Philippine-American War (1899-1902) PDF

CHAPTER 14 THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR (1899 - 1902) Contrary to the expectations of the Americans, the occupation of the Philippines and its control took more time and violence to accomplish. The Filipinos, though lacking in arms and munitions, fought...

CHAPTER 14 THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR (1899 - 1902) Contrary to the expectations of the Americans, the occupation of the Philippines and its control took more time and violence to accomplish. The Filipinos, though lacking in arms and munitions, fought valiantly throughout the country. As Mariano Santos, a veteran of the Revolution of 1896 and the Philippine-American War, recalled when interviewed in 1976 at age 101: “Nang dumating ang mga Amerikano, tubig lamang at lupa ang hindi nila dala. Armas, pagkain, gamot, kasuotan mga kabayo at bagol – halos lahat na.” (When the Americans came, they brought everything with them except water and land. Arms, food, munitions, clothing, horses and trains – everthing.) But he quickly added, “Ngunit hindi kami natakot sa kanila. Nasindak lang sa kanilang dami at armas. Matatapang ang mga Pilipino noon.” (But we were not scared, merely awed by their numbers and arms. The Filipinos were brave then.) The colonial motives of the United States over the Philippines were economic, politico-military, and religious. Aguinaldo and the Revolutionary Army in Malolos, who by then were convinced of American take-over, prepared for war. The Filipinos, facing a fully- equipped and trained army for conventional warfare, were badly beaten. But the Filipinos ably substained the resistance through guerilla warfare. The U.S. responded with repressive and violent measure to 230 end the war – using water cure, reconcentration and scorched-earth tactics. The people, threatened by starvation and diseases that were related to the war, opted for peace. THE “BENEVOLENT ASSIMILATION” PROCLAMATION Before the signing of the Treaty of Paris, President McKinley said he did not know what to do with the Philippines. He added that one night he fell on his knees to pray to God to enlighten him on what to do with the Philippines. But he was surrounded by men who had interests in making the Philippines an American colony. These men, representing pressure groups were (1) The American business whose interest included the Philippines not as only the market for American products, but also a stepping stone to Asia’s markets; (2) the military and naval pressure group, who wanted the Philippines as base for American ships and as first line of defense; and (3) the religious pressure group, who wanted the Philippines as a base for Protestant missionaries. All these pressure groups worked hard to make the Philippines an American colony. After the signing of the Treaty of Paris, President McKinley issued the so-called “Benevolent Assimilation” Proclamation. For the first time, McKinley officially announced the American policy regarding the Philippines. It clearly indicated the intention of the United States to exercise sovereignty over the entire Philippines, making it a United States colony. At the same time, the proclamation ordered the American military commanders in the Phippines to extend American sovereignty over the entire archipelago by force. General Elwell Otis, 231 who succeeded General Meritt, did not publish the full text of McKinley’s proclamation for fear of arousing the anger of the Filipinos. Instead, he changed some word to soften the language of the proclamation so as not to antagonize the people. Filipino Reaction to the Proclamation Unfortunately for General Otis, General Marcus P. Miller, who was in Iloilo, published the original text of the proclamation. Copies of this unchanged version fell into the hands of Filipinos. Antonio Luna, editor of La Independencia, attacked the proclamation severely and said it was a trick to make Filipino people quiet. Later, Luna added that the Americans would put into practice what the Spaniards had done in the Philippines. On January 5, 1899, Aguinaldo issued a strongly worded proclamation saying that “my government is disposed to open hostilities if the American troops attempt to take forcible possession of the Visayan Islands.” Otis, realizing the meaning of Aguinaldo’s proclamation, quietly strengthened the American lines as the Filipino- American relations entered a critical stage. Attempts to Relax the Tension Aguinaldo knew very well that a war with the United States would bring hardship and suffering to the people. He tried to relax the tension by suggesting to Otis that their representative should meet to discuss ways and means of avoiding a conflict. Consequently, Otis appointed his representatives which were composed of three military officers. Aguinaldo also appointed his three representatives. The six representatives met for almost a month in January but nothing came 232 out of the meetings because the American representatives were stalling, which heightened the tension of the two panels. The Filipino military officers believed that the Americans were only fooling the Filipinos and that they were not interested in keeping the Filipino- American diplomatic relations. THE SHOT THAT STARTED THE WAR Some incidents which were originally minor in themselves became serious in the face of mounting tension between two peoples. On February 1, 1899 a group of American engineers was arrested by Filipino troops. Otis protested, but Aguinaldo replied that the Americans were not arrested but merely detained because they were found within the Filipino lines. On February 2, General Arthur MacArthur protested the presence of some Filipino soldiers within the American lines. The Filipino withdrew and MacArthur was satisfied. On the night of February 4, 1899, Private Willie W. Grayson shot a Filipino soldier on the corner of Sociego and Silencio Streets in Santa Mesa, Manila. The Filipinos answered with fire and the American- Filipino War was on. Within an hour, all American units were effectively deployed and mobilized throughout Manila and the suburbs. The Incident Investigated That night, Captain Fernando Grey sent a telegram to Malolos saying that the Americans had commenced hostilities. The Filipino commander of the sector where the firing started was In Malolos, together with the officers, attending a dance. Aguinaldo sent a emissary to inform Otis 233 that the “firing on our side the night before