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Pearson McKnight’s World - Physical Great Basin Land features Caribbean Sea Water bodies Aleutian Trench Underwater features...

Pearson McKnight’s World - Physical Great Basin Land features Caribbean Sea Water bodies Aleutian Trench Underwater features Hatteras Plain — Demerara - Plain ennium Is. me d 9 a om v > 9 ta) A. Fade Sala yGomez ta) / tis ala y Gomez Ridge Easter Is. - Challenger Fraa Se : = ¥ racture Zor; ~ , SE, a es ae ie 8 Z Argentine 55 : a Ae: Peers be ARE F Plain ee ge 1000. ~-_ 2000 Miles ae BEA oo hie E Southeast Pacific ee 000 2000 aeKilometters 2000 Basin ee Humboldt Biaih sWionda ts. Falkland wee, Georgia Pees 2 "racturs >, “eS traitofMa eesouth Georgie Ald BE msn Udinges: Ntsey Practine on e a. was , fs ea i One = Ae a: Pacific-Antarctic Ridge Sor =—ANTARCTICA® == =~ cs < es 3 reac New Siberian Is. = aptevSea ~hysical Geography A LANDSCAPE APPRECIATION Content Development: Mary Hill, Dennis Tasa, Ginnie Simione Product Management: Michael Gillespie, Aileen Pogran Jutson, Matthew Walker, International Mapping Product Marketing: Candice Madden, Rosemary Morton Content Management: Jeanne Zalesky, Terry Haugen, Chelsea Noack Rights and Permissions: Ben Ferrini, Jeamweal Bonilla, Content Production: Michael Early, Titas Basu, Tod Regan, Ziki Beth Brenzel, SPi Global Dekel, Mireille Pfeffer, Katie Ostler, SPi Global Cover Image by Seth K. Hughes/Getty Images Copyright © 2022, 2014, 2011, by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, 221 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. All Rights Reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. 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Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates, authors, licensees, or distributors. 2 2021 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Library of Congress Control Number: 2020950587 Rental ISBN-10: 0-13-582714-0 ISBN-13: 978-0-135-82714-7 www. pearsonhighered.com  Brief Contents 1 Introduction to Earth 3 2 Portraying Earth 31 3 Introduction to the Atmosphere 57 4 insolation and Temperature 79 5 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind 111 6 Atmospheric Moisture 143 7 Atmospheric Disturbances 179 8 Climate and Climate Change 211 9 TheHydrosphere 257 10 Cycles and Patterns inthe Biosphere 285 11 Terrestrial Floraand Fauna 313 12 Soils 349 13 Introduction to Landform Study 379 14 The Internal Processes 405 15 Weathering and Mass Wasting 451 16 Fluvial Processes 473 17 Karst and Hydrothermal Processes 505 18 The Topography of Arid Lands 521 19 Glacial Modification of Terrain 545 20 Coastal Processes and Terrain 575 Learning Check Answers AK-1 Appendix! The International System of Units (SI) A-1 Appendix!l U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps A-3 Appendix ill Meteorological Tables A-8 Appendix!V The Weather Station Model A-13 AppendixV K6ppen Climate Classification A-19 Appendix VI Biological Taxonomy and Nomenclature A-21 Appendix VII The Soil Taxonomy A-23 Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index |-1 iii  Geoscience Animations Covering the most difficult-to-visualize topics in physical geography, students can access the Geoscience Animations by clicking on the related Pearson links in the book or through the Mastering Geography™ Study Area. Teachers can assign these media with assessments in Mastering Geography™. 1 Introduction to 8 Climate and Climate Volcanoes Formation of Crater Lake Earth Change The Eruption of Mount Solar System Formation Seasonal Pressure and St. Helens Earth-Sun Relations Precipitation Patterns Igneous Features End of the Last Ice Age Folding Portraying Earth Orbital Variations and Faulting Map Projections Climate Change Seismic Waves Introduction to the Seismographs The Hydrosphere Atmosphere Hydrologic Cycle 15 Weathering and Mass Coriolis Effect The Carbonate Buffering Wasting Ozone Depletion System Mechanical Weathering Tides Insolation and Mass Wasting Tidal Cycle The Eruption of Mount Temperature Ocean Circulation Patterns— St. Helens Atmospheric Energy Subtropical Gyres Balance Ocean Circulation Patterns— 16 Fluvial Processes Gulf Stream Global Conveyor-Belt Stream Sediment Movement Global Warming Circulation Oxbow Lake Formation North Atlantic Deep Water Floods and Natural Levee Atmospheric Pressure Circulation Formation and Wind Arctic Sea Ice Decline Stream Terrace Formation Development of Wind Groundwater Cone of Patterns Depression 18 The Topography of Coriolis Effect The Water Table Arid Lands Cyclones and Anticyclones Wind Transportation of Global Atmospheric 10 Cycles and Patterns in Sediment Circulation the Biosphere Desert Sand Dunes The Jet Stream and Rossby Net Primary Productivity Waves Biological Productivity in 19 Glacial Modification Seasonal Pressure and Midlatitude Oceans of Terrain Precipitation Patterns Arctic Sea Ice Minimum El Nino 13 Introduction to End of the Last Ice Age Landform Study Isostasy Atmospheric Metamorphic Rock Formation Flow of Ice within a Glacier Moisture Isostasy Glacial Processes Hydrologic Cycle Orbital Variations and Water Phase Changes 14 The Internal Processes Climate Change Adiabatic Processes and Seafloor Spreading Atmospheric Stability Paleomagnetism 20 Coastal Processes and Seasonal Pressure and Convection and Plate Terrain Precipitation Patterns Tectonics Wave Motion Plate Boundaries Wave Refraction Atmospheric Divergent Boundaries Tsunami Disturbances Breakup of Pangaea Tides Cold Fronts Subduction Zones Coastal Sediment Transport Warm Fronts Collision of India with Eurasia Movement of a Barrier Midlatitude Cyclones Transform Faults and Island Hurricanes Boundaries Coastal Stabilization Hurricane Hot Towers Hot Spot Volcano Tracks Structures Tornadoes Terrane Formation Seamounts & Coral Reefs  Videos Students can access videos providing engaging visualizations and real-world examples of physical geography concepts by clicking on the related Pearson links in the book or through the Mastering Geography™ Study Area. Teachers can assign these media with assessments in Mastering Geography™. 