Geography Topic List PDF

**Geography** **[The Atmosphere]** ***- Definition: Layer of mixture of gases surrounding the Earth, approximately 1,000 kilometers thick*** ***- Layers:*** \- Exosphere \- Thermosphere \- Mesosphere \- Stratosphere \- Troposphere ***- Temperature trends in each layer*** ***- Reasons for t...

**Geography** **[The Atmosphere]** ***- Definition: Layer of mixture of gases surrounding the Earth, approximately 1,000 kilometers thick*** ***- Layers:*** \- Exosphere \- Thermosphere \- Mesosphere \- Stratosphere \- Troposphere ***- Temperature trends in each layer*** ***- Reasons for temperature changes in each layer:*** \- Troposphere: \- Decreases with height due to fewer air molecules \- Approximately 6°C decrease per 1000 meters of ascent \- Stratosphere: Increases due to ozone absorbing UV radiation \- Mesosphere: Decreases, coldest layer \- Thermosphere: \- Increases, hottest layer \- N~2~, O~2~, and O heated more efficiently by solar radiation \- Exosphere: \- Void of air molecules \- Debated as part of atmosphere ***- Tropopause: Atmospheric boundary between troposphere and stratosphere*** **[Weather]** ***- Definition: Condition of the atmosphere at a specific place and time*** ***- Characteristics and variability of weather*** ***- Weather elements:*** \- Temperature (°C or °F) \- Precipitation (mm or cm) \- Humidity (%) \- Air Pressure (millibars, mb) \- Wind Speed (mph or kph) \- Wind Direction (compass directions) \- Cloud Cover (oktas) \- PM10/PM2.5 \- UV **[Weather Measurement]** ***- Instruments used to measure weather elements:*** \- Thermometer (temperature) \- Rain gauge (precipitation) \- Hygrometer (humidity) \- Barometer (air pressure) \- Anemometer (wind speed) \- Wind vane and wind sock (wind direction) \- Optical Particle Counter (PM10/PM2.5) ***- Units of measurement for each weather element*** ***- Stevenson Screen: Components and purpose*** **[Atmospheric Processes]** \- Convection currents \- Wind formation \- Precipitation formation \- Solar radiation and its effect on temperature at different latitudes \- Uneven heating of Earth\'s surface leading to weather formation \- Formation of rain and clouds \- Fog formation: Radiation fog and its conditions **[Weather Phenomena and Extreme Weather]** ***- Definition of extreme weather*** ***- Thunderstorms:*** \- Heavy rain, lightning, and thunder \- Difference between lightning, lightening, and thunder ***- Flooding and its impacts*** ***- Social, economic, and environmental impacts of extreme weather:*** \- Social Impact: Harm to people, accidents, emotional pain, spreading diseases \- Economic Impact: Financial losses, business disruption, repair costs \- Environmental Impact: Damage to the environment **[Weather Monitoring and Forecasting]** ***- Weather monitoring stations and their locations:*** \- Ships \- High hills \- Major roads and bridges \- Airports \- Residential/commercial areas ***- Weather balloons and satellites*** ***- Macao Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau (SMG)*** **[Aviation and Weather]** \- Reasons for airplanes ascending to the stratosphere after takeoff \- Avoiding extreme weather conditions in the troposphere **[Climate and Geography]** \- Relationship between latitude and temperature \- Impact of Earth\'s spherical shape on solar radiation distribution \- Global distribution of rainforests along the equatorial low-air pressure belt **[Atmospheric Dynamics]** \- Pressure gradient force \- Coriolis force: \- Wind deflection in Northern and Southern hemispheres \- High and low pressure systems \- Formation of unstable weather **[Specific Weather Phenomena]** ***- Fog:*** \- Definition: Group of water droplets suspended in the lower troposphere \- Formation process ***- Radiation fog:*** \- Conditions and formation process \- Factors contributing to its formation (clear sky, gentle wind, etc.) \- Disappearance process ***- Smog: Combination of fog and pollutants*** **[Global Weather Patterns]** \- Factors influencing global weather patterns \- Equatorial low-air pressure belt and its effects