had been against my order.” But Otis, haughty and arrogant, said that the “fighting, having started, must go on to the grim end.” Aguinaldo wanting to know how the incident happened, ordered an investigation to determine the truth. Subsequent investigation showed that even as early as February 2 and 3, the Filipino employees in the service of the American ships had been dismissed; that in the morning of February 4, between 200 and 300 American soldiers boarder two cascos for Cavite. Later, it was learned that the soldiers returned to rejoin their units. It was also noted during the investigation that the sudden attack by the Americans in all sectors showed that they preparing for an offensive against the Filipinos. On the other hand, the American commander, Otis, did not attempt to make any investigation. Instead, he ordered an all-out attack against the Filipino troops everywhere. The American Drive to the North Because of their advanced preparations and superior arms, the American troops easily captured town after town in what is now the Rizal province. Earlier in the north of Manila, the Americans won victories in the Battle of La Loma, near the Chinese cemetery, where Major Jose Torres Bugallon died in combat. With La Loma in his hands, MacArthur proceeded to Caloocan where he was met by General Antonio Luna’s force. In the battle that ensued, Luna was defeated. The superior arms of the Americans could not be neutralized by bravery and courage alone. Luna then planned to recapture Manila. On March 22, he led the attack on the city. Two days later, he reached the Azcarraga 234 Street. The American’s realizing the significance of Luna’s victory in this sector, fought hard and succeeded in forcing the intrepid Antonio Luna to retreat to Pulo, Bulacan. American reinforcements arrived in February and March. Otis took the offensive in the north, while General Henry Lawton started in offensive in the south. In a few days, Pulo fell into the Americans and by March 30, they were at the door of Malolos. Meanwhile, Aguinaldo evacuated to Malolos and transferred the capital to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. Otis ordered to MacArthur to rest in Malolos, while Lawton is ordered to continue his offensive against Cavite. The Filipinos had very few victories, but these victories were costly to the Americans. On March 25, the Filipino troops repulsed General Lloyd Wheaton in the Battle of Pulo and killed an American colonel. In Quinga (now Plaridel), Major Bell of the American cavalry was killed in combat with the troops led by “boy” general, Gregorio Del Pilar. In a battle fought in April 23, General Stotsenberg was killed. On December 18, General Licerio Geronimo’s group defeated the Americans under General Lawton in the Battle of San Mateo. General Lawton was killed in the battle. The Battle of Bagbag The capture of Malolos by MacArthur led General Luna to retreat farther north of Luzon. He established his headquarters in Calumpit, the town immediately north of Malolos. Here he prepared his defenses against the Americans who were pursuing him. Luna sent a telegram to General Tomas Mascardo in Guagua asking for reinforcements. Mascardo was under Luna’s jurisdiction, refused. This angered Luna and ordered his officers to leave for Guagua to punish Mascardo. He 235 brought with him the artillery units, the cavalry and the units of the infantry. During Luna’s absence, General Gregorio Del Pilar commanded the sector at Bagbag, a barrio at Calumpit. The Americans swarmed all over the place and defeated Del Pilar. When Luna returned to Calumpit at twilight, the Americans had already captured the large portion of the town. Luna retreated farther north, to Pampanga and made preparation to meet the advancing enemy. THE FALL OF MABINI CABINET Mabini is the next most powerful man in the country, after Aguinaldo. He was president of the cabinet and, as such, he was Prime Minister. He was also a Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Aguinaldo depended on him because he was honest, hardworking and incorruptible. He never used his position to enrich himself in office. He was poor when he entered the government service. He was very poor when he died. When the Americans tried to win over the Filipinos by promising them freedom and autonomy, Mabini said this was the trick of the enemy. He was for the independence of the Philippines. He would not accept anything less than independence. However, his enemies like Pedro A. Paterno, Ambrosio Rianzaress Bautista, Felipe Buencamino and many others who belonged to the wealthy and the powerful, opposed him. They believe that autonomy would be good to Filipinos. So they accepted the American offer of autonomy. Since the group knew that Mabini was opposed to their view, they persuaded Aguinaldo to remove Mabini from office. On May 7, Aguinaldo informed Mabini that Paterno was forming a new cabinet. Mabini knew what it meant. So he sent in the resignation of the entire cabinet he was heading. Mabini spent his 236 last years in his armchair writing articles against the Americans, and his memoirs of the Philippine struggle for independence. THE ASSASINATION OF LUNA General Antonio Luna was the most brilliant among the military officers. Belonging to an educated and wealthy family of Ilocos Norte, Luna however was born in Manila, in the district now known as San Nicolas. He studied pharmacy in Manila and in Spain, where he identified himself with the propagandists. He was also a good writer in Spanish. He had one defect, which the members of the Luna family have in common; he was short-tempered. He was exiled to Spain by the colonial government; and on his way back to the Philippines in 1898, he passed by HongKong. He asked Felipe Agoncillo, a family friend, to give him a letter of recommendation for General Aguinaldo. Agoncillo gave him the necessary recommendation and a revolver. Aguinaldo recognized his brilliance and appointed him to a high position in the army. Luna saw that the army had no discipline in the army, but the common soldiers particularly the Kawit regiment did not like him for it. They refused to take orders from him. When the Filipino- American War broke out, Luna was the chief of the military zone that included many provinces of Central Luzon. He made many enemies because of his short temper. He slapped Felipe Buencamino, Aguinaldo’s Secretary of Foreign Affairs, who disagreed with his (Luna’s) strong opposition to any negotiation