1 Introduction to Earth 11 Terrestrial Flora and Fauna Mobile Field Trip: Introduction to Physical Mobile Field Trip: Cloud Forest Geography Climate, Crops, and Bees NPS: Managing Invasive Species Portraying Earth NPS: Outside Science: Hunting Lionfish in Biscayne Studying Fires Using Multiple Satellite Sensors National Park Introduction to the Atmosphere 12 Soils NPS: Science in the Park: Denali Mobile Field Trip: The Critical Zone Coriolis Effect Merry Go Round NPS: Inside Canyonlands—Biological Soil Crust Ozone Hole Maps of Soil Moisture NASA: Exploring Earth California Drought Insolation and Temperature 13 Introduction to Landform Study Seasonal Radiation Patterns Mobile Field Trip: Yosemite Ocean Circulation Patterns—Subtropical Gyres Mobile Field Trip: Oil Sands Seasonal Changes in Temperature Black Smokers NPS: Outside Science: Isle Royale 14 The Internal Processes Atmospheric Pressure and Wind Mobile Field Trip: San Andreas Fault NPS: Point Reyes Wilderness Mobile Field Trip: Kilauea Volcano E] Nino Project Condor: Cinder Cones and El Nino Triggers Disease Lava Flows La Nina Project Condor: Monoclines Mobile Field Trip: El Nino Project Condor: Anticlines and Synclines Project Condor: Faulting versus Joints Atmospheric Moisture Hydrological Cycle 15 Weathering and Mass Wasting Mobile Field Trip: Clouds: Earth’s Dynamic Project Condor: Joints and Faults Atmosphere NPS: Geology of Arches NPS: Rock Fall Atmospheric Disturbances Mobile Field Trip: Landslide! NPS: Lightening Safety at Grand Canyon NPS: Outside Science: Keeping an Eye on the 16 Fluvial Processes Everglades Mobile Field Trip: Streams of the Great Smoky NPS: Climate Change: Everglades Mountains 2005 Hurricane Season Project Condor: Meandering Rivers NASA: Hurricane Michael as Seen from Space Mobile Field Trip: Mississippi Delta Project Condor: River Terraces and Climate and Climate Change Base Level Mobile Field Trip: Changing Arctic 18,000 Years of Pine Pollen 17 Karst and Hydrothermal Processes Temperature and Agriculture Mobile Field Trip: Mammoth Cave NPS: Yellowstone: Thermofiles The Hydrosphere NPS: Yellowstone: Geysers Hydrological Cycle NPS: Hidden Waters—Grand Canyon in Depth 18 The Topography of Arid Lands Mobile Field Trip: Moving Water Across California NPS: Death Valley Explorer (E1) Mobile Field Trip: Mammoth Cave Project Condor: Alluvial Fans Mobile Field Trip: Desert Geomorphology 10 Cycles and Patterns in the Biosphere NPS: Death Valley Explorer (E2) Global Carbon Uptake by Plants Mobile Field Trip: Forest Fires vi Videos 1 19. Glacial Modification of Terrain 20 Coastal Processes and Terrain Mobile Field Trip: The Glaciers of Alaska Mobile Field Trip: Gulf Coast NASA: 16 Years of Ice Loss Summertime/Wintertime Beach Conditions — Mobile Field Trip: Climate Change in the Arctic Movement of Sand in Beach Compartment NASA: Operation IceBridge NPS: Padre Island National Seashore NPS: Glacial Change at Kenai Fjords National Park Mobile Field Trip: Cape Cod: Sculpted by Mobile Field Trip: Yosemite Ice & Storm NPS: Experience Your Yosemite  Contents 2 Portraying Earth 31 GEOSCIENCE ANIMATIONS iv Maps and Globes 32 Maps 32 VIDEOS v Map Scale 32 PREFACE xvi Scale Types 32 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK? Mount Rainier 33 Large-Scale and Small-Scale Maps 35 DIGITAL & PRINT RESOURCES xx Map Projections and Properties 35 DEDICATION xxii Map Projections 35 Map Properties 35 ABOUT THE AUTHORS x National Parks 6 Aerial Photographs 43 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE > Growing a City in Geography and Science 8 the Desert 44 The Process of Science 8 Visible Light and Infrared Sensing 45 Numbers and Measurement Systems 8 Thermal Infrared Sensing 45 Environmental Spheres and Earth Systems 9 Multispectral Remote Sensing 46 Earth’s Environmental Spheres 9 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 48 Earth Systems 10 Overlay Analysis 50 Earth and the Solar System 11 GIS in Decision-Making 50 The Solar System 11 Tools of the Geographer 51 FOCUS> GIS for Geographic Decision-Making 52 The Size and Shape of Earth 12 The Geographic Grid—Latitude and Longitude 13 Learning Review 53 Latitude 14 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 55 Longitude 16 Locating Points on the Geographic Grid 18 Earth-Sun Relations and the Seasons 18 Earth Movements 18 _ 3 Introduction tothe The Annual March of the Seasons 20 Atmosphere 57 Seasonal Transitions 22 Significance of Seasonal Patterns 23 Telling Time 23 Standard Time 24 Size and Composition of the Atmosphere 58 International Date Line 24 Size of Earth’s Atmosphere 58 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE} Images of Earth at Night 26 Development of Earth’s Modern Atmosphere 58 Daylight-Saving Time 26 Composition of the Modern Atmosphere 59 Permanent Gases 59 Learning Review 27 Variable Gases S59 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 28 Particulates (Aerosols) 60 vii viii Contents Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 61 Variations in Insolation by Latitude and Season 92 Thermal Layers 61 Latitudinal and Seasonal Differences 92 Pressure 62 Latitudinal Radiation Balance 94 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK > Denali 63 Land and Water Temperature Contrasts 95 Composition 64 Warming of Land and Water 95 Weather and Climate 65 Cooling of Land and Water 95 Weather 65 Implications 95 Climate 65 Mechanisms of Global Energy Transfer 96 The Elements of Weather and Climate 65 Atmospheric Circulation 96 The Controls of Weather and Climate 65 Oceanic Circulation 96 The Coriolis Effect 68 Vertical Temperature Patterns 99 Human-Caused Atmospheric Environmental Lapse Rate 99 Change 69 Average Lapse Rate 99 Depletion of the Ozone Layer 69 Temperature Inversions 99 Air Pollution 72 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE > Aerosol Plumes Circling Global Temperature Patterns 100 the Globe 73 Prominent Controls of Temperature 101 Energy Production and the Environment 74 Seasonal Patterns 102 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY > Transitioning from Annual Temperature Range 102 Fossil Fuels 75 Measuring Global Temperatures 103 Urban Heat Islands 103 Learning Review 76 ENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS 77 Climate Change and Global Warming 103 FOCUS > Measuring Earth’s Surface Temperature by Satellite 104 Temperature Change Over the Past Century 104 Increasing Greenhouse Gas Concentrations 105 4 Insolation and FEATURED NATIONAL PARK > Isle Royale, MI 106 Temperature 79 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 107 Learning Review 107 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 109 The Impact of Temperature on the Landscape 80 Energy, Heat, and Temperature 80 Energy 80 5 Atmospheric Temperature and Heat 81 Measuring Temperature 81 ~~ Pressure and Solar Energy 82 ee LS : Wind 111 Electromagnetic Radiation 82 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY > Solar Power 83 The Impact of Pressure and Wind on the Landscape 112 Insolation 85 The Nature of Atmospheric Pressure 112 Basic Warming and Cooling Processes in Factors