Biomolecules ChE 4201 PDF

ChE 4201 Biotechnology Biomolecules Presented By: ALCANTARA HELI CARAAN SERIOSA CUENCA Biomolecules Biomolecule: Character Bonding characteristic Elements and functional groups Biomolecule: Character...

ChE 4201 Biotechnology Biomolecules Presented By: ALCANTARA HELI CARAAN SERIOSA CUENCA Biomolecules Biomolecule: Character Bonding characteristic Elements and functional groups Biomolecule: Character Stereochemistry Types 1. Amino acids 2. Carbohydrates 3. Lipids 4. Nucleic acids May also include 1. Smaller organic molecules 2. Inorganic ions 3. Combinations of biomolecules CARBOHYDRATES INTRODUCTION Organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, known chemically as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. Simple carbohydrates consist of one or two sugar molecules, while complex are made of three or more. The most abundant biomolecules on Earth and may exist in a variety of forms such as General Formula: glucose, sucrose, cellulose, and starch. Cx(H2O)y Monosaccharides A monosaccharide is a carbohydrate derivative made up of a single carbon chain that cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone molecules. An aldose is one that contains an aldehyde group, whereas ketoses have a keto group. Monosaccharides are fuel molecules and building blocks for polysaccharides and nucleic acids. Commonly referred to as simple sugars, Glucose Fructose Galactose examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides Disaccharides are carbohydrates made up of two monosaccharide units linked together by a glycosidic bond formed during a condensation reaction They can be hydrolyzed into the same or Sucrose distinct monosaccharides, and the presence of a free carbonyl group determines whether they are Lactose reducing or non-reducing. Common examples are sucrose, maltose, and lactose, which are all vital energy sources in metabolic processes. Maltose Polysaccharides Polysaccharides (glycans), are large carbohydrate molecules composed of multiple monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages and used as energy storage or structural components. Cellulose They consist of two components: Amylose and Amylopectin. Polysaccharides can be classified as homopolysaccharides (identical monosaccharides) or heteropolysaccharides (different monosaccharides) and can be linear or branched. Starch Characteristics Solubility Optical Activity The quantity and order of hydroxyl groups Carbohydrates have optical activity determine the solubility of carbohydrates because of the existence of chiral carbon in water, which is necessary for sugar atoms in their molecular structure, which transport and metabolic activities. allows them to exist as enantiomers Reducing Properties Isomerism Carbohydrates can act as reducing Refers to the occurrence of molecules with agents in various biological processes the same chemical formula but different due to their ability to donate electrons. structural or spatial configurations. Functions Energy Source/Storage Structural Support Carbohydrates are important energy storage Carbohydrates are fundamental structural agents, primarily glycogen in animals and components in cells, such as cellulose in plant starch in plants, both of which may be walls, glycosaminoglycans in animal tissues, converted down into glucose when needed. and peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls. Cell Recognition and Signalling Protective Barrier Carbohydrates play important roles in cell Carbohydrates are essential for immune recognition and communication, as glycoproteins defense because they enable pathogen and glycolipids participate in immune responses identification, regulate inflammation, and form and other cellular interactions. the protective glycocalyx barrier. Carbohydrates in Early Biotechnology Microorganisms in fermentation were Domestication began more than 10,000 employed by early humans to manufacture years ago, when people began cultivating cheese, yogurt, bread, and alcoholic plants as a dependable source of food. beverages. Carbohydrates in Modern Biotechnology Microorganisms metabolize substrates like Carbohydrate-based biopolymers are used carbohydrates to produce enzymes that in scaffolds for tissue engineering. facilitate various biochemical reactions. Carbohydrates in Future Biotechnology Innovations in smart hydrogels made from Carbohydrates offer significant potential for carbohydrate biopolymers are being future treatments in drug delivery, targeting, developed to respond to environmental and immune enhancement through antigens stimuli. and adjuvants. LIPIDS OVERVIEW Macromolecules consisting of fatty acids and their derivatives that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. These consist of fats, oils, hormones, and certain components of membranes which are grouped together due to their hydrophobic interactions. Due to its high energy value, these are considered as essential constituents of a diet. In the human body. Properties Nonpolar Nature Insolubility Lipids are oily, nonpolar molecules that are Characterized by their solubility in stored in the body's adipose tissue. nonpolar solvents and inability to dissolve in water, lipids form a distinct class of Diverse Compounds compounds. They are a diverse group of compounds primarily made up of hydrocarbon chains. Structural Role Energy Source In biological systems, lipids play a vital role by creating a structural barrier, known As energy-dense organic molecules, lipids as the cell membrane. serve as a crucial energy source for various life processes. TYPES OF LIPIDS Simple Lipids Fats Esters of fatty acids which contain glycerol. Fats which are in liquid form are considered oils. Waxes Waxes are esters formed from fatty acids and high molecular weight monohydric alcohols. TYPES OF LIPIDS Complex Lipids Phospholipids These lipids consist of fatty acids, alcohol, and a phosphate group. They often include nitrogen-containing bases and other substituents. Glycolipids These lipids