or compromise with the Americans. He also used to slap soldiers due to their inefficiency or if they failed to meet his standard. While he was in Bayambang, Pangasinan inspecting the defenses against the advancing Americans, 237 he received a telegram from Cabanatuan saying he was wanted there. So he went there with his aide, Colonel Francisco Roman, and some soldiers. When he reach Aguinaldo’s headquarters in Cabanutan on June 5, 1899 and did not find the president there, he got angry. Then he heard a rifle shot, rushed downstairs, cursed the soldiers, and slapped one of them. A captain named Pendon Kastila for Cavite, hacked Luna with a bolo. The other soldiers, seeing that he was wounded, started hacking him as well as with their bolos; some even fired gunshots at him. Luna drew his revolver but fell outside the convent and died saying, “Cowards! Assassins!” He died with more the forty wounds in his body and head. THE CONQUEST OF THE VISAYAS Meanwhile, Otis instructed Miller to invade Iloilo. To Miller’s demand that the Filipino troops surrender, the Visayan patriot under the leadership of General Martin Delgado decided to fight instead. To prevent the enemy from capturing the city, Delgado ordered his men to burn it. The Americans landed with full force and on February 20, 1899 Jaro fell, followed by Santa Barbara, Oton and Mandurriao. With Iloilo in their hands, the Americans send an expeditionary force to Cebu and on February 22, the city surrendered the enemy. The Cebu patriots, however, did not give up the fight so easily. They resorted to Guerilla warfare under the command of General Arcadio Maxilom and Leandro Fullon. It took some time and much effort for the Americans to completely subdue the brave Cebuanos. Meanwhile in Negros, many wealthy Negrenses sympathized with the Americans. When the enemy came, they raised the American flag. A 238 committee composed of prominent Negrenses was sent to Manila to ask General Otis to allow them to arm a battalion to maintain peace and order. Otis approved the petition, for it was an unusual act of collaboration with the Americans. On March 1, Otis issued an order providing for the creation of the military district to include Panay, Negros, and Cebu. This was known as the Visayan Military District. The Negrenses were allowed to meet in a convention to frame a constitution. Known as the Negros Constitution, it was submitted to President McKinley for approval. The American President, however, did not take it seriously, and nothing came out of it. THE KIRAM-BATES TREATY Upon learning that the Spaniards failed to completely subjugate the Muslims, the Americans dealt with them in a diplomatic way in order to neutralize their offensive. General John C. Bates tried to win the friendship of the Muslim by negotiating with them and treating them as equals. The Sultan of Jolo, Datu Kiram, insisted that the Americans must not be allowed to occupy any other part of Sulu except the town proper of Jolo. Furthermore, the Sultan insisted in collecting customs duties in places that were not occupied by the Americans. Thus, on August 20, 1899, an agreement was signed by General Bates, representing the United States, and the Sultan of Jolo and his datus, representing the Sulu Sultante. Known as the Bates treaty, it provided that the “Sovereignty of the United States over the whole archipelago of Sulu and its dependencies is declared acknowledged” and that “the rights and 239 dignities of His Highness, the Sultan and his datus shall be fully respected.” However, the Americans promised not to interfere in religious matters and not to persecute anybody on account of his religious beliefs. The Americans also agreed to pay the Sultan and his leading datus monthly salaries. With the neutralization of the Muslims, the Americans proceeded with the so-called pacification of the Christian areas of the Philippines. AGUINALDO RETREAT TO PALANAN With the death of General Luna, many Filipino field commanders were demoralized. A number of Aguinaldo’s generals surrendered to the enemy. This development led Otis to make plans to entrap Aguinaldo, the recognized leader of the Filipino people and his army. Aguinaldo, on the other hand, seeing the collapse of his regular army, ordered his troops and the people to conduct guerilla warfare against the enemy, which was expected to be more effective than conventional warfare during that time. The Americans who were not familiar with the local terrain and not used to the tropical climate would be put to a great disadvantage with this tactic. Meanwhile, Aguinaldo together with some selected men, his son, wife, mother, and sister, fled to Pangasinan. The Americans followed him and tried to catch him. But they failed, because the people warned him about the approaching Americans. People were cooperative.. They contributed money, food, and other supplies to Revolutionary Army. Determined not to be captured, Aguinaldo walked from town to town with very little rest. Later, he left his family behind in order to spare them from the hardships of travelling on foot over rivers, valleys, 240 mountains, and streams. Aguinaldo and a handful of faithful followers walked to Tierra Virgen, Cagayan. On September 6, 1900, he and his men reached Palanan, Isabela where he established his headquarters. The Battle of Pasong Tirad While fleeing the Americans, Aguinaldo reached the Mountain Province. He ordered his trusted general, Gregorio Del Pilar, to remain behind as they continued to advance. Del Pilar was to intercept the Americans who were tracking them. This would Aguinaldo sufficient time to widen the distance between him and the pursuing Americans. Del Pilar, after the departure of Aguinaldo, chose to delay the enemy of Pasong Tirad, a narrow pass of 4,500 feet high where he had a good view of the surrounding country. There was only one trail leading to it. So narrow was the trail that only one man at a time could climb it. It was in this place that Del Pilar and sixty loyal soldiers positioned themselves. The American troops positioned under Major Peyton March pursued Aguinaldo. In the morning of December 2, 1899, March and his well armed men proceeded toward Del Pilar’s position. The Filipinos guarding the narrow pass fired at the Americans who had no recourse but to retreat. Unfortunately, an Igorot guided the Americans to a secret trail leading to Del Pilar’s men. The Americans slowly and quietly went up the trail and surprised the Filipino