Influencing Atmospheric Pressure 112 the Atmosphere 85 Mapping Pressure with Isobars 114 Radiation 85 Absorption 86 The Nature of Wind 114 Reflection 86 Direction of Movement 114 Scattering 86 Wind Speed 116 Transmission 87 Cyclones and Anticyclones 117 Conduction 89 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY > Wind Power 118 Convection 89 Advection 89 The General Circulation of the Atmosphere 119 Idealized Circulation Patterns 119 Adiabatic Cooling and Warming 90 Components of the General Circulation 121 Latent Heat 90 Subtropical Highs 121 Earth’s Solar Radiation Budget 90 Trade Winds 121 Long-Term Energy Balance 90 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 123 Global Energy Budget 91 The Westerlies 124  Contents ix Jet Streams 124 Adiabatic Processes 153 Polar Highs 125 Dry and Saturated Adiabatic Rates 153 Polar Easterlies 126 Significance of Adiabatic Temperature Changes 154 Polar Front 126 Vertical Patterns of the General Circulation 126 Atmospheric Stability 154 Buoyancy 154 Modifications of the General Circulation 127 The Stability of Air 155 Seasonal Variations in Location 127 Determining Atmospheric Stability 156 Monsoons 127 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE} Changes in the Clouds 158 South Asian Monsoon 130 Classifying Clouds 158 Fog 159 Localized Wind Systems 131 Dew 160 Sea and Land Breezes 131 Clouds and Climate Change 161 Valley and Mountain Breezes 131 Katabatic Winds 131 Precipitation 161 Foehn and Chinook Winds 132 SNAPSHOTS FROM OUR NATIONAL PARKS»? From Mount Rainier to the Everglades 162 Santa Ana Winds 132 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK} Point Reyes 133 The Processes 163 Forms of Precipitation 164 El Niho-Southern Oscillation 134 Effects of El Nino 134 Atmospheric Lifting and Precipitation 165 FOCUS) GOES Weather Satellites 166 Normal Pattern 134 Convective Lifting 167 E] Nino Pattern 135 Orographic Lifting 168 La Nina 136 Frontal Lifting 168 Causes of ENSO 136 Convergent Lifting 168 Teleconnections 137 FOCUS»? Multiyear Atmospheric and Oceanic Cycles 138 Global Distribution of Precipitation 169 Regions of High Annual Precipitation 169 Learning Review 139 Regions of Low Annual Precipitation 170 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 141 Seasonal Precipitation Patterns 170 Precipitation Variability 171 Acid Rain 172 Sources of Acid Precipitation 173 6 Atmospheric FEATURED NATIONAL PARK} The National Mall 174 ' Moisture 143 Learning Review 175 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 177 The Impact of Atmospheric Moisture on the Landscape 144 The Nature of Water: Commonplace But Unique 144 say 7 Atmospheric The Hydrologic Cycle 144 5 Disturbances 179 The Water Molecule 144 Important Properties of Water 145 Phase Changes of Water 146 The Impact of Storms on the Landscape 180 Latent Heat 146 Importance of Latent Heat in the Atmosphere 148 Air Masses 180 Characteristics 180 Water Vapor and Evaporation 149 Origin and Source Regions 180 Evaporation and Rates of Evaporation 149 Classification 180 Evapotranspiration 149 Movement and Modification 180 Measures of Humidity 150 North American Air Masses 181 Actual Water Vapor Content 150 Fronts 181 Relative Humidity 150 Cold Fronts 183 Related Humidity Concepts 152 Warm Fronts 183 Condensation 152 Stationary Fronts 183 The Condensation Process 152 Occluded Fronts 183 xX Contents Air Masses, Fronts, and Major Atmospheric Disturbances 183 Severe Midlatitude Climates (Group D) 229 SNAPSHOTS FROM OUR NATIONAL PARKS > Grand Teton, Humid Continental Climate (Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, Dwb) 229 Rocky Mountains, and Death Valley 184 Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd, Dwe, Dwd) 231 Midlatitude Cyclones 184 Polar and Highland Climates (Groups Eand H) 232 Characteristics 185 Tundra Climate (ET) 233 Movements 186 Ice Cap Climate (EF) 234 Life Cycle 187 Highland Climate (Group H) 235 Weather Changes with the Passing of a Midlatitude Global Patterns Idealized 236 Cyclone 189 Occurrence and Distribution 189 Global Climate Change 237 SNAPSHOTS FROM OUR NATIONAL PARKS > Impact of Midlatitude Anticyclones 189 Climate Change 238 Characteristics 189 Time Scales of Climate Change 239 FOCUS > Conveyor Belt Model of Midlatitude Cyclones 190 Determining Climates of the Past 239 Relationships of Cyclones and Anticyclones 191 Dendrochronology 239 Tropical Cyclones: Hurricanes 191 Oxygen Isotope Analysis 240 Origin and Environment 191 Ice'Cores 241 Categories of Tropical Cyclones 192 Pollen Analysis 242 Characteristics 193 Remnant Glacial Landforms 242 Movement 194 Speleothems 242 Damage and Destruction 195 Causes of Climate Change 242 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK > Everglades 196 Atmospheric Aerosols 242 Hurricanes and Climate Change 198 Fluctuations in Solar Output 243 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 199 Variations in Earth-Sun Relations 243 Thunderstorms 199 Greenhouse Gas Concentrations 244 Tornadoes 201 Feedback Mechanisms 245 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE > Are Tornado Patterns The Roles of the Ocean 245 Changing? 202 Anthropogenic Climate Change 246 Severe Storm Watches and Warnings 204 Observed Current Climate Change 246 FOCUS > Weather Radar 205 Natural or Anthropogenic Climate Change? 247 Learning Review 206 Future Climate Change 248 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 208 Using Models to Predict Future Climate 248 Projections of Future Climate 249 Addressing Climate Change 250 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ? Disappearing and 8 Climate and Climate Novel Climates 251 Change 211 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY > Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 252 International Climate Change Agreements 253 Newly Industrialized Countries 253 Climate Classification 212 Mitigating and Adapting 253 The K6ppen Climate Classification System 212 Climographs 213 Learning Review 254 World Distribution of Major Climate Types 214 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 255 Tropical Humid Climates (Group A) 215 Tropical Wet Climate (Af) 215 Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw) 217 Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am) 219 9 The Dry Climates (Group B) 220 Hydrosphere 257 Subtropical Desert Climate (BWh) 221 Midlatitude Desert Climate (BWk) 223 Mild Midlatitude Climates (Group C) 224 The Hydrologic Cycle 258 Mediterranean Climate (Csa, Csb) 225 Surface-to-Air Water Movement 258 Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa, Cwa, Cwb) 226 Air-to-Surface Water Movement 259 Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb, Cfc) 228 Movement on and beneath Earth’s Surface 259  Contents xi Residence Times 260 Biological Factors and Natural Distributions 298 Energy Transfer in the Hydrologic Cycle 260 Evolutionary Development 298 The Oceans 260 Migration and Dispersal 299 How Many Oceans? 