are composed of a fatty acid, sphingosine, and a carbohydrate component. TYPES OF LIPIDS Precursor and Derived Lipids Fatty Acids These lipids are organic acids usually with long aliphatic tails (long chains), either unsaturated or saturated. Saturated Fatty Acids The absence of carbon-carbon double bonds signifies that a fatty acid is saturated. TYPES OF LIPIDS Precursor and Derived Lipids Unsaturated Fatty Acids Contains one or more double bonds. These naturally occurring fatty acids typically have an even number of carbon atoms Cholesterol These are wax-like substances, a combination of steroids and alcohol. found only in animal source foods Functions of Lipids ENERGY STORAGE INSULATION AND PROTECTION Structural proteins: Confer REGULATING AND SIGNALING HIGH ENERGY stiffness and rigiditySOURCE Lipids in Early Biotechnology During the 17th and 18th centuries, the process of saponification emerged. This is marked as Lipids derived from animal fats were used one of the industrial applications of lipids, as fuel for lamps and in candle making. leading to large-scale production of soap. Lipids in Early Biotechnology Fats and oils served as essential ingredients in cooking and food preservation. They provided flavor, texture, and energy while also protecting food from spoilage. Lipids Modern Biotechnology Lipids derived from algae and other sources are The extraction and modification of lipids for being developed as renewable biofuels. The use in nutraceuticals is an emerging field. conversion of lipid-rich biomass into biodiesel Lipid-based supplements are formulated to represents a significant application in the quest for sustainable energy sources. enhance health benefits Lipids in Modern Biotechnology The cosmetics industry increasingly relies on plant-based and biotechnologically sourced lipids for formulations. Lipids Future Biotechnology The future of lipid biotechnology lies in synthetic Advances in biotechnology may lead to biology, where researchers aim to design personalized lipid formulations that cater to microorganisms that can efficiently produce high- individual dietary needs based on genetic value fatty acids through engineered metabolic pathways. profiles or health conditions. PROTEINS Brief History From the Greek word which means primary, or “proteios”. First described by Berzelius, a Swedish chemist in 1838. The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, and it was done by Dr. Frederick Sanger. Overview A protein is a naturally-occurring, unbranched polymer in which the monomer units are amino acids Proteins are most abundant molecules in the cells after water – account for about 15% of a cell’s overall mass Elemental composition - Contain Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), and Sulfur (S) The average nitrogen content of proteins is 15.4% by mass Also present are Iron (Fe), phosphorus (P) and some other metals in some specialized proteins Amino Acids Building Blocks of Protein An organic compound that contains both an amino (- NH2 ) and a carboxyl (-COOH) group attached to same α-carbon atom All amino acids differ from one another by their R-groups Standard amino acids are divided into groups based on the properties of R-groups non-polar amino acids polar amino acids polar acidic polar basic Essential Amino Nonessential Conditionally Acids Amino Acids Essential A standard amino acid A non-essential amino acid is Conditionally essential amino needed for protein synthesis an amino acid that the human acids are amino acids that the that must be obtained from body can synthesize on its body can't synthesize in dietary sources – adequate own, meaning it does not sufficient quantities during amounts cannot be need to be obtained from the certain periods. synthesized in human body diet. Page 04 Page 04 Chirality Four Different Groups Attached to α-carbon atom 19 of the 20 standard amino acids contain a chiral center Molecules with chiral centers exhibit enantiomerism Peptides Amino acids can bond together to produce an unbranched chain of amino acids. The reaction is between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another amino acid. Such a chain of covalently-linked amino acids is called a peptide. The covalent bonds between amino acids in a peptide are called peptide bonds (amide). Structure Primary Structure Tertiary Structure Protein is the sequence of amino acids Describes the 3-dimensional arrangement bonded together in a polypeptide chain. of the alpha helices and beta sheets of The amino acids are held in place by one polypeptide. The tertiary structure is peptide bonds. held in place by different covalent and noncovalent bonds. Secondary Structure Quaternary Structure Alpha-helix and beta-sheet shapes that a Consists of more than one polypeptide, in polypeptide chain can form. The their tertiary structures, bonded together. secondary structure is held in place by The quaternary structure is held in place hydrogen bonds. by different covalent and noncovalent bonds. Classifications Based on Functions Catalytic: Every chemical reaction in Messenger: transmit signals to the body is driven by an enzyme biochemical processes between different cells, tissues, and organs. Defense: Immunoglobulins are Contractile: Necessary for all central to functioning of the body’s forms of movement. immune system. Transport: Bind small biomolecules Structural: Confer stiffness and and transport them to other rigidity locations in the body. Transmembrane: Span Structural proteins: a cell Confer membrane and stiffness and help control the rigidity movement of molecules and ions. Proteins in Early Biotechnology Albumin probably was the first protein that Jacopo Bartolomeo Beccari, an Italian physicians of ancient civilizations paid biochemist, discovered gluten in 1745. He attention to. Thus, Hippocrates in the V isolated gluten from wheat flour and described century BC associated kidney disease in his how to prepare it. Gluten is a protein found in patients with the presence of foamy