troops. A fierce battle was ensued and Del Pilar was killed by a bullet that has passed through his neck. The American soldiers rushed to the dead body of the young general and looted his personal belongings for souvenirs. The Americans left 241 the body there and for two days remained unburied. On the third day, the Igorots buried his remains in a shallow grave. THE STAGE OF GUERILLA WARFARE Aguinaldo was no longer an effective leader at this stage of the war. Instead, local military leaders sustained the war. Through surprise attacks or ambuscades, and with the support of the townspeople including many of the elites, the war lasted longer than expected. Many Filipino officers were emboldened to fight with renewed enthusiasm. They took advantage of the cooperative attitude of the wealthy Filipinos to help the people in the resistance. Faced with the effective guerilla warfare, Americans used cruel methods to persuade the Filipinos to cooperate with them. For example they used the “water cure” on many Filipinos to punish of extract information to them. This form of torture was done by forcing water into the stomach of a person until it gets filled. Then the person would be made to lie on his back and an American soldier would jump on his stomach. Another torture was placing a rope around a person’s neck and twisting it to choke him. Still, another form of torture was beating the victim until he became blue to his face. In Samar, the Americans also resorted to massacre to avenge the death of their comrades who were killed by the Filipino guerillas under the command of General Vicente Lukban. The Americans also burned the whole town of Balangiga and killed all men and even boys over ten years old. The Americans burned houses, blockaded food from getting to guerillas, re-concentrated pueblos where diseases like cholera and 242 malaria reached epidemic proportions. Many surrendered because they could not take any more of these brutalities. The Capture of Aguinaldo With the help of a Spaniard, Lazaro Segovia, who joined the Filipino forces against the Americans, Colonel Frederick Funston planned the capture of Aguinaldo. The Spaniard led some men from Macabebe and pretended to have captured some American soldiers. They walked to Palanan and informed Aguinaldo through a courier that they were bringing in the American captives. Aguinaldo was happy to hear the news and made preparations for the soldiers who had captured the enemy. When Segovia arrived in the house where Aguinaldo was staying, he and his men signaled to their comrades to start firing. When Aguinaldo rushed to the window to see what was happening, Funston and his men told Aguinaldo to surrender. It was useless, he said, the whole house was surrounded. Aguinaldo was brought in Manila where, on April 1, 1901, he took the oath of allegiance to the government of the United States. In proclamation of April 19, he appealed to the Filipino people to accept the “sovereignty of the United States.” The End of the Guerilla Warfare Upon Aguinaldo’s capture many Filipino field commanders surrendered, while the wealthy Filipinos collaborated with the Americans. However, there were still a few Filipino general who refused to give up the fight like Simoen Ola in Bicol, Roman Manalan in 243 Pangasinan and Zambales, Manuel Tomines in Isabela, and many more. General Miguel Malvar of Batangas took over the leadership of the Filipino Government and fought the enemy in running battles. He was so successful that the Americans tried to frighten the civilian population by concentrating them in place where food supply was supposedly assured. To live outside these zones or sona meant of protection and sure hunger. At this time, too, rinderpest killed over 90% of carabaos, thus rice planting was greatly affected causing severe shortage of food. The Americans continued their relentless campaign against the guerillas. On February 27, 1902, they captured General Vicente Lukban in Samar. This was the end of the guerilla warfare in that province. Two months later, on April 16, General Malvar surrendered in order to save his people from the brutality of the enemy and from hunger. With the surrender of General Malvar, systematic opposition to American sovereignty ceased. It is true that here and there, as in the case of Macario Sakay, patriots refused to surrender, but at this point, their effect on the Americans was negligible. The guerilla warfare was crushed. Pacifying the Ladrones, Non-Christian and Moro People Despite the official declaration of the war by President Theodore Roosevelt on July 4, 1902, recent studies point to the continuation of the fight against the colonizers by politico-religious groups called Ladrones by the Americans, which means thieves and bandits. Composed of poor and uneducated peasants, these groups continued to harass the newly-organized Philippines Scouts or the Filipinos now 244 serving the US Army. These groups who believed in the powers of prayers, rituals and amulets (anting-antings) were not only anti- foreigners (friars, Spanish and Americans) but also anti-caciques and landlords. Among them were the samahans and confradias of Ruperto Rios in Tayabas; Apo Ipe Salvador in Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac and Pangasinan; and Papa Isio of Negros who was greatly feared by the elite who welcomed the Americans and put up their own Republic. There were also the Pulajanes in Cebu (led by the Tabal brothers), “Dios-Dios” in Leyte led by Faustino Ablan and Papa Pablo in Samar. War was ended in these places in piecemeal fashion from 1903 to 1913, using violent means. The non-Christian Filipinos like those in the Cordillera of Luzon and the Muslims in the Sulu archipelago on the south, were “pacified” through the creation of two special provinces; the Moro Province in 1903 and the Mountain Province in 1908. In the Moro Province, however, warfare would continue for a decade up to 1916. The brutal military campaigns of the U.S. against them was revealed in the massacre at Bud Dajo in 1906 in Sulu, where after four days of fighting, the U.S. forces suffered 20 casualties and 70 men wounded. All the Tausugs – men, women, and children, about a thousand of them, were all killed. STUDY GUIDE 1. What was the so-called “Benevolent Assimilation” proclamation? 2. What pressure groups in the United States exerted strong influence over President McKinley? 3. What was the Filipino’s reaction to McKinley’s proclamation? What was Aguinaldo’s feeling after reading the proclamation? 