260 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE > Honey Bees at Risk 300 Characteristics of Ocean Waters 260 Reproductive Success 301 Population Die-off and Extinction 301 Movement of Ocean Waters 263 Plant Succession 302 Tides 263 Ocean Currents 264 Environmental Factors 303 PEOPLE & THE ENVIRONMENT } The Great Pacific FEATURED NATIONAL PARK > Rocky Mountain 304 Garbage Patch 266 The Influence of Climate 305 Edaphic Influences 306 Permanent Ilce—The Cryosphere 267 Topographic Influences 306 Permafrost 269 Wildfire 306 Surface Waters 270 Environmental Correlations 307 Lakes 270 The Example of Tropical Rainforest 307 SNAPSHOTS FROM OUR NATIONAL PARKS ? Glen Canyon and Lake Mead 273 Learning Review 310 Wetlands 274 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 311 Rivers and Streams 274 Groundwater 274 Movement and Storage of Groundwater 275 Zone of Aeration 276 11 Terrestrial Flora Zone of Saturation 276 Waterless Zone 278 and Fauna 313 Groundwater Mining 278 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE > Monitoring Groundwater Resources from Space 279 Ecosystems and Biomes 314 Learning Review 281 Ecosystem: A Concept for All Scales 314 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 283 Biome: A Scale for All Biogeographers 314 Terrestrial Flora 315 Characteristics of Plants 315 Environmental Adaptations 316 10 Cycles and Global Distribution of Plant Associations 317 Patterns inthe Vertical Zonation 319 Local Variations 320 Biosphere 285 Terrestrial Fauna 320 Characteristics of Animals 321 The Impact of Plants and Animals on the Kinds of Animals 321 Landscape 286 Environmental Adaptations 322 The Geographic Approach to the Study SNAPSHOTS FROM OUR NATIONAL PARKS >} Shenandoah, of Organisms 286 Badlands, and Denali 324 Biogeography 286 Competition among Animals 326 The Search for a Meaningful Classification Cooperation among Animals 326 Scheme 287 Zoogeographic Regions 327 Biogeochemical Cycles 288 The Major Biomes 328 The Flow of Energy 288 Tropical Rainforest 329 The Hydrologic Cycle 290 Tropical Deciduous Forest 329 The Carbon Cycle 290 Tropical Scrub 331 ENERGY FORTHE 21ST CENTURY > Biofuels 291 Tropical Savanna 331 The Nitrogen Cycle 293 Desert B33 The Oxygen Cycle 294 Mediterranean Woodland and Shrub 334 Mineral Cycles 295 Midlatitude Grassland 334 Food Chains 295 Midlatitude Deciduous Forest 335 Food Pyramids 296 Boreal Forest 336 Pollutants in the Food Chain 297 Tundra 338 xii Contents Human Modification of the Soil Classification 364 Biosphere 339 The Soil Taxonomy 364 Physical Removal of Organisms 339 FOCUS } Soil Differences—They’re All about Scale 365 Habitat Modification 339 The Mapping Question 366 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE } Rainforest Global Distribution of Major Soils 366 Loss intheAmazon 341 Entisols (Very Little Profile Development) 368 Introduction of Exotic Species 342 Inceptisols (Few Diagnostic Features) 368 Loss of Biodiversity 343 Andisols (Volcanic Ash Soils) 369 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK) Everglades 344 Gelisols (Cold Soils with Permafrost) 369 Learning Review 345 Histosols (Organic Soils on Very Wet Sites) 370 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 346 Atidisols (Soils of Dry Climates) 370 Vertisols (Swelling and Cracking Clays) 370 Mollisols (Dark, Soft Soils of Grasslands) 371 Alfisols (Clay-Rich B Horizons, High Base Status) 372 {12Soils 349 Ultisols (Clay-Rich B Horizons, Low Base Status) 372 Spodosols (Soils of Cool, Forested Zones) 373 Oxisols (Highly Weathered and Leached) 373 Distribution of Soils in the United States 374 Learning Review 375 Soil and Regolith 350 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 376 Soil as a Component of the Landscape 350 From Regolith to Soil 350 Soil-Forming Factors 350 13 Introduction The Geologic Factor 350 The Climatic Factor 351 to Landform The The Topographic Factor 351 Biological Factor 352 Study 379 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE } Invasive Earthworms Change Soils as We Know Them! 353 The Structure of Earth 380 The Time Factor 353 Earth’s Hot Interior 380 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK> Canyonlands 354 The Crust 380 The Mantle 380 SoilComponents 354 The Inner and Outer Cores 381 Inorganic Materials 354 Plate Tectonics and the Structure of Earth 381 Organic Matter 355 The Composition of Earth 381 Soil Air 355 Minerals 382 Soil Water 356 Rocks 383 Soil Properties 357 Igneous Rocks 384 Color 357 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK? Yosemite 387 Texture 358 Sedimentary Rocks 388 Structure 359 Metamorphic Rocks 390 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY > Unconventional Soil Chemistry 360 Hydrocarbons and the Fracking Revolution 392 Colloids 360 The Rock Cycle 394 Cation Exchange 360 Continental and Ocean Floor Rocks 394 Acidity/Alkalinity 360 Isostasy 395 Soil Profiles 360 The Study of Landforms 395 Soil Horizons 361 Some Critical Concepts 396 Pedogenic Regimes 362 Internal and External Geomorphic Processes 396 Laterization 362 Uniformitarianism 397 Podzolization 363 Geologic Time 397 Gleization 363 Scale and Pattern 399 Calcification 363 An Example of Scale 399 Salinization 363 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK> Grand Canyon 400 Climate and Pedogenic Regimes 364 Pattern and Process in Geomorphology 401  Contents xiii Learning Review 402 Earthquake Hazards 444 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 403 Ground Shaking 444 Tsunami 444 Earthquake Hazard Warnings 444 FOCUS> Earthquake Prediction 445 14 TheInternal Complexities of the Internal Processes—Example of the Northern Rockies 446 _ Processes 405 Learning Review 447 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 448 The Impact of Internal Processes on the Landscape 406 From Rigid Earth to Plate Tectonics 406 15 Weathering and Wegener’s Continental Drift 406 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 408 Mass Wasting 451 The Evidence 408 Seafloor Spreading 409 Plate Tectonic Theory 411 The Impact of Weathering and Mass Wasting on the Plate Boundaries 412 Landscape 452 Divergent Boundaries 412 Denudation 452 Convergent Boundaries 414 Transform Boundaries 415 Weathering and Rock Openings 452 Types of Rock Openings 452 Plate Boundaries over Geologic Time 415 The Importance of Jointing 453 Additions to Plate Tectonic Theory 418 Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes 418 Weathering Agents 454 Accreted Terranes 420 Mechanical Weathering 454 SNAPSHOTS FROM OUR NATIONAL PARKS > Zion, Bryce Remaining Questions 421 Canyon, andArches 455 Volcanism 421 Chemical Weathering 457 Volcano Distribution 422 Biological Weathering 460 Magma Chemistry and Styles of Eruption 423 Differential Weathering 460 Lava Flows 425 Climate and Weathering 460 Volcanic Peaks 426 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK? Hawai‘i Volcanoes 428 Mass Wasting 461 Factors Influencing Mass Wasting 461 Volcanic Hazards 430 Volcanic Gases 430 Types of Mass Wasting 462 Lava Flows 430 Fall 462 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK} Crater Lake 431 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE } Are Rockfalls Becoming More Common around the World? 