of the world is affected by salts. In India about seven million hectares of land are estimated to be salt—affected which may be saline or sodic. Saline soils are characterized by the accumulation of soluble salts like sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride etc. in the soil profile. Their electrical conductivity is more than 4 dS/m. Sodic soils have carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, the pH usually exceeds 8.0 and the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is more than 15%. Causes: A Major cause of salinization of soil is excessive irrigation. About 20% of the world’s croplands receive irrigation with canal water or ground water which unlike rainwater often contains dissolved salts. Under dry climates, the water evaporates leaving behind salts in the upper soil profile (Fig. 2.4.1) Thousands of hectares of land area in Haryana and Punjab are affected by soil salinity and alkalinity. Salinity causes stunted plant growth and lowers crop yield. Most of the crops cannot tolerate high salinity. 36 Environmental Science and Engineering Evaporation and transpiration Salt crust Upper soil profile containing salts Percolation of saline irrigation water ing Water logg Less permeable Salinization clay layer Addition of salts with saline Waterlogging irrigation water Evapo-transpiration leaves Rain water and irrigation behind salts water percolate down Salt-build up occurs in upper Water table rises soil profile Fig. 2.4.1. Salinization and water logging. Remedy: The most common method for getting rid of salts is to flush them out by applying more good quality water to such soils. Another method is laying underground network of perforated drainage pipes for flushing out the salts slowly. This sub-surface drainage system has been tried in the experimental station of CSSRI at Sampla, Haryana. The Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) located in Karnal, Haryana has to its achievement the success story of converting Zarifa Viran village to Zarifa Abad i.e. ‘from the barren land to productive land’ through its research applications. CASE STUDIES Salinity and water logging in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan : The first alarming report of salt-affected wasteland formation in connection with irrigation practices came from Haryana (then Punjab) in 1858. It was reported that several villages in Panipat, Rohtak and Delhi lying in command area of Western Yamuna Canal were suffering from destructive saline efflorescence. The “Reh Committee” in 1886 drew the attention of the government on some vital points showing a close relationship between irrigation, drainage and spread of “reh” and “usar” soils. (Contd.)  Natural Resources 37 The floods of 1947, 1950, 1952, 1954-56 in Punjab resulted in aggravated water logging with serious drainage problems. Introduction of canal irrigation in 1.2 m ha in Haryana resulted in rise in water-table followed by water-logging and salinity in many irrigated areas causing huge economic losses as a result of fall in crop productivity. Rajasthan too has suffered badly in this regard following the biggest irrigation project “Indira Gandhi Canal Project” and the sufferings of a big area in Western Rajasthan have changed from a condition of “water-starved wasteland” to that of a “water soaked wasteland”. 38 Environmental Science and Engineering 2.5. ENERGY RESOURCES Energy consumption of a nation is usually considered as an index of its development. This is because almost all the developmental activities are directly or indirectly dependent upon energy. We find wide disparities in per capita energy use between the developed and the developing nations. The first form of energy technology probably was the fire, which produced heat and the early man used it for cooking and heating purposes. Wind and hydropower have also been in use for the last 10,000 years. The invention of steam engines replaced the burning of wood by coal and coal was later replaced to a great extent by oil. In 1970’s due to Iranian revolution and Arab oil embargo the prices of oil shooted up. This ultimately led to exploration and use of several alternate sources of energy. n GROWING ENERGY NEEDS Development in different sectors relies largely upon energy. Agriculture, industry, mining, transportation, lighting, cooling and heating in buildings all need energy. With the demands of growing population the world is facing further energy deficit. The fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas which at present are supplying 95% of the commercial energy of the world resources and are not going to last for many more years. Our life style is changing very fast and from a simple way of life we are shifting to a luxurious life style. If you just look at the number of electric gadgets in your homes and the number of private cars and scooters in your locality you will realize that in the last few years they have multiplied many folds and all of them consume energy. Developed countries like U.S.A. and Canada constitute about 5% of the world’s population but consume one fourth of global energy resources. An average person there consumes 300 GJ (Giga Joules, equal to 60 barrels of oils) per year. By contrast, an average man in a poor country like Bhutan, Nepal or Ethiopia consumes less than 1 GJ in a year. So a person in a rich country consumes almost as much energy in a single day as one person does in a whole year in a poor country. This clearly shows that our life-style and standard of living are closely related to energy needs. Fig. 2.5.1 shows the strong correlation between per capita energy use and GNP (Gross National product). U.S.A., Norway, Switzerland etc. with high GNP show high energy use while India, China etc have low GNP and low energy use. Bahrain and Quatar  Natural Resources 39 are oil rich states (UAE) and hence their energy consumption and GNP are more, although their development is not that high. 600 UAE Energy consumption in GJ per capita 450 Canada USA 300 Kuwait Norway Sweden Russia Germany 150 UK Greece Switzerland 50 China Argentina Denmark Japan Egypt India 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 Ethiopia Gross National Product (GNP) $ per capita Fig. 2.5.1. Per capita energy use and GNP (Data from World Resources Institute, 1997) n RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES A source of energy is one that can provide adequate amount of energy in a usable form over a long period of time. These sources can be of two types: (1) Renewable Resources which can be generated continuously in nature and are inexhaustible e.g. wood, solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, hydropower, biomass energy, bio-fuels, geo-thermal energy and hydrogen. They are also known as non-conventional sources of energy and they can be used again and again in an endless manner. (2) Non-renewable Resources which have accumulated in nature over a long span of time and cannot be quickly replenished when exhausted e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear fuels like uranium and thorium. Wood is a renewable resource as we can get new wood by growing a sapling into a tree within 15-20 years but it has taken millions of years for the formation of coal from trees and cannot be regenerated in our life time, hence coal is not renewable. We will now discuss various forms of renewable and non-renewable energy resource. 40 Environmental Science and Engineering (a) Renewable Energy Resources Solar energy: Sun is the ultimate source of energy, directly or indirectly for all other forms of energy. The nuclear fusion reactions occurring inside the sun release enormous quantities of energy in the form of heat and light. The solar energy received by the near earth space is approximately 1.4 kilojoules/second/m2 known as solar con- stant. Traditionally, we have been using solar energy for drying clothes and food-grains, preservation of eatables and for obtaining salt from sea-water. Now we have several techniques for harnessing solar en- ergy. Some important solar energy harvesting devices are discussed here. (i) Solar heat collectors: These can be passive or active in nature. Passive solar heat collectors are natural materials like stones, bricks etc. or material like glass which absorb heat during the day time and release it slowly at night. Active solar collectors pump a heat absorbing medium (air or water) through a small collector which is normally placed on the top of the building. (ii) Solar cells: They are also known as photovoltaic cells or PV cells. Solar cells are made of thin wafers of semi conductor materials like sili