245 4. Why did Aguinaldo take steps to relax the tension between the Filipinos and the Americans? Was he right in taking such steps? Explain your answer. 5. Describe how the Philippine-American War started. Who actually started the war? 6. Recount the results of the investigation regarding the incident at Santa Mesa. Why was there no order for investigation regarding the incident by the American commander? 7. Why were the Filipino troops defeated in the Battle of Bagbag? Why did General Luna leave for Guagua at a time when the Americans were about to attack? 8. Name some of the Filipino victories against the Americans. What do these victories show? 9. Explain why the Mabini Cabinet fell. Was Mabini right in his stand for Philippine independence? Explain your answer. 10. Why was General Luna murdered? Was hi murder justified? Explain your point of view. 11. Explain how the Visayas fell into the hands of the Americans. Was General Delgado right in ordering the burning of the houses in Iloilo? Why? 12. What was the Kiram-Bates Treaty all about? How did the treaty affect the Muslim Filipinos? Were they conquered at this time? Explain your answer. 13. Explain why Aguinaldo retreated to Palanan. What was his motive in doing so? Was he justified? Why? 14. Describe the Battle of Pasong Tirad. Why was General Del Pilar killed in the battle? What lesson can be learned from Del Pilar’s tragic death? 246 15. Describe the capture of Aguinaldo. What was the significance of his capture? 16. List the causes or reasons that led to the collapse of the guerilla warfare. Why did General Malvar finally surrender? Suggested Activities 1. Read the biographies of General Antonio Luna and General Gregorio Del Pilar. Make a summary of each and add them to your list of biographies. 2. Discuss the following topics with your classmates: Had General Luna lived, the Americans would have been defeated. 3. Make a map of Central and Northern Luzon showing the provinces and important towns. With a red pencil or ink, trace the route taken by Aguinaldo from Pangasinan to Palanan, Isabela. 4. Research on the leading commander or commanders in your province or region during Philippine-American War. Read their biographies. Make a summary for each hero and heroine and add them to your list of biographies. 5. How would you explain the defeat of the Filipinos in this war against the American colonizers? 247  CHAPTER 15 RESULTS OF THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR In 1903, when Mabini was asked whether it was wise to go on with armed resistance to American rule or not, he gave this reply in part: “..Let us cease that the people may rest; that it may work to recover from its recent proprietary losses. Let us conform to the opinion of the majority although we may recognize that by this method we do not obtain our desires.” The Philippine-American War resulted in great loss of lives and decreased economic productivity which affected the whole population, rich and poor alike. Also, the Filipinos’ desire for independence was crushed for the second time. The peasant’s dream to own land was frustrated by both the Filipino elite and the Americans. Perhaps, the country’s only victory and gain from this cruel war is the birth of the Philippine Independent Church. Where many Filipino clergy became administrators of parishes and bishops of the church for the first time - independent from Rome and the other frats. Filipino Casualties and Losses Historians find it difficult to give the exact figures of Filipinos who were killed in the battlefields and the number of casualties from the epidemics and in the reconcentration camps. Records of these deaths were not kept; or if they exist, access is difficult. Most accounts of the war, however, estimate that some 250,000 Filipinos died. General 248 Franklin Bell, who took charge of the bloody campaigns in Batangas admitted in an interview that over 600, 000 people in Luzon had been killed and had die of diseases as a result of the war. If the numbers of those killed in the Visayas and Mindano were to be added, the figure could rise to a million. The same degree of loss could be said on the economic side. The fact that some 90% of the carabaos died due to rinderpest which was also war-related as recent studies suggest, rice production went down to one-fourth of its normal production. Certainly, this level was not enough to feed a population of nearly eight million. Formerly productive industries and agricultural activities could not have thrived under conditions of war. What used to be cultivated haciendas or fields of sugarcane, coffee, tobacco, and abaca had been turned into jungles, devastated and uncultivated. The Disposition of the Friar Lands The support to the war, especially by the poor masses, can be measured from the figures of casualties composed mostly of peasants. From the first phase of the Revolution (1896-1898 against Spain) to the second phase (1898-1902 against the U.S.), owning a piece of land, in addition to independence, was a major goal of the struggle. It is true, the revolutionary government in Malolos confiscated the friar lands, but these went to those who could present security in cash or kind. As a result, these lands were awarded to the illustrados and families with means. The peasants, who tilled small plots before losing these to the various religious orders, did not get their share. When the Treaty of Paris was signed, where Spain ceded the Philippines to the U.S. for $20 million, huge tracts of church lands amounting to 422,000 acres 249 became the property of the U.S. colonial government. But the friars protested and demanded for repossession of their land. Governor Taft quickly negotiated with the Vatican for the forced sale of the estates to the U.S. with the possibility of reselling the friar’s lands to American corporations. In 1905, the U.S. completed the purchase of these lands from the Vatican for $6.9 million. In subsequent years, the Filipino elite, along with American businessmen, would be able to buy these estates as a reward for their cooperation and support to the newly established U.S. colonial regime. The peasants, who fought and from whose ranks thousands had died sine 1896, remained poor and landless. Filipinization of the Church The story of the birth of the Aglipayan church (Iglesia Filipina Independiente) is to a great extent the story of the struggle of the Filipino clergy to