464 Eruption Column and Ash Fall 432 Slide 464 Pyroclastic Flows 432 Flow 465 Volcanic Mudflows (Lahars) 432 PEOPLE & THE ENVIRONMENT? The Oso Landslide 467 Monitoring Volcanoes 433 Creep 468 Intrusive Igneous Features 435 Plutons 435 Learning Review 470 Tectonism: Folding 436 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 471 The Process of Folding 436 Types of Folds 437 Topographic Features Associated with Folding 437 16 Fluvial Tectonism: Faulting 438 Processes 473 Types of Faults 439 Landforms Associated with Normal Faulting 440 Landforms Associated with Strike-Slip Faulting 441 The Impact of Fluvial Processes on the Landscape 474 Earthquakes 442 Seismic Waves 442 Streams and Stream Systems 474 Earthquake Magnitude 442 Streamflow and Overland Flow 474 Shaking Intensity 443 Valleys and Interfluves 474 xiv. Contents Drainage Basins 474 Caverns and Related Features 507 Stream Orders 475 Speleothems 507 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY > Hydropower 476 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE > Caverns Hold Evidence of Climate Change 508 Fluvial Erosion and Deposition 477 Erosion by Overland Flow 477 Karst Topography 509 Erosion by Streamflow 477 Karst Landforms 509 Transportation 477 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK >} Mammoth Cave 510 Deposition 478 Hydrothermal Features 513 Perennial and Intermittent Streams 478 Hot Springs 513 Floods as Agents of Erosion and Deposition 478 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY > Geothermal Energy 514 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK > Great Smoky Geysers S15 Mountains 479 Fumaroles 516 Stream Channels 481 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK > Yellowstone 517 Channel Flow 481 Stream Channel Patterns 482 Learning Review 518 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 519 Structural Relationships 483 Consequent and Subsequent Streams 483 Antecedent and Superposed Streams 483 Stream Drainage Patterns 484 18 The Topography of The Shaping and Reshaping Of Valleys 486 Arid Lands 521 Valley Deepening 486 Valley Widening 489 Valley Lengthening 489 Deposition in Valleys 492 A Specialized Environment 522 Special Conditions in Deserts 522 Floodplains 492 Floodplain Landforms 493 Running Water in Waterless Regions 523 Modifying Rivers for Flood Control 494 Surface Water in the Desert 523 Flood Control on the Mississippi River 494 Fluvial Erosion in Arid Lands 525 PEOPLE & THE ENVIRONMENT > The Future of the Mississippi Fluvial Deposition in Arid Lands 526 River Delta 496 Climate Change and Deserts 527 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE > Desertification 528 Stream Rejuvenation 497 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE > Restoring Urban Streams The Work of the Wind 529 Around the World 498 Aeolian Erosion 529 Aeolian Transportation 530 Theories of Landform Development 499 Davis’s Geomorphic Cycle 499 Aeolian Deposition 531 Penck’s Theory of Crustal Change and Slope Aeolian Processes in Nondesert Regions 533 Development 500 Characteristic Desert Landscape Surfaces 535 Equilibrium Theory 500 Erg—A Sea of Sand 535 Reg—Stony Deserts 535 Learning Review s01 Hamada—Barren Bedrock 536 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 503 Two Representative Desert Landform Assemblages 536 Basin-and-Range Landforms 536 The Ranges 536 17 Karstand Piedmont Zone 537 The Basins 537 Hydrothermal Mesa-and-Scarp Terrain 538 Processes 505 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK > Death Valley 539 Structure of Mesa-and-Scarp Landforms 540 Erosion of Escarpment Edge 540 The Impact of Solution Processes on the Landscape 506 Arches and Natural Bridges 541 Badlands 541 Dissolution and Precipitation 506 Dissolution Processes 506 Learning Review 542 Precipitation Processes 506 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 543  Contents XV 19 Glacial Coastal Processes 576 The Role of Wind in Coastal Processes 576 Modification of Coastlines of Oceans and Lakes 576 Terrain 545 Waves 576 Wave Motion 576 The Impact of Glaciers on the Landscape 546 Wave Refraction 578 Wave Erosion 578 Types of Glaciers 546 Tsunami 580 Mountain Glaciers 546 Continental Ice Sheets 546 Important Shoreline-Shaping Processes 582 Tides 582 Glaciations Past and Present 547 Changes in Sea Level and Lake Level 582 Pleistocene Glaciation 548 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY > Tidal Power 583 Indirect Effects of Pleistocene Glaciations 548 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ? Impact of Sea-Level Rise Contemporary Glaciation 550 onlslands 584 Glacier Formation and Movement 552 Ice Push 584 Changing Snow to Ice 552 Organic Secretions 585 PEOPLE & THE ENVIRONMENT > Disintegration of Antarctic Ice Stream Outflow 585 Shelves 553 Coastal Sediment Transport 585 Glacier Movement 554 Coastal Depositional Landforms 585 Glacier Flow versus Glacier Advance 555 Sediment Budget of Depositional Landforms 586 The Effects of Glaciers 555 Beaches 586 Erosion by Glaciers 555 Spits 587 Transportation by Glaciers 556 Barrier Islands 588 Deposition by Glaciers 556 Human Alteration of Coastal Sediment Budgets 590 Continental Ice Sheets 557 Shorelines of Submergence and Development and Flow 557 Emergence 591 Erosion by Ice Sheets 558 Coastal Submergence 591 Deposition by Ice Sheets 559 Coastal Emergence 591 Glaciofluvial Features 561 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK } Cape Cod National Seashore 592 Mountain Glaciers 562 Development and Flow of Mountain Glaciers 562 Coral Reef Coasts 594 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK ? Glacier 563 Coral Polyps 594 Coral