urine, wheat, rye, barley, and triticale. It's made up of which, as now is evident, becomes so due to glutenins and gliadins, which are proteins that the presence of albumin in it. form a network when flour is mixed with water. Proteins in Modern Biotechnology Proteins in pharmaceuticals are It refers to the specific protein molecules that biopharmaceutical drugs that target specific are artificially produced using genetic proteins to treat disease. They are a rapidly engineering techniques, essentially creating growing class of therapeutic agents. a synthetic antigen designed to trigger an immune response against a target pathogen. Proteins in Future Biotechnology Scientists have developed a new strain of E. Scientists have identified the role of coli that synthesizes PHA copolymers with ENOD93 gene inside plant cells.This tailorable combinations of monomers, biotechnology will allow for the control over therefore allowing the physical properties to the development of desirable characteristics be adjusted and fine-tuned for each in plants to economically and sustainably application. meet growing demands for crop production. NUCLEIC ACID Overview Nucleic acids are complex macromolecules essential for storing and transmitting genetic information in all living organisms and various viruses. Initially discovered within the cell nuclei. These molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Types DNA RNA (deoxyribonucleic (ribonucleic acid) acid) serves as an organism's plays a key role in translating genetic blueprint genetic information from DNA consists of four nucleotide into proteins bases: adenine (A), thymine RNA contains uracil (U) (T), cytosine (C), and guanine instead of thymine (T). (G). Structure Nucleic acids are long-chain polymers DNA typically forms a double helix made up of monomers called nucleotides. structure. Meanwhile, RNA is usually Each nucleotide consists of three parts: single-stranded. DNA - deoxyribose a sugar RNA - ribose DNA: a nitrogenous adenine & thymine, base cytosine & guanine RNA: adenine & uracil phosphate group Functions Nucleic Acid Nucleic acids play a vital role in regulating cellular processes, including cell division and metabolism. DNA RNA DNA stores the genetic blueprint of an RNA plays various roles in the cell, including organism and ensures the acting as a messenger (mRNA), a structural transmission of hereditary information component of ribosomes (rRNA), and a transfer across generations. molecule during protein synthesis (tRNA). Nucleic Acid in Early Biotechnology Early Discoveries James Arthur Scientists The development of Watson and Kornberg discovered restriction enzymes, Francis Crick successfully messenger which cut DNA at discovered synthesized RNA (mRNA) specific sequences, the double DNA in a test and decoded transformed genetic helix structure tube for the the genetic research by enabling of DNA. first time code. gene cloning. Nucleic Acid in Early Biotechnology Breakthroughs Stanley Cohen and Method to treat genetic Creation of DNA DNA ligase was Herbert Boyer disorders by and mRNA first used to join conducted the first introducing therapeutic vaccines, utilizing DNA fragments, laying the recombinant DNA DNA or RNA into cells genetic sequences groundwork for experiment, successfully to correct faulty genes to instruct cells to recombinant DNA inserting engineered or introduce new ones produce antigens construction. DNA into a cell for to fight diseases. that trigger an replication. immune response. Nucleic Acid in Modern Biotechnology CRISPR-Cas9: This revolutionary gene-editing technology enables precise modifications to Researchers are designing and constructing DNA in living organisms. It allows the correction synthetic genomes or new biological of genetic disorders, the creation of disease- components and systems to create organisms resistant crops, and the exploration of gene with new properties and better understand functions. biological processes. Nucleic Acid in Modern Biotechnology Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and RNA Interference (RNAi) is a natural quantitative PCR (qPCR) are techniques that mechanism that regulates gene expression. amplify specific DNA sequences, making it Scientists have leveraged this process to easier to detect and quantify genetic material. develop treatments that silence harmful genes. Nucleic Acid in Modern Biotechnology Genomic Sequencing: The rapid development Genetically Modified Possible to map an individual's of mRNA vaccines Organisms (GMOs): entire genome quickly and during the COVID-19 Nucleic acids are used to affordably. This information pandemic showcases create GMOs with desirable allows for customized medical the role of nucleic acids traits, such as pest treatments based on a in vaccine innovation. resistance or improved person's genetic profile. nutritional content. Nucleic Acid in Future Biotechnology Scientists are integrating nucleic acids with Gene therapy is advancing toward greater semiconductors to create bio-electronic devices precision and efficiency, with improved for chemical detection and DNA-based circuits. techniques for delivering therapeutic nucleic Combining nucleic acids with nanomaterials acids to specific cells. This progress could also enhances drug delivery by improving expand treatment options for genetic disorders stability, absorption, and targeted release. and various types of cancer. Nucleic Acid in Future Biotechnology Advances in genomic RNA-based The advancements Nucleic acid-based sequencing and therapies, like will facilitate the sensors are being nucleic acid mRNA vaccines production of developed to detect diagnostics enable and RNAi, are biofuels, pollutants and assess personalized expanding, showing pharmaceuticals, and environmental conditions, treatments, optimizing success against other valuable offering potential outcomes and reducing COVID-19 and biotechnological solutions for addressing side effects. hATTR. products. ecological challenges. ChE 4201 Biotechnology Thank You!