Filipinize the Catholic Church in the Philippines. The struggle in a sense revived the secularization, later the Filipinization movement, By Fathers Burgos, Gomez abnd Zanora twenty-six years earlier. The controversy was clearly racial in character. The Spanish friars opposed the appointment of Filipino clergy to the powerful position oh heads of parishes. Since the great majority of the priests were Spaniards, it was natural that they sided with the government during the Katipunan Revolution. It was for this reason that Apolinario Mabini, in a letter to General Otis in 1898, accused the Spanish friars of helping the colonial government to oppress the Filipinos. Moreover, Mabini pointed out that the friars were arming themselves and fighting the Filipinos, something which was 250 foreign to their spiritual calling. Consequently, Mabini refused to release the friars that were captured by the Filipino rebels. In the second part of the Revolution which began when Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines in 1898, the governor-general and the archbishop tried to win over the people to the side of Spain. They sent Father Gregorio Aglipay, a Filipino secular priest who sympathized with Spain, to persuade the revolutionary leaders, especially General Artemio Ricarte, Mariano Trias, and Emiliano Riego de Dios, to side with the Spaniards against the Americans. The Spanish Authorities promised to give autonomy to the Philippines if the revolutionists would fight the Americans. Aglipay failed to persuade the Filipino leaders to abandon their ideal of Independence. Meanwhile, Aguinaldo, who had just returned from Hongkong, sent an emissary to Aglipay to persuade him to join the Filipino cause. Aguinaldo requested Aglipay to go the Northern Luzon to propagate the revolutionary cause. The archbishop, Bernardino Nozaleda, in turn, urged Aglipay to investigate the condition of the parishes there. Aglipay did as he was told by the archbishop and then returned to Manila to repost his findings to Archbishop Nozaleda. However, Manila was being besieged by Agunaldo’s forces, and AGlipay, realizing the significance of the siege of the city went to Cavite and joined the revolutionary forces. Aglipay Becomes Military Vicar General Mabini, who was a Mason, felt happy over the new development. At his instance, the Revolutionary Government, late in 1898 recognized the 251 validity of civil marriage. Mabini reasoned that since the Revolution had separated the Church and the State, it was logical to recognize civil marriage as valid. During the Spanish rule, civil marriage was not recognized either by the Church or the State. Going one step farther, the Revolutionary Government, again at the instance of Mabini, refused to recognized the authority of the Archbishop. It prohibited Filipino priests from accepting any position from the Catholic Church without first securing the approval of the Revolutionary Government. Mabini’s intention was to persuade the Filipino priests to join the revolutionary cause. On October 20, 1898, Aguinaldo appointed Aglipay Military Vicar General. As such, Aglipay was the religious leader of the Revolutionary Government. Nozaleda Excommunicate Aglipay Aglipay’s position in the Catholic Church and in the Revolutionary Government was anomalous. As a Catholic priest, he owed allegiance to the Church. But as a Filipino he owed allegiance to the Revolutionary Government. Faced by this dilemma, Aglipay chose to be Fiilipino first. And so, the day after his appointment as Military Vicar General, he sent a circular to the Filipino priests urging them to unite in the interest of the country. “The Revolutionary Government,” said Aglipay in his circular, “is supporting us in our aims because it cannot recognize as head of the Filipino clergy ang Spanish bishop, for the powerful political influence of the clergy in the Spanish Government is proverbial.” Aglipay also suggested the creation of a council (Cabildo) which would ask the Pope to appoint Filipinos to all church positions. In another circular or manifesto on October 22 1898, Aglipay urged the Filipino 252 priest to organize themselves so as to occupy all vacant parishes. Moreover, he urged them to rally to the revolutionary cause which, he said, was favorable to the cause of the Filipino clergy. Nozaleda was alarmed at this development. In April 1899, he accused Agliopay of usurping power and punished. More than this, Nolazeda issued a decree excommunicating Aglipay effective May 5,1899. The decree declared Aglipay to be a asurper and a schismatic. Aglipay, for his part accused Nolazeda of starving the Filipino masses and of collaborating with the Americans. Mabini and the National Church Being a patriot and a nationalist, Mabini, who no longer held a government position was vacationing in Rosales, Pangasinan, where he issued a manifesto on October 22 1899 urging the Filipino priest to establish a National Church. It was to be Catholic but bunder the control and supervision of Filipino priest. According to Mabini in his manifesto to the Filipino clergy: Let the Filipino clergy show their zeal and love for the Church; let them show their capacity to govern not only the parishes but also the diocese; let them show that the regular orders not needed in the Philippines to maintain alive the faith in the Cartholic religion, and the Pope who cannot separate from justice as a Vicar of Christ who is God has to recognize the rights and merits of the Filipino priests. This is the most oopportune occasion which Divine Providence offers them to obtain the reparation of their 253  grievances: those who aspire to be something more than mere coadjustors and pages must not let this occasion pass. Mabini was against the destruction of the Catholic Church in the Philippines. He was for its preservation, according to Mabini, must be based on the appointment of Filipino priests to all positions. Thus, the National Church would still be Catholic, recognizing the Pope at Rome, but a Filipino Catholic Church. It should, in the opinion of Mabini, cooperate with the Revolutionary Government and not with the Spanish colonial government. The National Church Mabini’s suggestion that a Filipino National Church be established was hailed by the Filipino clergy. The Filipino priests now believed, especially because the Filipino Government was favorable to their aspirations, that the time had come for them to assert their right not only to occupy parishes, but also