Reefs 595 Erosion by Mountain Glaciers 564 FEATURED NATIONAL PARK } Yosemite 567 FOCUS > Imperiled Coral Reefs 596 Deposition by Mountain Glaciers 568 Learning Review 598 The Periglacial Environment 569 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 599 Patterned Ground 569 Proglacial Lakes 570 Learning Check Answers AK-1 Causes of the Pleistocene Glaciations 570 Appendix! The International System of Climate Factors and the Pleistocene 571 Units (SI) A-1 Are We Still in an Ice Age? 571 Appendix Il U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Learning Review 572 Maps A-3 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 573 Appendix Ill Meteorological Tables A-8 Appendix!V The Weather Station Model A-13 Appendix V Koppen Climate Classification A-19 20 Coastal Processes Appendix VI Biological Taxonomy and Nomenclature A-21 and Terrain 575 Appendix VII The Soil Taxonomy A-23 Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 The Impact of Waves and Currents on the Landscape 576 Index |-1  implications for the future. Topics include Aerosol Preface Plumes Circling the Globe and Changes in the South Asian Monsoon. ¢ Energy for the 21st Century features cover Transitioning from Fossil Fuels; Solar Energy; Wind Power; Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions; Biofuels; Unconventional McKnight’s Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation pre- Hydrocarbons and the Fracking Revolution; Hydropower; sents the concepts of physical geography in a clear, reada- Geothermal Energy; and Tidal Power. ble way to help students comprehend Earth’s physical ¢ Focus features focus on science and technology. Topics landscape. The time-proven approach to physical geogra- include Multiyear Atmospheric and Oceanic Cycles; Soil phy first presented by Tom McKnight more than 35 years Differences—They’re All About Scale; Measuring Earth’s ago and carried through 12 editions, now has a new focus Surface Temperature by Satellite; GOES Weather Satellites; in the 13th edition—that of this country’s National Parks. Conveyor Belt Model of Midlatitude Cyclones; Weather The parks, monuments, seashores, and recreational areas Radar; and Earthquake Prediction. that comprise our National Park system serve as a source of ¢ People & the Environment features include The Oso inspiration for anyone interested in experiencing natural Landslide; The Great Pacific Garbage Patch; and The Future landscapes. They also provide the prefect introduction to of the Mississippi River Delta. topics that range from Earth’s physical features and the processes that form them, to the opportunities they pro- The pedagogical features that were a hallmark of the vide for scientific research, and offer a lens through which 12th edition have been retained and updated. These to view climate change include the following: ¢ Mobile Field Trip Videos have students accompany acclaimed photographer and pilot Michael Collier in FEATURES OF 13TH EDITION the air and on the ground to explore iconic landscapes Users of earlier editions will see that the overall sequence of North America and beyond. “All 22 videos are” avail- of chapters and most topics remains the same, with mate- able within Mastering Geography. rial added and updated in several key areas. Changes to the e The entire art program was created by the geoscience illus- new edition include the following: trator Dennis Tasa and includes more than 800 diagrams and maps, done in Dennis’s distinctive, accessible style. ¢ NEW As introduced in Chapter 1, each chapter includes ¢ Each chapter includes a refined learning path, begin- at least one feature that explores a National Park. These ning with a series of Key Questions to help students include a Featured National Park that focuses on prioritize key issues and concepts. one particular aspect or Snapshots From Our * Throughout each chapter, Learning Check questions National Parks that presents a series of images that periodically confirm student understanding of the relate to a particular topic. material. ¢ NEW In addition to the images incorporated into the * The end-of-chapter Learning Review includes Key National Park features, Our National Parks banners Terms and Concepts, Study Questions, and Exercises plus a highlight more than 90 photographs that appear as capstone activity called Environmental Analysis that numbered figures in the text, each accompanied by a sends students online to use a variety of interactive sci- locator map of the park. Also, highlighted with Science ence resources and data sets to perform data analysis in the Field banners, photos highlight scientists and and critical thinking tasks. researchers at work, many in National Parks. The media assets included in the 13th edition include: ¢ NEW Each chapter now opens with the image of a National Park that is the subject of Seeing Geographi- ¢ NEW More than 20 NPS Videos produced by the National cally in Our National Parks. This feature tests stu- Park Service are included with many of the National dents ability to analyze and interpret what they see Park features and linked by short Urls. Also available before they begin the chapter and then, at the end of within Mastering Geography. the chapter, asks them to reassess their initial assump- * Project Condor Quadcopter Videos, take students out into tions given what they have learned. the field through narrated quadcopter footage, explor- All the features originally introduced in the 12th edi- ing the physical processes that have helped shape North American landscapes. tion, including many authored by outside contributors, * The book is supported by Mastering Geography™, the have been retained and updated. These include the most widely used and effective online homework, tuto- following: rial, and assessment system for the sciences. Assignable * Global Environmental Change features written by media and activities include Geoscience Animations, expert contributors that present brief case studies on Videos, Mobile Field Trip Videos, Project Condor Quad- natural and human-caused environmental change, copter Videos, Encounter Physical Geography Google exploring important contemporary events and Earth™ Explorations, GIS-inspired MapMaster™ xvi  Preface xvii interactive maps, coaching activities on the toughest map of the countries of the world is found inside the topics in physical geography, end-of-chapter questions back cover. and exercises, reading quizzes, and Test Bank questions. ¢ Science in the Field photo features highlight the real- world people and professions in geography and science Chapter updates for the 13th