occupy high positions in the Church and thus, manage it. For this purpose, Aglipay, on October 23, 1899 called a meeting of Filipino priests at Paniqui, Tarlac. In his speech, he said that the Catholic Church in the Philippines should be Filipinized, that is, administrated by Filipino priests. Consequently, a provisional constitution of the proposed Filipino Church was prepared. One of the canons of the constitution forbade the recognition of foreign bishops by the Filipino clergy except under extreme circumstances. This provisional constitution of the Filipino church was a declaration of independence of the Filipino clergy from Spanish control and supervision. But the condition of the time, namely, 254 the Philippine-American War and its impending effects in the country, i.e., destruction and chaos, prevented the actual establishment of the Filipino National Church. Opposition of Filipinization The campaign to Filipinze the Catholic Church in the Philippines simultaneously suffered a setback with the series of Filipino defeats on the fields of battle. In January 1900, the new Apostolic Delegate to the Philippines, Monsignor Placido Chapelle, an American, arrived in Manila. Instead of sympathizing with the Filipino priests, he announced that those who opposed the Spanish friars were the enemies of religion and public order. He threatened the Filipino priests by saying that he would dominate them by force, because, he explained, he was the Pope’s delegate the Philippines, on one hand, and an American, on the other. He also said that the heads of the revolutionary leaders should be chopped off., He added insult to the injury by saying that the Filipino priests were incompetent and therefore, fit to occupy only menial positions in the Church. Such brutal frankness, which has quite rare among ecclestiastics won him the enmity of the Filipino clergy. The Separation from Rome Chapelle’s unwarranted frankness may be tolerated by Americans like him. But Filipinos consider such kind of frankness not as honesty but discourtesy and boorishness. Consequently, the Filipino priests felt insulted and, as a result, they closed ranks and continued to work for gthe Filipinization of the Church in the Philippines. In Rome, two Filipino priests, Jose Chanco and Salustiano Araullo, appeared before 255 the Pope and ttold His Holiness about the problem of the Filipino clergy. The Pope, being human, did not promise anything, which was equivalent, to not granting the petition of the Filipino priests to have the Church Filipinized. Meanwhile, in Spain a Filipino writer and scholar, Isabelo de los Reyes, angrily demanded the establishment of a Filipino Church independent of Rome. “Let us now form,” he said, “without vacillation our own congregation, a Filipino Chruch, conserving what is good in the Roman Church…” Isabelo de los Reyes returned to Manila in 1901. He founded the first labor union in the Philippines in July of the same year. He called it Union Obrera Democratica (Democratic Labor Union). Anti-friar feeling during the time was widespread and de los Reyes took advantage of it. On the night of August 3, he called a meeting of his labor union and delivered a bitter anti-friar speech. He suggested the establishment of a Filipino Church independent from Rome, with Aglipay as the Supreme Bishop. The suggestion was loudly proclaimed by those present and the new Church was called Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Philippine Independent Church). With the founding of this Church, the separation from Rome was complete. Converts to the New Church In his enthusiasm, Isabelo de los Reyes made a list of what he considered to be sympathizers of the new Church. He included in his list such “big” names as Fernando Ma. Guerrero, Martin Ocampo, Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera, Manuel Artigas, and priests such as Adriano Garces, Jorge Berlin, Manuel Roxas, Toribio Dominguez, and others. These men were not hostile to the new Church, but they were 256 not prepared to join it either. And so they denied any connection with the New Church. Aglipay himself was not interested in the establishment of a new Church without his knowledge. He believed that all means should be exhausted in fostering an understanding with Rome before taking any radical step. De los Reyes was disappointed, for he thought that those men he listed as sympathizers of the new Church would join it. However, the masses showed their sympathy with the Iglesia Filipina Independiente and joined in. Affiliation papers were distributed and by the end of 1902, fourteen Filipino priests affiliated with the new Church. Other Filipino priests followed suit, especially, in Ilocos Norte. More followers came later to swell the ranks of the Philippine Independent Church. Attempts to Win Back Aglipay Aglipay was irritated upon learning that he was proclaimed Supreme Bishop of the New Church. He was at the same time conferring with a Spanish Jesuit in the Jesuit House at Santa Ana, Manila. The Jesuits invited Aglipay to a conference at the Jesuit House through Leon Ma. Guerrero and Joaquin Luna. The Jesuits chose Father Francisco Foradada, S.J., a Spanish author of a book on the Philippines, to persuade Aglipay to return to the Catholic Church. Aglipay actually had not yet left the Catholic Church. But he was working for the Filipinization of the Church in the Philippines, which meant that Filipinos, and not Spaniards, would administer the Catholic Church in the country. On the fifth day of the conference between Aglipay and Foradada, the latter asked Aglipay to 257 sign a document which was a confession of Catholic faith. This means that Aglipay was returning to the Spanish Catholic Church. Aglipay studied the document and refused to sign it. Foradada’s promise to make him bishop or archbishop if he would sign the document made Aglipay angry. He seized the priest by the back of the neck and shook him violently. Aglipay left the Jesuit in anger. Consecration of Aglipay as Bishop Aglipay’s disillusionment with Fr. Foradada gave him the excuse to accept the position of Supreme Bishop of the Iglesia Filipina Independiente. Consequently, he signified his invention to accept the position. On October 1, 1902, he presided over the meeting of the Council which was summoned to frame a constitution for the new Church. On October 26, he celebrated his first Mass as Supreme Bishop. On January 18, 1903, he was consecrated Supreme Bishop by the bishops