edition include the today. following: ¢ Each chapter begins with a quick overview of the mate- In Chapter 1, the introduction of the new national parks rial, as well as a series of questions—think about these theme in a two-page feature National Parks: Our questions as you study the material in that chapter. Geographical Laboratories. ¢ Look at the photograph from a National Park that begins In Chapter 3, the chapter was reorganized, placing each chapter. The Seeing Geographically in Our National Parks Human-Caused Atmospheric Change at the end of the questions for this photograph will get you thinking about chapter; data and satellite imagery has been updated. the material in the chapter and about the kinds of things In Chapter 4, the material on the greenhouse effect has that geographers can learn by looking at a landscape. been updated to reflect current terminology; the figure ¢ As you read through each chapter, you’ll come across illustrating adiabatic cooling and warming has been short Learning Check questions. These quick questions clarified; data and satellite imagery has been updated. are designed to check your understanding of key infor- In Chapter 6, the material on latent heat in the atmos- mation in the text section you’ve just read. Answers to phere has been clarified and now includes an illustra- the Learning Check questions are found in the back of tion; data and satellite imagery has been updated. the book. Chapter 7 includes clarifications in the Midlatitude ¢ Each chapter concludes with a Learning Review. Begin Cyclones section and discussion and illustrations of with the Key Terms and Concepts questions—these will some of the latest storms, including Hurricanes Harvey check your understanding of basic factual information (2017), Michael (2018), and Dorian (2019). and key terms (which are printed in bold type through- Chapter 8, Climate and Climate Change, has been thor- out the text). Then, answer the Study Questions—these oughly updated and revised with the latest data and will confirm your understanding of major concepts pre- applications. sented in the chapter. Finally, you can try the Exercises— Chapter 9, the material on the cryosphere has been for these problems you’ll interpret maps or diagrams updated, along with other data and satellite. and use basic math to reinforce your understanding of Chapter 10, image of the 2019 Camp Fire has been the material you’ve studied. included. ¢ Environmental Analysis activities at the end of each chap- Chapter 11, the material and data on the tropical rain- ter will direct you to interactive science resources and forest has been updated. data sets for broader data analysis and critical thinking. Chapter 13, the Geologic Time Scale has been updated * Finish the chapter by answering the Seeing Geographically and a discussion of absolute and relative dating has been questions at the end of the Learning Review. To answer included in the NPS feature. these questions, you’ll put to use things you’ve learned Chapter 14, the new NPS feature includes a timeline of in the chapter. As you progress through the book, you the ongoing eruptions of Kilauea, including the erup- begin to recognize how much more you can “see” in a tion in 2018. landscape after studying physical geography. Chapter 19, maps and data have been updated on gla- ¢ The alphabetical glossary at the end of the book pro- ciers and ice shelves. vides definitions for all of the key terms. ¢ All chapters include URLs that direct you to Mobile Field Trips, Project Condor Quadcopter Videos, online anima- tions, and other videos. The animations and videos TO THE STUDENT help explain important concepts in physical geography and also provide real-world case studies of physical Welcome to McKnight’s Physical Geography: A Landscape geography in action. The animations and videos can Appreciation. Take a minute to skim through this book to also be accessed through the Student Study Area in see some of the features that will help you learn the mate- MasteringGeography, and can also be assigned for credit rial in your physical geography course: by teachers. You’ll notice that the book includes many diagrams, maps, and photographs. Physical geography is a visual discipline, so studying the figures and their captions is just as important as reading through the text itself. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many photographs have “locator maps” to help you I first want to formally welcome Redina Finch as coauthor learn the locations of the many places we mention in of McKnight’s Physical Geography. Her involvement with the book. the textbook began as a major contributor to the previ- A reference map of physical features of the world is ous edition. Now as coauthor, she took primary respon- found inside the front cover of the book, and a reference sibility for the revisions of our chapters on atmospheric xviil Preface science—although her mark is found throughout the book. Sandra Arlinghaus, University ofMichigan It is a much better textbook because of her contributions Christopher Atkinson, University of North Dakota and thoughtful critiques. Robert Bailis, Stockholm Environment Institute Once again Dennis Tasa has done a wonderful job on the Greg Bierly, Indiana State University illustrations. We’ve now worked together on four editions, Mark Binkley, Mississippi State University and he continues to impress me with his ability to take rough Peter Blanken, University of Colorado ideas and turn them into effective and beautiful illustrations. Margaret Boorstein, Long Island University Iam delighted that we are again including the Mobile James Brey, University of Wisconsin Fox Valley Field Trip videos developed by photographer, writer, pilot, David Butler, Texas State University and educator, Michael Collier—many of his videos fit in per- fectly with this new edition’s focus on our National Parks. Karl Byrand, University of Wisconsin A special nod of appreciation goes to my previous editor, Sean Cannon, Brigham Young University-Idaho Christian Botting, who first developed the idea of a National Wing Cheung, Palomar College Parks emphasis for this new edition of the textbook. Jongnam Choi, Western Illinois University Finally, I offer my deepest gratitude to Development Keith Clarke, University of California-Santa Barbara Editor Mary Hill. Her sound advice and critical eye for Glen Conner, Western Kentucky University detail all through the writing and production process has Carlos E. Cordova, Oklahoma State University improved this book enormously. Richard A. Crooker, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania As with previous editions, this book was a collaborative Kristine L. DeLong, Louisiana State University effort incorporating contributions of many scholars who Mike DeVivo, Grand Rapids Community College wrote short boxed essays, problem sets, and activities for Bryan Dorsey, Weber State University the book. Many thanks to all who offered their ideas for improvement for this edition, including: Don W. Duckson, Jr., Frostburg State University Robert A. Dull, University of Texas at Austin Mary Bates, College of the Canyons Ted Eckmann, University of Portland John Conley, Santa Ana College Tracy Edwards, Frostburg State University Matthew Connolly, University of Central Arkansas Steve Emerick, Glendale Community College Robert Earle, Sacramento City College Purba Fernandez, De Anza College Tracy Edwards, Frostburg State University Jason Finley, Los Angeles Pierce College Abdullah Khan, Los Angeles Mission College Lynda Folts, Richland College Heidi Lannon, Santa Fe College Doug Foster, Clackamas Community College Jennifer Lewis, Madison Area Technical College Matthew Fry, University of North Texas Armando Mendoza, Cypress College Basil Gomez, Indiana State University Angela Milakovic, Bismarck State College Jerry Green, Miami University-Oxford Scott Phillips, Clovis Community College Michael Grossman, Southern Illinois University-Edwardsville Jon Rossiter, Irvine Valley College Christopher Groves, Western Kentucky University Tiffany Seeley, East Los Angeles College Andrew J. Grundstein, University of Georgia Ray Sumner, Long Beach City College PerryJ.Hardin, Brigham Young University Paul Vincent, Valdosta State University Ann Harris, Eastern Kentucky University David Walker, College of Southern Maryland Miriam Helen Hill, Jacksonville State University Thomas Wikle, Oklahoma State University Barbara Holzman, San Francisco State University Lin Wu, Cal State Polytech University Pomona Robert M. Hordon, Rutgers University Matt Huber, Syracuse University Over the years, scores of colleagues, students, and Paul Hudson, University of Texas friends have helped me and the founding author of this Catherine Jain, Palomar College book, Tom McKnight, update and improve this textbook. Steven Jennings, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs Their assistance has been gratefully acknowledged previ- ously. Here we acknowledge those who have provided assis- Ryan Jensen, Brigham Young University tance in recent years by acting as reviewers of the text and Dorleen B. Jenson, Salt Lake Community College animations that accompany it, or by providing helpful cri- Kris Jones, Saddleback College tiques and suggestions: Ryan Kelly, Lexington Community College Joseph Kerski, ESRI Victoria Alapo, Metropolitan Community College John Keyantash, California State University-Dominguez Hills Jason Allard, Valdosta State University Rob Kremer, Metropolitan State College of Denver Casey Allen, Weber State University Kara Kuvakas, Hartnell College Sergei Andronikoy, Austin Peay State University Steve LaDochy, California State University  Preface xix Colin Long, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh Many of my colleagues at City College of San Francisco Ryan Longman, University ofHawaii at Manoa offered valuable suggestions on sections of the previous Kerry Lyste, Everett Community College and current editions of the book: Ian Duncan, Carlos Michael Madsen, Brigham Young University-Idaho Jennings, Dack Lee, Chris Lewis, Joyce Lucas-Clark, Robert Michael E. Mann, Pennsylvania State University Manlove, Kathryn Pinna, Todd Rigg-Carriero, Kirstie Kenneth Martis, West Virginia University Stramler, Carole Toebe, and Katryn Wiese. I also extend my appreciation to my many students over the years—their Martin Mitchell, Minnesota State University-Mankato curiosity, thoughtful questions, and cheerful acceptance of William Monfredo, University of Oklahoma my enthusiasm for geography have helped me as a teacher Mandy Munro-Stasiuk, Kent State University and as a textbook author. Paul O’Farrell, Middle Tennessee State University Textbooks of this scope cannot be created without a pro- Thomas Ort, Las Positas College duction team that is as dedicated to quality as the authors. Michael C, Pease, Central Washington University First of all, my special thanks go to both the former Pearson Natalie Peyronnin, Mississippi River Delta Restoration Acquisitions Editors Christian Botting and Thomas Hoff as Stephen Podewell, Western Michigan University well as Director of Product Michael Gillespie, Content Nick Polizzi, Cypress College Manager Josh Frost, and Director of Content Jeanne Zalesky; Jennifer Rahn, Samford University all of whom facilitated a steady transition of content creation Robert Rohli, Louisiana State University during a tumultuous time. My thanks and admiration go to SPi Content Producer Brett Coker and Associate Content Diana Sammataro, DianaBrand Honey Bee Research Services Producer Titas Basu whom kept me on track throughout the Anne Saxe, Saddleback College entire production process. Many thanks also to Development Randall Schaetzl, Michigan State University Editors Mary Hill, David Chelton, and Sonia Divitorrio, and Jeffrey Schaffer, Napa Valley College Product Manager Aileen Pogran, SPi Global Project Manager John H. Scheufler, Mesa College Katie Ostler, Photo Researcher Jeff Puda, International ChristopherJ. Seeger, Jowa State University Mapping Senior Project Manager Kevin Lear, Content Analyst Bradley A. Shellito, Youngstown State University Chelsea Noack, Marketing Coordinator Rosemary Morton, Terry Shirley, University of North Carolina-Charlotte Senior Product Marketing Manager Candice Madden, Media Jorge Sifuentes, Cuesta College Producer Ziki Dekel, Photo Researchers Grace Annalyn Subito Robert A. Sirk, Austin Peay State University and Jeamweal Bonilla, Permissions Manager Grace Subito Valerie Sloan, University of Colorado at Boulder Annalyn, and Copy Editor Sheryl Nelson. Dale Splinter, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater Finally, I wish to express my appreciation for my wife, Nora. Her help, understanding, and support have once Stephen Stadler, Oklahoma State University again seen me through the long hours and many months Herschel Stern, Mira Costa College of work that went into this book. Pat Stevenson, Natural Resources Department, Stillaguamish Tribe Paul Sutton, University of South Australia Darrel Hess Jane Thorngren, San Diego State University Earth Sciences Department Christi Townsend, San Diego State University City College of San Francisco Scott Walker, Northwest Vista College