of Cagayan, Pangasinan, Isabela, Abra, Nueva Ecija, Cavite and Manila. The new Church was still Catholic but independent of Rome. It was Catholic nature of the new Church that made the American Protestants in Manila refuse to join Aglipay in the Iglesia Filipina Independiente. Another attempt to win back Aglipay to the Catholic fold was made around 1910. This time, Aglipay, now the Supreme Bishop of the new church, was invited by the Jesuits to the house of F. Theo Rogers, publisher of the Philippines Free Press. Father Joaquin Villalonga, a kind and energetic missionary, had a heart-to-heart talk with Aglipay. In spite of Villalonga’s kind words and assurances of good faith, Aglipay, who was at the same time accompanied by a young Aglipayan priest, 258 the Rev. Fr. Santiago Fonacier, refused to return to the Roman Catholic fold. “The Philippine Indepent Church,” he said, “will live on, and neither the Pope nor the Jesuits will be able to impede it. Aglipay will live and die as poor as when he was born, but he will never betray the interests of his people!” Aglipay left. The attempts to win him back to the Roman Catholic Church religion failed. Importance of the New Church The Iglesia Filipina Independiente, popularly know as Aglipayan Church, was a child of the Revolution. As such, it was in line with the nationalistic spirit that dominated the Filipino patriots who fought not only for political, but also for religious independence. Just as the revolution was a violent reaction to Spanish injustices, the Aglipayan movement was a reaction to the Spanish refusal to recognize the right of the Filipino priests to administer the Catholic Church in the Philippines. That many of the Filipino priests dared to join the movement to be independent from Rome was proof that they, too, were patriotic, like their countrymen in arms against Spain and later, against United States. For more than three-hundred years, the Spanish priests in the Philippines ignored the Filipino clergy and considered them incapable of holding high positions in the Church. This discrimination was quashed by the Filipino priests inspired by GomBurZa and headed by Aglipay, who showed their capacity to administer parishes and manage the Church. By founding the Philippine Indpendent Church Aglipay and 259 his companions actualized a centuries-old goal of vibrant and dynamic Filipinism. Study Guide  What were the goals of the Filipinos in the war against U.S.? Which among these goals greatly suffered? Why? Explain your answer.  Explain how Aglipay came to join the revolutionary forces of Aguinaldo. What was Aguinaldo’s purorpose in sending Aglipay to Northern Luzon? What was Nozaleda’s purpose in sending him to the same place?  Was Aglipay justified in joining Aguinaldo? Why?  What was Aguinaldo’s motive in appointing Aglipayas Military Vicar General? Consult an encyclopedia or surf the Internet and see what it says about Military Vicar General.  Why did Nozaleda excommunicate Aglipay? Was he right in doing so? Explain your answer.  What was Mabini’s role in the formation of the National Church? Explain in simple language why Mabini urged the Filipino priests to establish a National Church.  What was the National Church? In what way was it different from the Spanish Catholic Church?  Explain Chapelle’s opposition to the Filipinization of the Catholic Church in the Philippines. What do you think was his reason for this opposition? What was the effect of his attitude on the Filipino priests?  Recount how the separation from Rome was affected. Who was the real founder of the Philippine Independent Church? Why did he establish it? 260  Who was the first Supreme Bishop of the new Church? Explain why he was elected as such.  Why did the Jesuits try to win back Aglipay to the Roman Catholic fold? Why did Fr. Foradada fail to persuade Aglipay to remain with the Roman Catholic Church? What trait did Aglipay show in refusing to accept Foradada’s offer?  Discuss the importance of the Philippine Independent Church. Why was it a child of revolution? Suggested Activities 1. Who suffered the most losses in the Philippine-American War? Explain your answer. Discuss your answer in class. 2. Discuss the following in class: 3. Aglipay was justified in joining the revolutionary movement. 4. Nozaleda was justified in excommunicating Aglipay. 5. The founding of the Philippine Independent Church was timely. 6. Read the Catholic Encyclopedia or surf the Internet and make a comparison between Roman Catholic Church and the Aglipayan Church. List down their similarities and differences. You may present this in a Venn diagram. 7. Read the biographies of Isabelo de los Reyes and Gregorio Aglipay. Tell the story of their lives in class. Be sure to add their biographies to your little dictionary of Filipino Biographies. 8. Analyze the painting of Edgar Talusan Fernandez in the chapter opener. What message do you read from the painting. Do you agree with these messages or impressions? Why or why not? 261  CHAPTER 16 AMERICAN COLONIAL RULE: POLICY AND GOVERNANCE (1899-1907) Winning the war did not guarantee that the Filipinos were willing to accept American colonial rule. From the very start, American policymakers and authorities realized that winning the hearts and minds of a conquered people was more important and certainly not easy to accomplish. The United States intended to occupy the Philippines with the least violence and to govern the country with much regard for the interest and welfare of the Filipinos. Their plan was to set up a civil government immediately. However, this was prevented by the war. It took them almost a decade to completely pacify the Filipinos after resorting to repressive measures, like the passage of Martial Law and Brigandage Act, and the use of reconcentration tactics. All of these measures stopped guerrilla warfare at the cost of hundreds of thousands of deaths that weighed heavily on the Filipino side. After the war, the United States initiated benevolent efforts and programs such as public education and elections. An all-Filipino Lower House was created, two resident commissioners were appointed to the U.S. Congress and U.S. government scholarships were initiated to stabilize American rule in the country. The Military Rule After Manila fell into the hands of the Americans, the country was administered by the President of the United States through the military. Thus, President McKinley ordered the military commander, General 262